Pharmacognosy review

questions

MSAMBA JM
NTA LEVEL 5
Preface

This book has a collection of short and long answer questions

in Pharmacognosy .The questions are categorized according to
different sessions with their correct answers.

It is hoped that this collection will be of use to pharmacy

students preparing for their final examination.

Msamba JM

2020

1
Contents
INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY ................... 4
THE PLANT CELL ........................................................... 8
PLANT TISSUES ............................................................. 12
PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS .............................................. 19
MORPHOLOGY OF THE ROOTS ................................. 21
MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS........................................... 23
MORPHOLOGY OF LEAF ............................................. 26
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWER ....................................... 37
MORPHOLOGY OF FRUIT ........................................... 45
MORPHOLOGY OF SEED............................................. 49
MORPHOLOGY OF BARKS .......................................... 54
GUMS,MUCILAGE AND PECTINS ............................... 56
CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS ................... 59
ALKALOIDS ................................................................... 73
GLYCOSIDES ................................................................. 91
ALDULTERATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS ............. 99
VOLATILE OILS .......................................................... 105
FIXED OILS AND FATS .............................................. 117
WAXES.......................................................................... 124

2
3
INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY

1. Define Pharmacognosy
Is a science which deals with the study of crude
medicine (or unprepared form) in substances obtained
originally from natural sources mainly plant, animal
and minerals and their constituents
OR

"The study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and

biological properties of drugs, drug substances or
potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as
well as the search for new drugs from natural sources"

2. With examples define the following terminologies as

applied in pharmacognosy
i. Crude drug
Is a natural or synthetic substance used in the
treatment, cure, prevention, or diagnosis of disease
or used to otherwise enhance physical or mental
wellbeing

ii. Organized crude drug

Drugs are the direct parts of the plant and are
divided into leaves, barks wood, root, rhizome,
seed, fruit, flower, stem, hair and fibers

iii. Unorganized crude drug

Drugs are the products of plant, animal and
mineral source and they are divided into dried
latex, dried juice, dried extracts, gums, resins,

4
 fixed oils and fats,waxes, volatile oil, animal
products, minerals (Solids,liquids, semi solids etc).
Are devoid of any definite histological or cellular
structures and are derived from and animals by
different extraction processes or as natural
secretions

iv. Natural product

It is a chemical compound or substance produced
by a living organism found in nature that usually
has a pharmacological or biological activity for use
in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design

v. Traditional medicine
is defined as “the sum total of knowledge, skills
and practices based on the theories, beliefs and
experiences indigenous to different cultures that
are used to maintain health, as well as to prevent,
diagnose, improve or treat physical and mental
illnesses”

vi. Ethnobotany
Is the study of a region’s plants and their practical
uses through the traditional knowledge of a local
culture and people i.e. investigating plants used by
societies in various parts of the world

vii. Ethnopharmacology
Ethno pharmacology is the scientific study of
natural medicines derived from plants and other

5
 substances that have been traditionally used by
groups of people to treat various human diseases.

3. With examples, Identify three main sources of crude drugs

i. Plant sources, e.g. Digitalis, Cascara,Senna
,Rhubarb etc

ii. Animal sources, e.g. Cod liver oil from

shark, Animal Pancrease is source of
insulin, Beeswax from bees, Honeybee
sorce of honey, woolfat from sheep, musk
oil from musk, bufalin from toad etc

iii. Minerals sources, e.g. Sulfur is a key

ingredient in certain bacteriostatic drugs,
Magnesium sulphate, Iodine used as
antseptic, Iron for anemia drugs etc

4. Mention five(5) uses of natural products

i. As medicines for the treatment of a wide
range of diseases, e.g. morphine, atropine,
digoxin, hormones, antibiotics
ii. As pharmaceutical aids in pharmaceutical
industry e.g. suspending & emulsifying
agents, suppository bases, binders,
sweetening and colouring agents
iii. In cosmetics as flavouring and colouring
agents
iv. In culture media for the propagation of
microorganisms in microbiology laboratories
& biotechnology

6
 v. General uses e.g. in food industries: as
dusting powders, as indicators and in
perfumery.

5. Mention five (5) ways in which knowledge of medicinal

properties of plant was acquired in history of pharmacognosy

i. By guesswork or trial & error

ii. While searching for food
iii. By superficial resemblance between the plant
parts & the affected organs, that is, by
examining the “Signature of Nature”
iv. By observing other animals instinctive
discrimination between toxic & palatable
plants
v. By accidental discovery

6. What were the major discoveries were made in pharmacognosy

in the 20th century?
i. Isolation of Penicillin in 1928 by William
Flemming and large scale production in 1941
ii. Isolation of Reserpine from Rauwolfia root and
confirming its hypotensive and tranquilizing
properties
iii. Isolation of Vinca alkaloids especially Vincristine
and Vinblastine

7
 iv. Steroidal hormes were isolated like progesterone
were isolated by partial synthesis from diosgenin
and other steroidal saponins

THE PLANT CELL

7. Mention organelles found in a plant cell and state the

function of each organelle
i. Cell Wall

It is a rigid layer which is composed of cellulose,

glycoproteins, lignin, pectin, and hemicellulose. It is located
outside the cell membrane. It comprises proteins,
polysaccharides, and cellulose.
The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and
provide structural support to the cell. The plant cell wall is
also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress
and to provide form and structure to the cell. It also filters
the molecules passing in and out of the cell

ii. Cell membrane

It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the

cell wall. It is composed of a thin layer of protein and fat.
The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the
entry and exit of specific substances within the cell. For

8
instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside,
while nutrients and essential minerals are transported across

iii. Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present

only in eukaryotic cells. The vital function of a nucleus is to
store DNA or hereditary information required for cell
division, metabolism, and growth.

Nucleolus: It manufactures cell’s protein-producing

structures and ribosomes

Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes

called nucleopore that allows proteins and nucleic acids to
pass through

iv. Plastids
They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own
DNA. They are necessary to store starch, to carry out the
process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of
many molecules which form the building blocks of the cell
Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are stated
below:
Leucoplasts
They are found in non-photosynthetic tissues of plants. They
are used for the storage of protein, lipid, and starch

Chloroplasts
It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid
membrane. The chloroplast is shaped like a disc and the
stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a
circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a green coloured

9
pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from
the sun and uses it to transform carbon dioxide and water
into glucose

Chromoplasts
They are heterogeneous, coloured plastid which is
responsible for pigment synthesis and for storage in
photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chromoplasts have
red, orange and yellow coloured pigments which provide
colour to all ripe fruits and flowers

v. Central Vacuole

It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature

plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that surrounds central
vacuole. The vital function of central vacuole apart from
storage is to sustain turgid pressure against the cell wall.
The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of
salts, enzymes, and other substances

vi. Golgi Apparatus

They are found in all eukaryotic cells which are involved

in distributing synthesized macromolecules to various
parts of the cell

vii. Ribosomes
They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which
comprise RNA and protein. They are the sites for protein

10
synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of
the cell

viii. Mitochondria
They are the double-membraned organelles found in the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They provide energy by
breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules; hence
they are also referred to as the “Powerhouse of the cell

ix. Lysosome
Lysosomes are called as suicidal bags as they hold
digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane. They perform
the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-
out organelles, food particles and foreign bodies in the cell

1. nuclear membrane
2. nucleolus
3. chromosome
4. Cell wall
5. plasmalemma
6. vacuole membrane
7. vacuole
8. Chloroplast
9. Mitochondria
10. microtuble
11. Endoplasmic reticulum
12. Ribosome
13. microbody
14. microbody
15. golgi body

11
8. What is the composition of the primary and secondary cell
wall
i. Primary cell wall
Cellulose embedded in matrix of hemicelluloses and
pectin

ii. Secondary wall:

Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, Lignin

9. What are ergastic substances?

Are nonliving cell contents which can be identified (in
vegetable drugs) by microscopically examination or
by chemical & physical tests

These cell contents represent either

i. Food –storage products

ii. By-products of metabolism

10. Mention nine(9) Ergastic substances found in plants

i. Ergastic substances include:
ii. Carbohydrates
iii. Proteins
iv. Fixed oils and fats (Elaioplasts/spherosomes)
v. Alkaloids (and purines)
vi. Glycosides
vii. Gums, mucilages and Pectin

12
 viii. Volatile oils and Resins
ix. Tannins
x. Crystals

11. Mention four (4) Ergastic crystals

i. Calcium oxalate crystals
ii. Calcium carbonate crystals eg lower
epidermis of the leaf of Cannabis sativa
iii. Hesperidin and Diosmin eg Occur as
feathery-like aggregates or sphaerocrystalline
masses in the cells of many of the Rutaceae
(e.g. Lemon and Oranges)
iv. Silica Crystals e.g. in the cells of the
sclerenchymatous layer of Cardamom seeds

12. Mention four(4) general forms of Calcium oxalate crystals

with examples where they occur

i. Prisms e.g. Senna, Hyoscyamus, Quassia,

Liquorice, Cascara, Quillaia, Rauwolfia

ii. Rosette (cluster crystal): aggregate of crystals

which has flower-like apperance e.g.
Rhubarb, Stramonium, Senna, Clove etc

13
 iii. Raphides (Single acicular crystals) : scattered
or needle like crystals which occur singly e.g.
Ipecacuanha, Gentian, Cinnamon

iv. Bundles of acicular crystals e.g. Squill

v. Microsphenoidal or sandy crystals e.g.

Belladonna

PLANT TISSUES

13. Define a plant tissue

Defined as a group of cells, which are similar in
origin, form and function or as a group of dissimilar
cells that perform a common function

14. Mention two classification of plant tissues

i. Meristematic tissue
ii. Permanent tissue

15. What is a meristematic tissue?

A meristematic tissue (meristos = divisible) is a group
of identical cells that are in a continuous state of
division

14
16. Mention five(5) characteristics of meristematic tissue
i. May be round, oval, polygonal or rectangular
in shape
ii. Are closely arranged without intercellular
spaces
iii. Have dense cytoplasm with large nuclei.
iv. Have smaller vacuoles, scattered throughout
the cytoplasm.
v. Their cell walls are thin, elastic and made up
of cellulose

17. What is a meristem?

Is a type of tissue that occurs in plants. It consists of
undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells) capable of
cell division. Cells in the meristem can develop into
all the other tissues and organs that occur in plants.

18. Mention three types of meristem, location and function

i. Apical Meristem-Found at the tips of roots, stem
& branches
Function
Increase length of plant

ii. Intercalary Meristem-Found in the nodal region,

prominently in monocotyledons, e.g. grasses
Function
Elongation of internodes (longitudinal growth of
plant)

iii. Lateral Meristem-Found along the longitudinal

axis of stem and root

15
 E.g. Vascular cambium and cork cambium
(phellogen)
Function
a. Produces secondary permanent tissues
b. Increase thickness of stem and root

19. What do you understand by permanent tissue?

Are tissues that have temporarily or permanently lost
the power to divide

20. Mention two types of permanent tissue

i. Simple tissue
ii. Complex tissue

21. Define simple tissue

A tissue made up of cells with similar structure and
function

22. Mention three types of simple tissues and state the

function of each
i. Parenchyma
Its important function in photosynthesis

ii. Collenchyma
Strengthen young organs
iii. Sclerenchyma
Are supporting tissues, provide
mechanical strength to plants and protect from strong
winds
Provide rigidity of the seed-coat

16
23. Mention properties of parenchyma cells
i. Generally present in all plant organs
ii. Form the ground tissue in a plant
iii. Is living tissue made of thin walled cells
iv. Is the precursor of all the other tissues
v. The cell wall is made up of cellulose
vi. Parenchyma cells may be oval, spherical,
rectangular, cylindrical or stellate
vii. Parenchyma is of different types

24. Mention two types of sclerenchyma and state the function

of each type
i. Sclereids
Provide rigidity of the seed-coat

ii. Fibres
Are supporting tissues, provide
mechanical strength to plants and protect
from strong winds

25. What is a complex tissue?

A tissue made up of several kinds of cells but all of
them function together as a single unit

26. Mention two types of complex tissues and state the main
function of each
i. Xylem

17
 Mainly responsible for conduction of water
and mineral salts from roots to other parts of
the plant
ii. Phloem
Conducts food materials to various parts of
the plant

27. Mention four kinds of cells found in Xylem and state the
function of each cell
Xylem is made up of four kinds of cells
i. Tracheids
Chief water conducting elements in gymnosperms
and pteridophytes
Mechanical support to the plants

ii. Vessels or tracheae,

Conduction of water and minerals
Mechanical support to the plant

iii. Xylem fibres

Give additional mechanical support to the plant
body

iv. Xylem parenchyma

Store food reserves in the form of starch and fat
Assist in conduction of water

28. Mention four kinds of cells found in Phloem and state the
function of each cell
Phloem is composed of four types of cells
i. Sieve elements

18
 Are the conducting elements of the phloem
ii. Companion cells
Assist sieve tubes in conduction of food
materials
iii. Phloem parenchyma
Are living cells and store starch and fats
iv. Phloem fibres
Strengthening and supporting cells

PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS

29. What are plant tissue systems?

Are group of tissues performing a similar function
irrespective of its position in the plant body

30. Mention three(3) plant tissue systems

i. Epidermal tissue system
ii. Vascular tissue system
iii. Fundamental (Ground) tissue system

31. What is epidermal tissue system? Mention its composion

Epidermal tissue system is the outermost covering of
plants. It consists of epidermis, stomata and
epidermal outgrowths (Trichomes and root hairs).

32. Mention five functions of epidermal tissue system

19
 i. This tissue system in the shoot prevents
excessive loss of water due to the presence of
cuticle
ii. Epidermis protects the underlying tissues
iii. Stomata involve in transpiration and gaseous
exchange
iv. Trichomes are also helpful in the dispersal of
seeds and fruits
v. Root hairs absorb water and mineral salts
from the soil

33. Mention the composition of vascular tissue system

Is made of two specialized conducting tissues: xylem,
which conducts water, and phloem, which conducts
sugars and other organic compounds

34. How does the arrangement of xylem and phloem in roots

differ to that in stem and leaves?
In stems and leaves, xylem and phloem are arranged
at the same radius and form a vascular bundle
together (i.e. Conjoint vascular bundle)

In roots, xylem and phloem are arranged in an

alternate manner on different radii, this is called
radial arrangement

20
35. What is ground tissue system? State its composition

Includes all tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular.

Lies between the vascular and dermal tissues. They are
made up of three types of cells: parenchyma, collenchyma
and sclerenchyma. Ground tissues synthesize organic
compounds and provide support to the plant. In some
cases, the ground tissue also stores food in the form of
starch.

36. Define secretory tissues giving two examples

Cells or organizations of cells that produce a variety of

secretion. Examples

i. Oil cells occur in ginger, pepper, mace,

cardamoms, cinnamon and cassia
ii. The latex cells (produce latex) are found e.g.
in Cannabis sativa

MORPHOLOGY OF THE ROOTS

37. What is a plant root?

It is an organ of the plant that typically lies below the
surface of the soil

38. Mention three types /categories of plant roots

i. Tap roots
ii. Fibrous roots
iii. Adventitious roots

21
39. Mention five functions of plant roots
i. Roots support (anchorage) the plant in the
soil (or other media in which the plant is
growing)
ii. Absorption of water and other nutrients from
the soil
iii. Storage of food
iv. Transport minerals and water to other parts of
the plant
v. Vegetative reproduction and competition with
other plants

40. What are the layers composing the internal structure of the
monocot and dicot root
i. Epiblema or rhizodermis
ii. Cortex
iii. Stele

41. Mention five differences between monocot and dicot root?

Monocot root Dicot root
No secondary growth. Secondary growth occurs.
Pith is large and well Pith is absent or
developed. insignificant.
Conjunctive tissue are Conjunctive tissue is
mostly sclerenchymatous. parenchymatous.
Xylem vessels are oval or Xylem vessels are
rounded. polygonal or angular in
shape.
Number of xylem phloem Number of xylem and
elements are 8 to many. phloem are 2 to 6.

22
42. Mention different types of modified roots
I. STORAGE
Some roots are modified for food storage and
examples are
a. Sweet potato(Ipomoea batatas)
b. Carrot

ii. SUPPORT
Some roots are modified to provide mechanical
support. Examples are
a. Sugar cane-stilt roots
b. Maize
c. Banyan tree-prop roots

iii. RESPIRATION
These roots grow vertically up and come out of the
water or marshy soil like conical spikes.
Are provided with numerous pores (breathing pores)
through which air is taken for respiration
Example is Rhizophora.

MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS

43. What is plant stem

The stem is the part of the plant above ground which
provides support for leaves and buds

23
44. Mention five(5) functions of stem
i. Supports leaves & reproductive structures
ii. Positions leaves to receive maximum sunlight
iii. Responsible for size and shape of the plant
iv. Facilitates movement of water, minerals, and
manufactured food throughout the whole
plant
v. Photosynthesis (Green stems)
vi. Food storage and reproduction.
vii. Stems are used for vegetative reproductive i.e.
cuttings

45. Mention parts of the external structure of stem and state

the function of each part
i. Internodes
Distances separating one node from another

ii. Nodes
Points at which leaves are attached

iii. Lenticels
Breathing pores

iv. Buds
Growth of shoot

v. Bud scale scars

24
 Indicate where terminal bud has been located
previous year
vi. Leaf scars
Show where leaf was attached

46. What does internal structure of monocot and dicot stem

consists?
Internal structure of dicotyledonous stem consists of
i. Epidermis
ii. Cortex and
iii. Stele.

Internal structure of monocotyledonous stem reveals

the following:
i. Epidermis
ii. Hypodermis
iii. Cortex
iv. Stele

47. Mention five differences between monocot and dicot stem

Monocot stem Dicot stem

Phloem parenchyma is Phloem parenchyma is
absent. present.
The vascular bundles are The vascular bundles are
scattered irregularly around formed as broken rings.
the ground tissue.
The monocot stems do not The Dicot stems have
have trichomes. trichomes.
No secondary growth is Dicot stem can feature
witnessed in case of secondary growth
monocots.
Pith is not as well-developed Pith is well-developed.

25
48. Mention ten(10) modifications of stems

UNDERGROUND SUB AERIAL

AERIAL
Rhizome Runner Tendril
Tuber Offset Thorn
Corm Stolon Phylloclade
Bulb Sucker Bulibil

MORPHOLOGY OF LEAF

49. Define plant leaf

A leaf is a plant organ that is found above the ground
and is specialized for photosynthesis

50. Mention six(6) functions of plant leaf

i. Produce oxygen for animals for respiration
ii. Remove carbon dioxide from the air
iii. Produce food for the plant through
photosynthesis
iv. Lower the air temperature as a byproduct of
transpiration
v. Storage of food and water
vi. Provides for transpiration and guttation

26
51. List parts and functions of external structure of leaf
i. Petiole
Attaches the leaf to the stem
ii. Midrib: This is the middle vein of the leaf, it
connects with the Petiole
iii. Tip/Leaf Apex: This is the tip of the leaf
iv. Margin: This is the outer edging of the leaf.
They can be in many different forms, i.e.
serrated, and parted
v. The lamina
Is flat and offers surface for trapping sunlight for
photosynthesis
vi. Stipules – Leaf-like appendages at the base of
the leaf

27
52. List parts of internal structure of leaf
i. Stomata: This lets in the gases the plant’s
needs (Carbon Dioxide) and lets out the
oxygen it produces. The Stoma also is in
control of how much water leaves the leaf.

ii. Guard Cells: Guard cell just protects the

Stoma from opening up to far.

iii. Waxy Cuticle: The point of leafs being or

feeling waxy, is so that the water doesn’t
drown the plant. It is sort of like a shield
against the water, the water usually gets into
the plant through the roots.
iv. Palisade Cells: These cells are where the
majority of photosynthesis happens. The cells
are at the top of the leaf packed in closely.
The Palisade cells have lots of chloroplasts in
them to help with the process of
photosynthesis.
v. Spongy Cells: Although these cells are not at
the top of the leaf (they are in the middle)
they still do photosynthesis. These cells have
more space in between them to allow the
gases inside the leaf to move around freely.

vi. Upper & Lower Epidermis: These are mostly

just for protection; they protect the cells
underneath the epidermis and let the sunlight
in. They also stop the plant from losing water.

28
 vii. Air Space: This space allows the gases to
move around freely.

viii. Vein (vascular bundle): Made up of Xylem

and Phloem tubes these veins transport the
sugar and water the plant needs.

ix. Xylem: This is an important part of the leaf, it

brings the water from the roots through to the
leaves of the plant.

x. Phloem: The Phloem is similar to the Xylem,

but it transports this sugar (which was made
from the photosynthesis) to various parts of
the leaf.

53. Mention four cells that make up the epidermal tissue of

leaf
i. Epidermal cells
ii. Guard cells

29
 iii. Subsidiary cells
iv. Epidermal trichomes

54. Which layer of leaf consists of stomata?

Lower Epidermis

55. List five(5) functions of leaf epidermis

i. It protects against water loss,
ii. Concentrating on photosynthesis
iii. Epidermis houses the guard cells which
regulate the movement of water into and
outside the cell.
iv. Regulates gas exchange,
v. Secretes metabolic compounds

56. Identify two main regions of mesophyll and state the

function of each

There are two types of Mesophyll cells, the Palisade

and spongy cells.

i. Palisade Cells: These cells are where the majority

of photosynthesis happens. The cells are at the
top of the leaf packed in closely. The Palisade
cells have lots of chloroplasts in them to help with
the process of photosynthesis

ii. Spongy Cells: Although these cells are not at the

top of the leaf (they are in the middle) they still do
photosynthesis. These cells have more space in

30
 between them to allow the gases inside the leaf to
move around freely

57. Using diagrams, describe four types of stomata giving one

example of drug
i. Anomocytic type, Ranunculaceae

The surrounding epidermal cells have no special

arrangement, they are all similar & there are no
subsidiary cells, so all the cells are normal epidermal cells
without any modification, like to stomata of digitalis

ii. Anisocytic type, Curciferae

The stomata is surrounded by 3 or more subsidiary

cells one of them is distinctly smaller than the others like
in Hyoscymus niger

iii. Paracytic type, Rubiceae

Each stoma is surrounded by 2 or more subsidiary cells,

2 of them have their long axes parallel to the pore, which
means that the axes of the subsidiary cells are parallel to
the axes of the pore like the one in sienna leaves,

iv. Diacytic type, Caryophyllaceae

Each stomata is surrounded by 2 subsidiary cells having

their long axes perpendicular to the pore like in
peppermint, Mentha piper, check the following picture

31
58. Mention two types of trichomes
i. Clothing trichomes –cover surface of the leaf
ii. Glandular trichomes –may be unicellular or
multicellular (they store ergastic/drug
substances)

59. State the main function of trichomes

Trichomes serve a variety of functions, depending on
their location. As root hairs (and as leaf hairs in
epiphytes), trichomes absorb water and minerals. As
leaf hairs, they reflect radiation, lower plant
temperature, and reduce water loss. They also provide
defense against insects, microbes and aphids

60. Describe the various classifications of leaves

i. Based on Blade

32
a. Simple Leaf- the lamina or the leaf blade is
undivided. Even if there are small divisions, they
do not reach the midrib and divide the lamina.
b. Compound Leaf- The leaf blade is divided from
the midrib into two or more parts. Sometimes
these divided parts function as separate leaves.

ii. Based on Shape of the Blade

a. Elliptical
b. Lanceolate
c. Linear
d. Ovate
e. Cordate

33
iii. Based on the presence or absence of the
petiole (stalk)

a. Petiolated- These leaves have a stalk or

petiole which attaches them to the stem.
b. Sessile- These leaves do not have a petiole
and are directly attached to the stem.

34
iv. Based on the serration on the edge of the leaf
blade

a. Smooth: This type of leaf margin is called

‘entire’ leaf margin and is smooth all around
b. Sinuate: Have smooth curves along the
margins
c. Dentate: They have teethed margins
d. Serrate: Have saw-teeth shaped margins
e. Lobed: the leaf blade is divided but the
division doesn’t reach the midrib

v. Based on the arrangement of veins

35
 a. Parallel: The veins on the leaf blade run
parallel to each other maintaining the same
distance throughout.
b. Palmate: The veins originate at a point and
diverge from the point similar to the palm of
the hand
c. Pinnate: There is a midrib which is present in
the middle of the leaf blade. From this midrib
arise the lateral veins
.

vi. Based on their arrangement on the stem

36
 a. Alternate: Each leaf arises from a separate
node on the stem at different levels
b. Opposite: Each node gives rise to two leaves,
one on each side placed oppositely.
c. Whorled: In this arrangement, several leaves
are present at the same level around the stem
giving it a whorled appearance.
d. Rosulate: The leaves arrange themselves in a
ring-like pattern around the stem.

MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWER
61. Define flower
Flower is the plant organ for sexual reproduction

62. State the functions of flower to plant

i. Gametophytes develop in the flowers.
ii. The flowers can produce diaspores without
fertilization.
iii. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower
develops into a fruit containing a seed.

37
 iv. The most important function of flowers is a
reproduction. They help in the union of male
and female gametes.
v. Flowers provide nectar to certain birds and
insects, which in turn help in the transfer of
pollen from one flower to the other.
vi. Flowers may promote selfing, i.e., the union
of sperms and eggs from the same flower, or
cross-fertilization, i.e., the union of sperms
and eggs from different flowers.

63. State the functions of different parts of a flower i.e

Anther,Filament,Stigma,Style,Ovary,Ovule,Sepal,Petal,Rec
eptacle,Peduncle,Pollen grains

Vegetative Parts of a Flower

The vegetative part of a flower consists of the
following:

i. Petals: This is a bright coloured part that attracts

bees, insects, and birds. Colour of petals varies
from plant to plant; some are bright while some
are pale coloured. Thus, petals help us to
differentiate one flower from another
ii. Sepals: Sepal is the green coloured part beneath
the petals to protect rising buds. Some flowers
have fused petals-sepals while a few have
separated petals-sepals

38
 The reproductive parts of a flower consist of the
following:

Stamen: This is the male reproductive organ and

is also known as Androecium. It consists of two
parts namely: anther and filaments
iii. The anther is a yellowish, sac-like structure,
involved in producing and storing the pollens.
iv. The filament is a slender, threadlike object, which
functions by supporting the anther

Pistil: This is the innermost part and the female

reproductive organ of a flower which comprises
three parts -stigma, style and ovary. This is
collectively known as the pistil
v. Stigma: It is the topmost part or receptive tip of
carpels in the gynoecium of a flower.
vi. Style: It is the long tube-like slender stalk that
connects stigma and the ovary
vii. Ovary: It is the ductless reproductive gland that
holds a lot of ovules. It is the part of the plant
where the seed formation takes place

39
64. Describe the classification of flowers based on
i. Presence or absence of any structure

a. Complete Flower
Flowers that have sepals, petals, pistils, and
stamens
b. Incomplete Flowers
When a flower is missing sepals, petals, pistils, or
stamen

40
ii. Presence of male or female or both reproductive
structures

a. Perfect/Bisexual/Hermaphrodite Flower
Flower bearing both male and female sex parts

b. Imperfect/Unisexual Flower
A flower that is missing either male or female
parts

iii. Number of flowers

a. Simple flowers
One flower on an axis (receptacle)

b. Compound flowers or Inflorescence

Have more than one flower on the receptacle or
axis

iv. Floral variations

a. Single inflorescence –same pattern of
arrangement of florets
b. Compound inflorescence –complex pattern

v. Floral symmetry
a. Hypogynous flowers
Sepals, petals, and stamens are attached to a
convex or conical receptacle at the base of the
ovary
The ovary is called superior and the perianth
is inferior or hypogynous

41
 b. Perigynous flowers
Sepals, petals, and sometimes stamens borne
on the edge or margin of the receptacle and
appear to form a cup around the pistil.

c. Epigynous flowers
Sepals, petals, and stamens appear to arise
from the top of the ovary
The ovary is inferior and the perianth is
superior or epigynous

65. Describe six main inflorescences

i. Raceme
an unbranched inflorescence form consisting
of a main stalk with florets attached along its
length by short pedicels

ii. Spadix
fleshy spike which carries numerous minute
flowers embedded on its surface, usually
surrounded by a colorful bract called a spathe

iii. Spike
unbranched inflorescence form consisting of a
main stalk with stemless florets attached
along its length

iv. Corymb
All the florets are arranged along a floral
peduncle but , stems have different length in

42
 such a way that all the florets appear at the
same flat round level

v. Umbel
An inflorescence in the shape of an inverted
umbrella Florets arise from the same point of
the peduncle

vi. Head
A dense inflorescence of small, often stalkless
flowers.

66. Distinguish between determinate and indeterminate

inflorescences
i. Determinate inflorescences
The oldest flower are at the top of the plant with
younger flowers under it

43
 ii. Indeterminate inflorescences
The youngest flowers are at the top of the plant with
older flowers below

67. Distinguish between monoecious and dioecius plants

i. Dioecious species
Unisexual flowers appear on different plants

ii. Monoecious species

Unisexual male and female flowers appear on the
same plant

68. Distinguish between pollination and fertilization

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a male part of
a plant to a female part of a plant, later enabling
fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often
by an animal or by wind
WHILE
Fertilization is the fusion or “joining” of male and
female gametes

69. Define double fertilization

The egg nucleus is fertilized by one sperm and the
polar nucleus is fertilized by the other sperm.

44
70. Describe post fertilization structural changes of plant
Structure Develops into
Polar nucleus Endosperm of the seed
Egg nucleus Embryo + cotyledons of
the seed
Integuments Seed coat of the seed
Ovule Seed
Ovary Fruit

MORPHOLOGY OF FRUIT

71. What is a fruit?

Fruit is the ripened ovary or ovaries of a seed-bearing
plant

72. State the functions of fruits

i. Matured and ripened ovaries.
ii. Holds and protects the seeds until they
mature.
iii. Helps in the dissemination or dispersal of the
seeds

73. Mention three layers forming the pericarp of the fruit

i. Exocarp
The outermost layer
ii. Mesocarp
The middle layer
iii. Endocarp
The inner layer

45
74. Giving one example distinguish between true fruit and
false fruit
i. True fruits
Fruits that are formed without including the
accessory structures
Ovary of the flowers grows into the fruit.
e.g. tomatoes

ii. Peudo-fruits/False fruits

Including accessory structures
It is often found that other floral parts such as
thalamus, receptacle or calyx, may grow and form a
part of fruit. e.g. Apple,pears

75. Define the following types of fruits

a. Simple fruit
Fruits formed from one ovary in one flower
b. Aggregate fruits
Fruits formed from more than one ovary of one
flower
c. Multiple fruits
Fruits formed from an inflorescence and include
accessory structures

76. What are Succulent fruits?

Are fruit with a fleshy structure

46
77. Mention five(5) examples of fleshy simple fruits
i. Drupes eg Mango, Coconut
ii. Berry eg grape, tomato
iii. Pepo eg cucumber,pumpkin,watermelon
iv. Pome eg apple, pear
v. Hesperidium eg orange, lemon and
grapefruit

78. What are polydrupes? Give two examples

Are soft aggregate fruits (fusion of several drupes) e.g.
strawberries, blackberries etc

79. How are dry fruits classified?

Dry fruits may be dehiscent or indehiscent

80. Distinguish between dehiscent and indehiscent dry fruits

Dehiscent fruits are the dry fruits that split open up at
maturity in order to release their content including
the seeds, while the indehiscent fruits are the dry
fruits that do not split open at maturity.

81. Give five examples of dehiscent and indehiscent dry fruits

each

Simple dry indehiscent fruits

i. Samara
A winged fruit-pericarp attached to wing like
structures e.g. Ash
ii. Achene

47
 A hard dry fruit with one seed which almost feels the
pericarp but attached loosely(pericarp and seed coat
not fused) e.g acorns of Oak
iii. Nuts
Simple dry fruit similar to achenes, but formed from
two or three carpels. Pericarp is relatively hard and
heavy eg cashew nuts
iv. Caryopsis(grains)
It is a simple, dry fruit in which the testa(seed
coat) and pericarp are fused eg wheat,maize,rice

Simple dry dehiscent fruits

i. Legumes
Are dry fruits which split along both dorsal and
ventral sutures to release their seeds e.g.pea, Cassia
angustifolia
ii. Follicles
Dry fruits which splits along one suture only e.g.
strophanthus
iii. Capsules eg poppy

82. Giving examples distinguish between Aggregate fruits and

Multiple/Collective
Aggregate Fruits from several ovaries of one flower
massed on a common receptacle eg strawberry and
blackberry WHILE

Collective/multiple Fruit from several ovaries of

several flowers of compact inflorescence eg pineapple

48
MORPHOLOGY OF SEED

83. Define seed

A seed is a mature plant ovule containing an embryo
from which a new plant will grow.

84. List six importance of seeds

i. It provide continuity of generation
ii. Source of food for animals and humans
(beans, peas, lentils)
iii. Medicinal importance
iv. Fixed oil for human preparation eg Castor
v. Ornamentals (plants that are grown for
decorative purposes in gardens and
landscapes etc)
vi. Source of beverages eg. Coffee seeds.

85. State functions of the following parts of seed

cotyledon,endosperm,radicle,hypocotyl,epicotyl,seedcoat,
micropyle
i. Cotyledon, Endosperm
store food which is used to support the
embryo during seed germination
ii. Radicle
Small embryonic root

iii. Hypocotyl
Is the transition zone between the
rudimentary root and shoot

49
 iv. Epicotyl
Is the tiny shoot from which the entire plant
shoot system develops.

v. Seed coat
It covers and provide mechanical protection
to the other parts of the seeds and prevents
excessive water loss from within the seed

vi. Micropyle
An opening that marks position of the radicle

86. Mention two layers of seed coat

It has two layers, the outer layer known as the Testa
which is thicker and the inner layer known as tegmen
which is delicate.

87. Mention similarities and differences between monocot and

dicot seeds
BASIS OF MONOCOT DICOT SEEDS
COMPARISON SEEDS
Description The embryo The embryo contains two
contains only one cotyledons.
cotyledon.
Coleoptiles And Plumule and Coleoptiles and
Coleorhiza radicle are coleorhizae are absent.
surrounded by
coleoptiles and
coleorhizae
respectively.
Food Storage Mostly Mostly albuminous or
albuminous. exalbuminous.

50
Germination Seed germination Seed germination is either
is hypogeal hypogeal or Epigeal
Endosperm Size A large The seed contains a tiny
endosperm is endosperm.
present inside the
seed, feeding the
embryo
Plumule The plumule goes Plumule is pushed
upward with the upwards by the actively
plumule sheath. growing epicotyl or
hypocotyl
Radicle Primary root Radicle produces the
formed from the primary root which
radicle perishes persists and bears many
with time and lateral roots.
replaced by a tuft
of adventitious
fibrous roots.

88. Distinguish between Albuminous and Exalbuminous seeds

Albuminous seeds are the seeds which have food
stored in the special nourishing tissue called as
endosperm that remains persistent till maturity.
Cotyledons only act as food sucking organs and not
food storage organs.e.g. Castor seed

Exalbuminous seeds are the seeds which have the

stored food and the cotyledons in a special structure
called as kernel. It does not remain until the embryo
is mature. e.g. Pea seed

51
89. Define seed germination
Is emergence of radicle and plumule through Seed
Coat

90. Differentiate Epigeal and Hypogeal seed germination

Epigeal germination the cotyledons are raised out of
the soil and generally become green and
photosynthetic WHILE Hypogeal seed germination
In this type of germination, the cotyledons remain
underground

91. List five necessary conditions for seed germination

i. Water
ii. Optimum Temperature
iii. Oxygen or aeration
iv. Light or darkness

92. Define seed viability. What factors affect seed viability?

Seed viability may be defined as the capability of the
seed to germinate and produce a normal seedling for
some specific period of time
Factors affect seed viability
i. Moisture
ii. Temperature
iii. Relative humidity
iv. Light
v. Chemicals
vi. Gases during storage
vii. Insects and mites

52
93. Defince seed dormancy and state conditions under which
it occurs
Is the failure of seeds to germinate even under
favourable conditions

Conditions under which it occurs

i. Hard seed coat – These are impermeable to
water, gases so restrict water uptake and
oxygen exchange.
ii. Immature embryo – Seeds with small and
undeveloped embryos do not germinate.
iii. Germination inhibitors – Seeds contain some
chemical plant growth regulators, which
inhibit seed germination.eg Abscisic
acid (ABA)
iv. Period after ripening – Some seeds have a
period of ripening. Those seed germinate only
after the completion of this period.

94. Define seed dispersal. How is it accomplished?

is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away
from the parent plant
How is it accomplished
i. Insects — insects much less important for
dispersal than pollination, but ants often
involved in dispersal

ii. Birds, mammals, reptiles, and even fish —

much more important for dispersal than
pollination

53
 iii. Wind — important in both pollination and
dispersal

iv. Water — minor importance in pollination,

somewhat greater in dispersal

v. Self dispersal — just like some plants carry

out self pollination, some plants have
mechanisms for self dispersal

95. State the importance’s of seed dispersal

i. Avoid competition with parent and siblings

ii. Colonize new habitats

iii. Avoid pathogens and predators

iv. Minimize inbreeding

MORPHOLOGY OF BARKS

96. Define Bark

The term bark refers to all tissues of a woody stem
or root occurring just outside of the vascular
cambium.

54
97. Describe chemical composition of Bark
The lignin content of bark is much higher than that of
wood, and the polysaccharide or sugar content is
correspondingly lower. Bark extractives include
various starches, resins, and waxes, tannic acid

98. Mention curvatures of barks with examples

i. Flat e.g. Quillaia
ii. Curve e.g. Whild cherry
iii. Channeled e.g.: Cassia.
iv. Single quill e.g. Cascara and Cinchona
v. Double quill e.g. Frangula
vi. Compound quill e.g. Cinnamon

99. State three(3) functions of barks

i. Transport -Photosynthates as well as some
proteins and RNA are principally transported
around trees from sources to sinks through
sieve elements in the phloem.
ii. Growth -The girth increments in tree
stems that make height growth are mostly
due to expansion of cells derived from the
vascular cambium.
iii. Biomechanical support -provide rigidity
and flexibility is to upright tree stem
iv. Defence –against both biotic and abiotic
stress

v. Storage -store carbohydrates, fats, oils, latex,

and resins

55
 vi. Carbon Fixation -In some species the
photosynthetic tissue is a persistent
epidermis with abundant lenticels (e.g.,
Betula) whereas in others photosynthesis
occurs in cortical tissues rejuvenated by
continued cell division (e.g. Populus).

100.State the medicinal uses of Barks

i. Cinchona bark
Quinine: antimalaria
ii. Cinnamon bark
Oil: reduce flatulence; in cosmetics;
mouthwash
iii. Cassia : carminative effect
iv. Cascara: laxative
v. Willow: Asprin: anti imflammatory,antipain

GUMS, MUCILAGE AND PECTINS

101.Define Gums
Are considered to be pathological products formed
upon injury of the plant or owing to unfavourable
conditions such as draught, by a breakdown of cell
walls

102.Mention five physical properties of gums

i. They are insoluble in alcohol but dissolve or
swell in water
ii. They are colourless & odourless

56
 iii. Don’t dissolve in organic solvents
iv. Readily soluble in water
v. Gums have a consistency similar to glue when
moist but are hard when dry

103.Regarding Tragacanth gums

i. Mention one natural source of Tragacanth gum
Astragalus gummifer
ii. Sate the period of collection of Tragacanth gum
collected in the second year
iii. Mention four(4) constituents of Tragacanth gums
a. Tragacanthin
b. Bassorin
c. Sugar
d. Uronic acids
iv. List five(5) uses of Tragacanth gums
i. Used as a suspending agent for insoluble
powders
ii. Binding agent in pills and tablets
iii. Emulgent –stimulates bile flow
iv. A binding agent in food industry

104.Regarding Acacia gum

i. Mention one natural source
Acacia senegal
ii. Sate the period of collection of Acacia gum
Collection is done when the plant is 6 years
iii. Mention four(4) constituents of Acacia gums
a. Arabin (Arabic acid)
b. Galactose

57
 c. Arabinose
d. Rhamnose
e. Uronic acids
f. Oxidase enzyme

iv. List five(5) uses of Acacia gums

i. Used as a general stabilizer in emulsions
ii. Used in lozenges
iii. As demulcent-relieving inflammation
iv. Used for treatment of diarrhoea, cough
and sore throat
v. It is also widely used in food and drink
industries

105.Regarding Sterculia gum

i. Mention one natural source of Sterculia gum
Sterculia urens
ii. Mention four(4) constituents of Sterculia gums
a. Uronic acids
b. Partial hydrolysis yields
c. D-galactose
d. L-rhamnose
e. D-galacturonic acid
f. Acetic acid
iii. List two(2) uses of Sterculia gums
a. Granular grades are used as a bulk
laxative (second only to psyllium seed in
use as a bulk laxative).
b. Powdered gum is used in lozenges, pastes
and denture fixture powders.

58
106.Regarding Psyllium
i. Mention one natural source of Psyllium
Plantago afra (Plantago psyllium), P. indica
(P. arenaria) and P. ovata (Plantaginaceae)

ii. Mention four(4) constituents of Psyllium

a. Mucilage
b. Fixed oil
c. Sugars
d. Sterols
e. Protein

iii. List two(2) uses of Psyllium

a. Demulscents
b. Treatment of chronic constipation-
laxative

CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

107.Mention five(5) classification of medicinal plants

i. Alphabetical Classification
This classification employs the use of either Latin or
Vernacular names of the medicinal plant
This method is simple and suitable for quick
reference

59
ii. Taxonomic Classification
This method is based on botanical classification
Drugs are arranged according to the plants from
which they are obtained
Drugs are grouped into families, Classes, orders,
genera and species

iii. Morphological Classification

Physical features of the drugs are used in the
classification
a. Organized drugs
For instance, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, wood,
barks, rhizomes & roots
b. Unorganized drugs
For instance, dried lattices, extracts, gums, resins,
oils, fats and waxes

iv. Pharmacological or therapeutic Classification

Drugs are classified according to pharmacological
actions of their most important constituents or their
therapeutic uses, e.g. cardiotonic drugs, CNS
stimulants, Muscle relaxants, etc.

v. Chemical or Biogenetic Classification

Drugs are classified according to their important
constituents e.g. alkaloids, glycosides, volatile oils
They are also classified based on their biosynthetic
pathways

60
108.Distinguish between organized and unorganized drug
giving examples in each case
Organized crude drug
Drugs are the direct parts of the plant and are divided
into leaves, barks wood, root, rhizome, seed,fruit,
flower, stem, hair and fibers.
WHILE
Unorganized crude drug
Drugs are the products of plant, animal and mineral
source and they are divided into dried latex, dried
juice, dried extracts, gums, resins, fixed oils

109.What are cultivated medicinal plants? List five (5)

advantages of cultivation of medicinal plants
Are medicinal plants obtained by digging into or
cutting up an existing soil bed to better prepare it for
planting
Advantages of cultivation of medicinal plants
i. Only desired species are collected therefore
uniform quality.
ii. Collection, transport and access to processing
facilities is improved.
iii. Better control of soil quality, pests and plant
disease.
iv. Supply: Constant and Regular (Controlled)
v. Collectors are trained

110.Mention five (5) disadvantages of wild plant collection

Wild plant refers to those that grow spontaneously in
self-maintaining populations in natural or semi-

61
 natural ecosystems and can exist independently of
direct human action.

i. Sparse distribution e.g. Sceletium tortuosum.

Potentially difficult to transport plant to area
of processing
ii. Difficult access (e.g. forests, mountains etch)
iii. Collector ignorance leads to admixture of
other plants, collection of undesired plant
parts or stage of development or during an
incorrect season loss of medicinal activity.
iv. Damage to natural environment which leads
to extinction of a species.

111.Describe various factors affecting cultivation of medicinal

plants with vivd examples
a. Environmental (Exogenous) Factors
i. Temperature
Datura stramonium produces lower alkaloids
in cloudy/rainy weather (winter)
Volatile oils are produced more readily in
warmer weather
Very hot days lead to a physical loss of oil
Growing peppermint in shade rather than the
sun.

ii. Rainfall
Continuous rainfall may lead to loss of water-
soluble substances such as glycosides,
tannins, flavonoids and some volatile oils
through leaves and roots

62
iii. Day-length (sunlight)
Amount of glycosides, alkaloids and volatile
oils produced are greatly affected by amount
of sunlight
Long day: menthone, menthol and
menthofuran traces
Short day: menthofuran is a main component
Belladonna, Stramonium and Cinchona
ledgeriana full sunshine gives high content of
alkaloids than does shade
Other species: produce more active
constituents at night e.g. Nicotiana

iv. Radiation
Type of radiation plants receive e.g. Ocimum
basilicum – plants grown in glass houses have
less phenols and terpenoids in the leaves
(flavonoids, volatile oils)

v. Latitude and Altitude

a. Gentian produce bitter constituents when
grown in higher altitude
b. Thyme and Peppermint produce less
constituents when grown in higher
altitude
c. Coconut needs a maritime climate
d. Sugar cane is lowland plant
e. Tragacanth, Cinchona succirubra require
elevation

63
 f. Tea requires (1000-2000 M), coffee (800 –
1800 M), and cocoa (100 – 200 M)
g. Peanut & olive grown in the subtropics
produce a higher unsaturated fat content.

vi. Soil Condition

Soil character, composition, permeability,
porosity all effect growth of medicinal plants
e.g.
Chalky soil lead to poor of Digitalis
Crop rotation improves nutrient content of
soils
pH of soil affects inorganic compounds of soil

b. Genetic (Endogenous) Factors

i. Allelopathy
Allelopathy is the constant effect which living
organisms exert on each other, which may be
either beneficial or harmful
Different plants growing together affect each
other in terms of: Germination rate, Lea
development, Fruit maturation and Chemical
constituents produced
It is transmitted between plants in a number
of ways such as Exhalation of leaves, Root
secretions and Extractions from fallen leaves
into the soil
Examples

64
 -Mutual dependant organisms (beneficial)
symbiosis e.g. Urtica dioica
-Destructive allelopathy antibiosis e.g.
Belladonna growth is inhibited when
cultivated next to mustard

c. Post-Cultivation Factors
i. Drying & storage methods of
drugs

112.Define plant breeding. List the three (3) breeding methods

Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits
of plants in order to produce desired characteristics.
It has been used to improve the quality of nutrition in
products for humans and animals.

i. Selection
ii. Hybridization
iii. Transgenic medicinal plants

113.What is plant propagation? Mention two (2) types of plant

propagation
Plant propagation is the process of creating new
plants from a variety of sources

i. Sexual propogation ( seed)

ii. Asexual propogation

114.State the importance of plant propagation’

65
 i. It multiplies the different species
in large number.
ii. It protects the plant species which
are endangered
iii. It improves the
characteristics and quality of the
plants.
iv. It produces quality and healthy
plants on commercial base.

115.Outline eight (8) vegetative propagation methods giving

one example in each method
A. Natural vegetative propagation
i. Rhizomes eg ginger and turmeric.
ii. Runners(Stolon) eg strawberry
iii. Bulbs eg onions, garlic
iv. Tubers eg Sweet potatoes
v. Corms eg crocus, gladiolus, and taro
vi. Suckers eg apple trees, cherry trees, banana
trees
vii. Plantlets eg spider plants

B. Artificial vegetative propagation

i. cutting,
ii. layering,
iii. grafting,
iv. suckering,
v. tissue culture

66
116.What is collection of medicinal plants?
Refers to harvesting or obtaining drugs from
medicinal plants

117.Describe six(6) important factors to consider during the

collection of medicinal plants
i. Underground organs are collected when aerial
parts die down
ii. Leaves are collected when flowers are beginning
to open
iii. Flowers are collected in dry weather and just
before they fully expand e.g. cloves
iv. Fruits and seeds are collected when fully mature
but unripe
v. Barks are collected in damp weather
vi. Unorganized drugs are collected in dry weather
vii. Leaves, flowers and fruits should not be
collected when covered with dew or rain
viii. Discolored or parts attacked by insects should
not be collected
ix. Large organs should be sliced soon after
collection to facilitate drying
x. Limits of unwanted parts in desired parts must
be considered when collecting medicinal plants
e.g. aerial stems in rhizomes

118.State the importance of processing medicinal plants

Processing of crude drugs is important in order
prevent deterioration

67
119.What is drying? State five(5) reasons for drying medicinal
plants
Drying is the most common method of medicinal
plant preservation involves removing excessive
moisture from pants
i. To decrease size and weight i.e. to
facilitate packing, transport and storage
ii. To facilitate powdering
iii. To prevent enzyme action
iv. To prevent microbial growth
v. To prevent degradation of active
constituents

120.Explain four(4) methods used in drying of medicinal plants

i. AIR DRYING
a. Sun Drying
Is done when drugs are not adversely affected by
excessive sunlight.
Drugs are dried in thin layers and tuned over
occasionally
Drugs dried in this way include clove
and cardamom
b. Shade Drying
Done when sunlight causes discoloration and
warping/shrivelling of the drugs e.g. cinnamon

ii. ARTIFICIAL DRYING

Artificial source of heat is used in the drying
process

68
 Drying in the oven (oven drying) is the
commonest methods used in artificial drying

Artificial drying is more accepted and more

rapid than air-drying
Artificial drying is more suitable for use in the
wet weather
Drying temperature is governed by
constituents
Generally, leaves, herbs and flowers are dried
between 20-40oC, barks and roots: 40-65oC

When done rapidly, the drugs retain colour and aroma

iii. VACUUM DRYING

It is also done in oven, but at low
temperature
Low pressure ensures rapid and complete
drying

It is an expensive method and thus reserved for

expensive drugs or drugs which cannot be sufficiently
dried by other methods

iv. LYOPHILISATION

Involves freezing of the drug and then evaporation under

low pressure

Very suitable method for drugs that are very sensitive to

heat

69
The resulting product is a fine powder

This method is used for drying biological fluids,

enzymes, proteins and royal jelly

121.Describe general conditions and techniques for drying

medicinal plants
i. For Leaves/Herbs:
Temperature should be between 40-50º C to maintain
good colour
Leaves or herbs should normally be destalked first
They are best dried for short periods of time only to
prevent shrivelling and discoloration
They may be bleached through the drying process
ii. For Roots/Rhizomes:

They should be washed

They should be sliced

They should be dried between at temperatures

between 30-65ºC

Too high temperature may prevent further drying in

deeper parts of the drug

Thick organs may require long periods of drying (10days-

3weeks) to avoid mould growth

iii. For Flowers;

70
Flowers are normally destalked before drying

Flowers may also be bleached when dried

iv. Volatile oil-containing drugs;

Are air-dried at very low temperature to avoid

volatilization of oil contents

They should be dried separately from other herbs

v. Fruits and Seeds;

They are normally partially dry before harvesting

They may be air-dried afterwards

Seeds are normally separated from the fruits before drying

Fruits are normally left whole

Some fruits (cardamom) rupture due to excessive heat.

vi. Bark

Occasionally requires the removal of the outer layers

122.Mention five(5) Factors to consider when making a choice

of a drying technique
i. Physical characteristics of the plant

71
 ii. Chemical characteristics of the plant
-Volatile Oils: (Thyme) Dried
separately, at low temperature
-Starchy herbs (oats): gelatinize if
overheated
iii. Changes occurring in herbs when drying
iv. Changes due to enzyme action
v. Oxidation
vi. Volatilisation
vii. Browning

123.State three(3) conditions to consider during storage of

medicinal plants
i. Long storage is not recommended, due to
deterioration except in cascara bark.
Active constituents decrease massively
ii. Drugs should be stored in sealed
containers in cool dark places
iii. Generally, the permissible moisture
content is 8% or below.

124.List four(4) factors which can affect storage of crude drugs

a. Physicochemical factors include
i. Light
ii. Moisture
iii. Temperature
iv. Air oxygen
b. biological factors include
i. Fungi

72
 ii. bacteria
iii. Worms
iv. Insects
v. Mites

ALKALOIDS

125.What do you understand by the term Alkaloids?

Alkaloids are basic naturally occurring compounds
containing one or more nitrogen atoms usually in a
heterocyclic ring and have a marked physiological
action on man or other animals

126.Mention five(5) functions of Alkaloids in plants

i. Protect against insects and herbivores due to
their bitterness and toxicity
ii. Are final products of detoxification in some
cases
iii. Source of nitrogen in case of nitrogen
deficiency
iv. Act as growth regulators in certain metabolic
systems.
v. They may be utilized as a source of energy in
case of deficiency in carbon dioxide
assimilation, especially those alkaloids
containing a sugar moiety.

127.State six(6) physical and chemical properties of Alkaloids

A. Physical properties

73
 i. Most alkaloids are crystalline solids, a few are
amorphous solids e.g. emetine.
ii. Some are liquids that are either volatile or
non-volatile
iii. Majority of the alkaloids are colorless but
some are colored
iv. Alkaloidal bases are soluble in organic
solvents and insoluble in water
v. Salts of alkaloids are usually soluble in water
and, insoluble or sparingly soluble in organic
solvents.
vi. Alkaloids are bitter tasting
vii. Many alkaloids are extremely toxic to other
organisms
viii. Alkaloids exhibit isomerism e.g. optical
isomerism i.e L-ephedrine is 3.5 times more
active than d-ephedrine

B. Chemical properties
i. Alkaloids are amines (may be primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary)
ii. Most alkaloids contain oxygen and are solid in
nature e.g. Atropine.
iii. Alkaloids are decomposed by heat, EXCEPT
Strychnine and Caffeine
iv. Alkaloids react with acids to form salts
v. Dilute alkalis liberate most alkaloids from their
salts e.g. NH3
vi. Some alkaloids are unstable when exposed to
light and oxygen while others are not

74
 124.Giving examples define
i. True alkaloids

They are derived from amino acids and contain a

nitrogen in a heterocyclic ring e.g. Atropine

ii. Atypical alkaloids

Derived from amino acids but do not contain nitrogen

in the heterocyclic ring eg Colchicine

iii. Pseudo alkaloids

They are not derived from amino acids eg
Caffeine ,Theophylline and Theobromine

125.With examples, mention six(6) pharmacological uses of Alkaloids

Analgesics e.g Morphine and Codeine

CNS stimulants e.g. Caffeine and Strychnine
Anti-cancers e.g. Vincristine, Vinblastine and Taxol
Mydriatics e.g. Atropine
Myotics e.g. Pilocarpine
Anti-asthmatics e.g. Ephedrine
Anti-tussives e.g. Codeine
Expectorants e.g. Lobelline
Anti-hypertensives e.g. Reserpine
Smooth muscle relaxants e.g. Atropine and Papaverine
Skeletal muscle relaxants e.g. Tubocurarine

75
Anthelmintics e.g. Pelletierine
Antiparasitics e.g. Quinine and Emetine

126.Describe the Stas-Otto Method used in extraction of

Alkaloids
i. First Stage
Powdered plant material is moistened with water and
mixed with alkali like sodium and potassium
carbonate, ammonia, calcium hydroxide. A paste is
made with water, dried and re-powdered
The lime combines with acid, tannins and other
phenolic substances and sets free the alkaloids

ii. Second Stage

The free alkaloids are extracted by hot continuous

percolation with chloroform or other organic solvent

The free alkaloids dissolve together with other substances

soluble in solvent

iii. Third stage

Chloroform solution is agitated with successive portions

of dilute sulphuric acid separating the aqueous layer
before adding the next portion

The alkaloids are converted into alkaloidal sulphates,

which being soluble in water, pass into the aqueous layer

76
 iv. Fourth Stage

The mixed aqueous liquid is made alkaline with

ammonia, and precipitates that form are collected,
washed with water and dried

Ammonia decomposes the alkaloidal sulphates forming

ammonium sulphates, soluble in water and the free
alkaloid which being practically insoluble in water is
precipitated

127.Mention four(4) methods used for purification of

Alkaloids
i. Direct crystallization from solvent
ii. Steam distillation
iii. Chromatography techniques
iv. Gradient pH techniques

77
128.Mention chemical tests used for identification of Alkaloids

78
79
129.What do you understand by Tropane alkaloids?
Are a class of bicyclic alkaloids and secondary metabolites
that contain a tropane ring in their chemical structure.

130.Mention four(4) Tropane alkaloids

i. Hyoscyamine
ii. Hyoscine
iii. Atropine
iv. Cocaine

131.Mention four(4) plant species that are natural sources of

tropane alkaloids
i. Datura stramonium
ii. Atropa belladonna
iii. Hyoscyamus niger
iv. Erythroxylum coca

132.Mention the importances of Tropane alkaloids in

pharmacy.
i. Atropine
a. Stimulant on CNS
b. Dilates eye pupils
c. Decreases sweating
d. Produces stomach acid and saliva and relaxes
smooth muscle (asthma and colic)
ii. Hyoscine
Sedative – motion sickness
iii. Atropine and Hyoscine
Used in ophthalmic practice to dilate pupil
iv. Hyoscyamine is used to treat urinary tract
disorders

80
 v. It is used to treat spasms of the bladder
vi. Hyoscyamine preparations are also used as
antispasmodics in the therapy of peptic ulcers
vii. Hyoscine hydrobromide is used in pre-operative
medication 30 – 60 minutes before induction of
anaesthesia
viii. Hyoscine butylbromide used in irritable bowel
syndrome to relief pain due to abdominal cramps
ix. Cocaine is used asLocal anaesthetic agent

133. Regarding Lobelia

i. State the natural source of Lobelia

Lobelia inflata
ii. Mention the chief constituent of Lobelia
lobeline
iii. List the uses of Lobelia
a. Treatment of asthma
b. Chronic bronchitis
c. In anti-smoking preparations
d. Injection of lobeline hydrochloride is used in
the resuscitation of new-born infants

133.Regarding Tobacco
i. What is the natural source of Tobacco?
Nicotiana tobacum
ii. State main constituents of Tobacco
a. Nicotine
b. Narcotine

81
 c. Anabasine
iii. List the pharmacetical importance of tobacco
a. Pesticide
b. Insecticide

134.Regarding Quionolone alkaloids

i. Mention four(4) Quinolone alkaloids
a. quinine,
b. quinidine,
c. cinchonine
d. cinchonidine
ii. What are the natural sources of quinolone alkaloids?
a. Cinchona succirubra,
b. Cinchona ledgeriana, Cinchona officinalis
c. Cinchona calisaya
iii. Mention the importance of quinolone alkaloids in
pharmacy
a. Bitter tonic and stomachic (cinchona
extract)
b. Used as gargles (tannins in bark –
astringent)
c. Treatment of malaria
d. Prophylaxis of cardiac arrhythmias
e. Treatment of atrial fibrillation (quinidine)

82
135.What are isoquinolone alkaloids?
Consist of alkaloids and alkaloid salts obtained from
opium and ipecacuanha

136.Regarding Opium
i. State the natural source of Opium
Papaver somniferum
ii. Mention three(3) alkaloids produced from opium
a. Morphine
b. Codeine
c. Thebaine
d. Noscapine
e. Narceine
f. Papaverine

iii. List uses of opium alkaloids

a. Opium and Morphine are used to relieve pain,
as hypnotic, and for decreasing metabolism
b. Morphine is a potent analgesic
c. Opium
Closely resembles morphine – exerts action
more slowly – preferred to morphine (e.g. in
diarrhoea).
Opium is a diaphoretic agent
d. Codeine
Milder sedative
Relieve cough

83
 137. Regarding Curare
i. State one natural source of Curare
a. Menispermaceae (Stephania) and
b. Loganiaceae (Chondrodendron tomentosum)
ii. Mention three types of Curare
a. Tube-curare
b. Calabash-curare
c. Pot-curare
iii. List chief constituents of Curare
a. Tubocurarine
b. Curarine
iv. State two(2) uses of Curare
a. Tubocurarine chloride is used to produce
muscular relaxation in surgical operations
and neurological conditions
b. Used as an arrow poison

137.Regarding Ipecacuahnha
i. Mention the natural source of Ipecacuahnha
a. Cephalis ipecacuanha
b. Cèphalis acuminata
ii. Mention constituents of Ipecacuahnh
a. Emetine (60-75%)
b. Cephaeline,
c. Psychotrine
d. Psychotrine methyl ether
e. Ipecacuanhin
iii. List pharmacological importance of Ipecacuahnha
a. Expectorant
b. Emetic

84
 c. Amoebic Dysentry
d. Emetine is more expectorant and less emetic
in action than cephaeline
e. Psychotrine:
f. Selective HIV inhibitors (study could lead to
therapeutically useful agents)

138.Regarding pilocarpus
i. Mention the natural source of pilocarpus
Pilocarpus jaborandi

ii. Mention the constituents of pilocarpus

a. Pilocarpine
b. Isopilocarpine
c. Pilocarpidine
d. Pilosine
e. Pseudopilocarpine
f. Isopilosine
iii. State the use of pilocarpus in pharmacy
a. Used in form of Pilocarpine
Hydrochloride
b. It is a physiological antagonist
of Atropine
c. Used in ophthalmic practices
e.g. treatment of glaucoma
d. Causes contraction of pupil of
the eye

85
 139.What are Vinca alkaloids?
Are oncolytic indoline alkaloids
i. State the natural source of vinca alkaloids
Catharanthus roseus
ii. Mention two main vinca alkaloids and state their
pharmaceutical importances
a. Leurocristine (vincristine)
b. Vincaleukoblastine (vinblastine)

USES
Vinblastine – Treatment of generalized Hodgkin’s disease,
lymphocytic lymphoma, histiocytic lymphoma, advanced
testicular carcinoma, kaposi’s sarcoma, choriocarcinoma and
breast cancer unresponsive to therapy

Vincristine – Treatment of acute lymphocytic leukemia in

combination therapy in Hodgkin’s disease, ymphosarcoma,
reticulum cell sarcoma, neuroblastoma and Wilm’s tumour

140. Regarding Ergot alkaloids

i. Mention the natural source of Ergot alkaloids
Claviceps purpurea
ii. Mention four(4) Ergot alkaloids
a. Ergometrine
b. Ergotamine
c. Lysergic acid derivative

86
 iii. State five uses of Ergot alkaloids
a. Ergometrine is used to control postpartum
haemorrhage. Ergometrine, also known as
ergonovine, is used to cause contractions of
the uterus to treat heavy vaginal bleeding after
childbirth.
b. Ergometrine produces oxytocic effects
c. Ergotamine and semi-synthetic
dihydrohydroxy ergotamine are employed as
specific analgesic for treatment of migraine
(caffeine enhances absorption)
d. Lysergic acid derivative, LSD is a
psychomimetic (a potent hallucinogen)
controlled under narcotics

141.Mention the main indole alkaloids contained in Nux vomica

Nux vomica are dried, ripe seeds of Strychnous nux-vomica
i. Strychnine
ii. Brucine

142.State the pharmacological importances of alkaloids in Nux

vomica
i. It stimulates peristalsis in chronic constipation
and is often combined with cascara and other
laxatives
ii. Bitter stomachich and tonic (increases gastric
juice to improve appetite and digestion)
iii. Improves the pulse and raises blood pressure
iv. At higher doses it is a lethal poison
Brucine is used commercially as an alcohol
denaturant (as it is extremely bitter)

87
143.Mention alkaloids contained in Calabar beans and State their
pharmaceutical importances
Calabar beans are dried seeds of Physostigma venonosum
i. Physostigmine,
ii. Isophysostigmine,
iii. Physovenine
iv. Eserinmine
v. Geneserine

USES
i. A reversible inhibitor of cholinesterase thus enhancing
the effect of endogenous Acetylcholine
ii. It is used systematically as an antidote for atropine
poisoning and other anticholinergic drugs
iii. Used in ophthalmology to contract the pupil, to combat
mydriasis
iv. It is used in the treatment of glaucoma
v. It decreases intra-ocular pressure caused by increased
outflow of the aqueous humour

144.Regarding rauwolfia
i. State the major source of rauwolfia
Rauwolfia serpentine ,Rauwolfia vomitoria
ii. Mention the major alkaloids contained in rauwolfia
a. Reserpine
b. Resinnamine
iii. State pharmaceutical importance of rauwolfia
a. It is used as a centrally acting anti-hypertensive
agent (reserpine)

88
 b. Used in very small concentration in
combination with other antihypertensive agents
due to its major side effect –suicidal depression

145.State natural source and pharmaceutical importance of

Yohimbine
Source ;Pausinystalia yohimbe
Uses; Symptomatic treatment of erectly dysfunction

146.Regardine purine alkaloids

i. Mention three purine alkaloids and state one natural
sources of each
a. caffeine (seeds of coffee plants, kola
plants, tea leaves and guarana seeds),
b. theobromine (Theobroma cocao)
c. Theophylline (tea leaves and cola nuts)
ii. List the pharmacological importances of purine
alkaloids
a. Theobromine is used
 As base for suppositories (cocoa butter)
 For heart and kidney tonic
 As a drink e.g. cocoa
 As flavouring agent e.g. chocolate

b. Theophylline
 Relaxes bronchial smooth muscles
 Stimulates respiratory centre in the brain
stem by increasing sensitivity to CO2
 Stimulates the CNS

89
  Slightly inotropic
 Diuretic activity is stronger than that of
caffeine
 Used for relief of cough (bronchodilator)
 Smooth muscle relaxant for symptomatic
relief/prevention of bronchial asthma

c. Coffee produce caffeine which is used in

combinations with antipyretics and
analgesics, cold and flu medication
(increases the intestinal absorption of
some of these drugs or to counteract
drowsiness)
d. Caffeine is also used as an ingredient in
non-alcoholic beverages and “energizing”
beverages

147.Mention two proto alkaloids stating their natural source and

pharmaceutical uses
i. Ephedra from Ephedra gerardiana and Ephedra
nebrodensis ,
Uses
a. Included in asthma, colds, flu and Hay fever
medications
b. It is a bronchodilator
c. Action is more prolonged than adrenaline
d. Need not be given by injection, but can be
administered orally
e. Allopathic: Sinumed (dries a runny nose)
f. Used as an anti-inflammatory.

90
 g. Used for weight loss
h. Decreases appetite
i. CNS stimulant – acts on adrenergic receptors

ii. Colchicum from Colchicum luteum and Colchicum

autumnale.
Uses
a. Relieves gout (used with caution – professional
supervision)
b. Also used in biological experiments to produce
polyploidy (multiplication of the chromosomes in a
cell nucleus) in horticulture and cultivation of
medicinal plants

GLYCOSIDES

148.Define glycosides
Glycosides are molecules in which a sugar part (sugar
moiety called the glycone) is bound to a non-sugar part
(non-sugar moiety called the aglycone) joined together by
glycosidic bond

149.Describe the composition of glycosides

i. Sugar portion ……….. Glycone
ii. Non-sugar portion…... Aglycone / Genin

91
150.Mention six(6) characteristics of glycosides

i. Glycosides are soluble in water but insoluble in

organic solvents
ii. Glycosides are colorless (except flavonoid- yellow,
anthraquinone-red or orange)
iii. They are solid, amorphous and nonvolatile
iv. They give a positive reaction with Molisch's and
Fehling's solution test (after hydrolysis).
v. Most glycosides have bitter taste
vi. They are odorless except saponin (glycyrrhizin).
vii. Glycosides with lots of sugars have increased
solubility in water
viii. Glycosides hydrolyzed by using mineral acids and
temperature or by using enzymes

151.With examples, list four(4) basic classifications of glycosides

i. Based on therapeutic effects
Cardiac glycosides, Laxative glycosides etc.
ii. Based on glycone moiety
Rhamnosides, glucorhamnosides, rhamnoglucosides etc.
iii. Based on glycosidic linkage/bond
O-glycosides, s-glycosides, N-glycosides, C-glycosides
iv. Based on chemical nature of the aglycone
a. Alcoholic and phenolic glycosides
b. Anthraquinone glycosides
c. Coumarin glycosides
d. Cyanogenic glycosides
e. Flavanoidal glycosides
f. Steroidal glycosides
g. Thioglycosides

92
152.What are cardiac glycosides?
Are a group of glycosides with powerful action on cardiac
muscles (positive ionotropic effect on the heart)

153.List two main groups of cardiac glycosides with examples

i. Cardenolides
The cardenolides have an unsaturated butyrolactone ring
–a five membered-ring e.g. strophanthus
ii. Bufadienolides
In this group the lactone ring is a 6 membered (pyrrone)
ring

These are obtained from animal sources e.g. Bufadieonolides

from toads

154.Mention six(6) characteristics of cardiac glycosides

i. Amorphous
ii. Odorless
iii. Bitter tasting
iv. Soluble in water
v. Insoluble in organic solvents
vi. Very toxic compounds

155.State the medicinal importance of cardiac glycosides

i. They are Cardiotonics used to treat Congestive
heart failure(CHF).

ii. They increase force of contraction of cardiac

muscles without increase oxygen consumption.

93
 iii. Increase cardiac output.

iv. The diastolic phase last longer so decrease heart

rate.

v. Have diuretic effect due to increase amount of

blood passing through the kidney

156.Describe various chemical tests used for identification

glycosides
i. General test for steroids:
Liebermann’s test
ii. Test for Deoxysugars:
Keller-Kiliani’s Test
iii. Test for 5-membered lactone ring
Legal’s test
Kedde’s test

157.List the two(2) active constituents of digitalis leaf

I. Purpurea glycoside A
II. Purpurea glycoside B

158.Mention the use of the dried digitalis leaf

used as a heart stimulant

159.How is Digitalis collected and dried?

Leaves collected from 2nd year growth of plant
in June before opening of flower
Drying is done by applying artificial heat (temperature not
more than 65°C)

94
160.State the storage condition of digitalis leaf

Should be stored with a dehydrating agent to prevent

enzymic reactions in moisture proof container away from
light

161.What is the required percentage moisture content for the

storage of digitalis leaf
Permissible moisture content is 8% or below.

162.Mention the two(2) main botanical sources of digitalis and their

respective glycosides
Digitalis lanata or Digitalis purpurea
D. purpurea produces primary glycosides
-Purpurea glycoside A
-Purpurea glycoside B
-Glucogitaloxin

On drying, enzyme degradation taken place with the loss of the

terminal glucose to produce;
-Digitoxin from purpurea glycoside A
-Gitoxin from purpurea glycoside B
-Gitaloxin

D. lanata produces
Digoxin
Lanatosides A, B and C

95
 On drying acetyl terminal sugar can be lost to produce
Lanatoside A produces Purpurea glycoside A
Lanatoside B produces Purpurea glycoside B
Lanatoside C produces Deslanoside C/
Deacetyllanatoside

163.State the uses of digitalis

Digitalis glycosides are used for the treatment of;
i. Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
ii. Arrhythmias
iii. Atrial fibrillations

164.State two(2) botanical sources of strophanthus ,its active

glycosides and medicinal importance
-Strophanthus kombe and Strophanthus hispidus
-Active constituent is Strophanthin
-Uses
i. Cardiac stimulant
ii. Diuretic

165.Regarding squill
i. State the botanical source of squill
Urgenea maritime

ii. Mention the two types of squill

a. Red squill
b. White squill

96
 iii. Mention glycosides that are contained in squill
a. Scillaren A
b. Scillaren B
c. Scillirosides(in red squill only)

iv. State the medicinal uses of each type of squill

White squill
a. As cardiotonic drugs
b. As diuretics agents
c. In small dose –as expectorant agents
d. In large dose –as emetic agents

Red squill
Used as a rodenticide (due to Scillirosides)

166.Regarding senna
i. List two(2) botanical sources of Senna
i. Casssia senna
ii. Cassia angustifolia

ii. Mention the basic glycosides found in Senna

a. Sennoside A
b. Sennoside B

iii. State the medicinal uses of Senna

-Used as a Laxative
Senna is a useful purgative either for habitual
constipation or on occasional use
Senna increases the peristaltic movements of the
colon by its local action upon the intestinal wall

97
167.Reagarding Cascara
i. State the natural sources of Cascara
dried bark of Rhamnus purshianus
ii. Mention glycosides contained in Cascara
a. Cascaroside A
b. Cascaroside B
c. Cascaroside C
d. Cascaroside D

iii. Why does cascara bark require long storage?

Requires long storage to destroy compounds
called anthrones in the fresh bark, which cause
vomiting
iv. State the medicinal importance of Cascara
-Used as Purgative
Used in the form of liquid extract/elixir/as tablets
prepared from dry extract

168.Regarding Aloes
i. State four(4) botanical sources of Aloe
a. Aloe barbadensis
b. Aloe ferox
c. Aloe perryi
d. Aloe vera
ii. Mention the main glycosides found in Aloes
a. Barbaloin
b. Isobarbaloin
iii. State medicinal importance’s of Aloes

98
 Uses
a. Stimulant purgative
b. Anthelminthic

169.Regarding Rhurbab
i. Mention two(2) plant sources of Rhurbab
a. Rheum palmatum
b. Rheum officinale
ii. List main glycosides found in Rhurbab
a. Rhein
b. Emodin
c. Aloe-emodine
d. Emodin monomethylether
iii. State the medicinal importance of Rhubarb
a. Rhubarb can be used as a strong laxative
b. Rhubarb has an astringent effect on the
mucous membranes of the mouth and the
nasal cavity

ALDULTERATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

170.What is Adulteration of medicinal plants?

Adulteration is a practice of substituting original crude
drug partially or whole with other similar looking
substances but the latter is either free from or inferior in
chemical and therapeutic properties.
OR

99
 Is the substitution of original drug with inferior, defective
or otherwise useless or harmful substances.
OR
anything causing debasement of a drug

171.Define the following terms as applied to adulteration

i. An adulterant
Is a medicinal plant which does not conform to
official standards or which does not comply with
the requirement of the pharmacopoeia
ii. Inferiority
Is a natural substandard condition e.g. where a
crop is taken whose natural
constituent is below the minimum standard
for that particular drug
iii. Spoilage
Is a substandard condition produced by microbial
or other pest infestation, which makes a product
unfit for consumption

iv. Deterioration
Is an impairment of the quality or value of an
article due to destruction or abstraction of valuable
constituents by bad treatment or aging or to the
deliberate extraction of the constituents and the
sale of the residue as the original drugs.

100
 v. Admixture
Is the addition of one article to
another through accident, ignorance or
carelessness e.g. inclusion of soil on an
underground organ or the co-collection of two
similar species.

vi. Sophiscation
Is the deliberate addition of spurious or inferior
material with intent to defraud

vii. Substitution
Is the addition of an entirely different article in
place of that which is required e.g. supply of cheap
cottonseed oil in place of olive oil.

172.Explain the major two(2) types of adulteration

i. Deliberate adulteration
This is intentional and normally commercial mainly for
enhancement of profits

ii. Accidental adulteration

173.Describe four(4) ways in which adulteration of crude drug can

occur giving vivid examples
i. Faulty collection of the drug
-Collection of the drug from the correct identified
plant but done during improper time of collection.

101
 That is the drug might not be collected during the
right season, proper age, and correct stage of
development.

-Collection of the drug, with less valuable parts of

the plant, along with the required part which
should be collected eg Clove stalk and mother
cloves in cloves can be collected together with
cloves.These structures, contain less volatile oils. A
limit is normally given for them.

-Collection of the drug together with allied species

of inferior quality eg Nux-vomica is the dried ripe
seeds obtained from Strychnos nux-vomica seed
from allied species of S. potatorum or S. nux-
blanda are of inferior grade.

Collection of the drug together with plant part

from a different species or genus
Can be accidental or deliberate. Eg Atropa
belladnna is adulterated by Scopolia corniolica
accidental or deliberate.

ii. Improper preparation of the drug

-Non - removal of associated structures
Associated structures need to be removed during
preparation of the drug eg Aconite and Pyrethrum
Limit of stem is 5%

-Non removal of the inert part of the plant

structure.

102
 Eg Ginger: The oleoresin is present in the inner
sections revealed the cross – section of Ginger.
Outer coat is devoid of the oleoresin should be
removed, the part remaining is dried and this gives
a good appearance to the drug

-Negligence in drying process.

This is seen in Digitalis
The leaves should be dried immediately after
collection at 60oC and in dark.
If not dried immediately then Purpurea glycoside
A and B will undergo decomposition to give
triglycosides.

iii. Poor storage condition

For example
Opium: If kept in the open, loss of morphine
occurs

Digitalis: Should be stored with a dehydrating

agent to prevent enzymic reactions

Biological preparations: Need to be stored at low

temperature so as to preserve their activities.

Squill: Should be stored in a tightly closed

container so as to prevent the mucilage contain in
the drug to absorb moisture from the air which
could lead to activation of enzymic actions

103
 Cannabis: Loses its activity if stored for a long
time even if all precautions are taken.

The Pharmacopoeia specifies that the drug should

not be stored for more than 2 years

iv. Deliberate practices

-Drug is weighed with inert materials

Eg was done in case of opium

The drug was mixed with lead pieces to
increase weight. No longer done nowadays
because the drug is under government control

- Fictitious materials or manufacture’s substitute

(Sophistication)
Eg Beeswax substituted by yellow paraffin wax.
Honey by artificial invert sugar
Cheap cotton seed oil substituted for Olive oil.

174.What are the main reasons for adulteration of crude drugs

i. Scarcity of the drug
ii. High price of the drug in the market e.g. clove,
Cinnamon, cardamom
iii. It is very common with the Contraband drugs e.g.
opium

104
VOLATILE OILS

175.What are volatile oils?

Volatile oils, also known as essential oils, are

concentrated, odoriferous liquids that entirely or almost
entirely volatile in steam
Volatile oils are referred to as "essential" in the sense that
they carry a distinctive scent, or essence of the plant
176.List general characteristics Essential oils
i. They evaporate under atmospheric pressure at
room temperature
ii. They are soluble in alcohol and other organic
solvents
iii. They are insoluble in water
iv. They have high refractive index
v. They are optically active
vi. Most of them are colourless or pale yellow
vii. They are odoriferous
viii. They are sensitive to air (resinify on exposure
to air)
ix. Most of them are terpenoid in nature

177.State the composition of volatile oils

Volatile oils are chemically derived from terpenes
(mainly from mono and sesqui terpenes)

178..Describe the various classification of volatile oils

i. based on extraction method into;

105
 a. Concretes
Uses solvent e.g. hexane and waxes or resins
to contact the plant materials and then the
solvent removed by gent heating e.g. jasmine
oil
b. Pomades
Obtained by enfleurage (hot or cold) e.g. oils
from flowers
c. Resinoids
Extraction with resinous materials i.e. to
prolong effect of fragrance
d. Absolutes
Remains after alcoholic extraction from pomades or
concretes

ii. basis of their functional groups

a. Hydrocarbon volatile oils e.g. turpentine
b. Alcoholic volatile oils e.g. peppermint,
cardamom and coriander oils
c. Aldehydic volatile oils e.g. lemon oil, orange
oil, cinnamon
d. Ketonic volatile oils e.g. camphor, spearmint
oils
e. Phenolic volatile oils e.g. clove, anise, nutmeg
oils
f. Phenolic ether volatile oils e.g. fennel oil
g. Oxide volatile oils e.g. rosemary oil

106
179.Mention four(4) methods used in extraction of volatile
oils
i. Distillation
ii. Scarification
iii. Soxhlet extraction
iv. Solvent extraction
180.Mention therapeutic uses of volatile oils
i. Topically as irritants
ii. Used for improving circulation
iii. Used for preparation of lotions and liniments
iv. Used as carminative agents
v. Used as local anaesthetic
vi. Used for respiratory problems e.g. cough,
asthma
vii. Some volatile oils have antibacterial and
antifungal effects
viii. Some volatile oils have ant helminthic activity

181.Regarding Peppermint Oil state

i. Botanical source
Mentha piperita

ii. Active constituent

a. Menthol
b. Menthone
c. Methyl acetate

iii. Therapeutic uses

a. Peppermint, and is used chiefly as a
flavouring agent and as a carminative

107
 b. Treatment of common cold, cough,
inflammation of the mouth and throat,
sinus infections, and respiratory
infections
c. Treatment of digestive problems
including heartburn, nausea,
vomiting, morning sickness, irritable
bowel syndrome, cramps of the upper
gastrointestinal tract

182.Regarding Cardamom Oil state

i. Botanical source
Elettaria cardamomum
ii. Active constituent
a. Terpinol
b. Terpinyl acetate
c. Borneol
d. Fixed oils
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Flavouring agent
b. Carminative
c. Gastrointestinal stimulant
d. Used in dyspepsia and flatulence

183.Regarding Coriander Oil state

i. Botanical source
Coriander sativum
ii. Active constituent
a. d-pinene
b. fixed oil
c. Calcium oxalate

108
 iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Flavouring agent
b. Carminative agent
c. Stimulant

184.Regarding Turpentine Oil state

i. Botanical source
Pinus palustris
ii. Active constituent
a. Pinene
b. Methylcarbachol
c. Camphene
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Counter irritant
b. Local irritant
c. Rectified oil is used internally as a
diuretic, urinary antiseptic,
anthelminthic and expectorant

185.Regarding Spearmint Oil state

i. Botanical source
Mentha spicata
ii. Active constituent
a. Carvone
b. Limonene
c. Phellandrenes
d. Esters
iii. Therapeutic uses
i. As a carminative agent

109
 ii. As a flavouring agents in
pharmaceutical preparations and
foods

186.Regarding Camphor Oil state

i. Botanical source
Cinnamomum camphora
ii. Active constituent
α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, sabinene,
phellandrene, limonene, geraniol, safrole,
cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, methyl
cinnamate
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Analgesic
b. Antidepressant
c. Anti-inflammatory
d. Antiseptic
e. Diuretic, febrifuge, anti-
hypertensive, insecticide, laxative,
rubefacient, stimulant and
vermifuge

187.Regarding Lemon Oil state

i. Botanical source
Citrus limon
ii. Active constituent
a. Vitamin C
b. Limonene

110
 c. Flavonoids
d. Glycosides
e. Citronellol
f. Hisperidine

iii. Therapeutic uses

a. Carminative
b. Aromatic
c. Flavouring agent

188.Regarding Orange Oil state

i. Botanical source
a. Citrus sinensis
b. Citrus aurantium

ii. Active constituent

a. Vitamin C
b. α-pinene
c. Sabinene
d. Limonene
e. Myrcene
f. Linanool
g. citronellal
h. Neral
i. Geranial
j. Calcium oxalate
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Carminative
b. Flavouring agent
c. Antiseptic
d. Anti-depressant

111
 e. Antispasmodic
f. Anti-inflammatory agent
g. Carminative agent
h. Cholagogoue
i. Diuretic
j. Sedative
k. Tonic

189.Regarding Cinnamon Oil state

i. Botanical source
Cinnamomum loureirii
ii. Active constituent
a. Cinnamic acid
b. Cinnamaldehyde
c. Caryophylline
d. Resins
e. Tannins
f. Mucillages
g. Calcium oxalate
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. As flavouring agent
b. Carminative agent
c. Diuretic

190.Regarding Fennel Oil state

i. Botanical source
Foeniculum vulgare
ii. Active constituent

112
 a. Anethole
b. Fenchone
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Carminative
b. Stimulant
c. Flavouring agent

191.Regarding Anise Oil state

i. Botanical source
Pimpenella anisum
ii. Active constituent
a. Anethole
b. Safrole
c. Fixed oils
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Carminative
b. Stimulant
c. Flavouring agent

192.Regarding Clove Oil state

i. Botanical source
Eugenia caryophyllus
ii. Active constituent
a. Eugenol
b. Acetyleugenol
c. Gallotamic acid
d. Carvacrol

113
 iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Stimulant
b. Carminative
c. Irritant
d. Condiment
e. Local anaesthetic
f. Analgesic
g. Antiseptic
h. Flavouring agent

193.Regarding Eucalyptus Oil state

i. Botanical source
Eucalyptus globlus
ii. Active constituent
a. Eucalyptol
b. Cineol
c. Resins
d. Tannins
e. Eucalyptic acid
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. As an expectorant agent
b. Rubefacient
c. Antiseptic
d. Decongestant
e. Diaphoretic

194.Regarding Lavender Oil state

i. Botanical source
Lavandulla officinalis

114
 ii. Active constituent
a. α-pinene
b. Limonene
c. Linalyl acetate
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. As an antiseptic agent
b. Used to relieve tension,
depression, panic hysteria and
nervous exhaustion
c. Used for headache, migraines and
insomnia
d. Relives pain associated with
rheumatism, arthritis, lumbago
and muscles
e. It is employed pharmaceutically in
the anti-arthropod preparation of
Gamma Benzene Hexachloride

195.Regarding Rosemary Oil state

i. Botanical source
Rosmarinus officinalis
ii. Active constituent
a. Rosmarinic acid
b. Camphor
c. Caffeic acid
d. Betulinic acid
e. Rosmaridiphenol
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. As an antioxidant

115
 b. Relief of gastrointestinal problems
including heartburn, flatulence
and loss of appetite
c. Used for gout, cough, headache,
toothache, high blood pressure,
and reducing age-related memory
loss (It is a memory enhancer)
d. It is also used topically for
preventing and treating baldness,
eczema and promotion of wound
healing
e. It is also used as an insect
repellent

196.Regarding Dill Oil state

i. Botanical source
Anethum graveolens
ii. Active constituent
a. Carvone
b. Limonene
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Carminative
b. Flavouring agent
c. Used with water to create dill
water

197.Regarding Peppermint Oil state

i. Botanical source

ii. Active constituent

116
 iii. Therapeutic uses

FIXED OILS AND FATS

198.Define fixed oils and fats

Fixed oils and fats are lipids (esters) of long chain
fatty acids and alcohol
Fats are natural oily substances occurring in animal
bodies, especially deposited as a layer under the skin
or around internal organs

199.State the physical characteristics of fixed oils and fats

i. Fixed oils and fats are soluble in ether-
alcohol, few exceptions such as castor oil are
sparingly soluble in alcohol
ii. At ordinary temperature fats are semisolid/
solid and fixed oils are liquid at normal
temperature
iii. Most vegetable oils are liquid at ordinary
temperature but animal fats are solid
iv. There are exceptions, e.g. coconut oil, in
temperate temperature is solid and tropic
temperature it is liquid
v. They are esters of long chain fatty acids and
alcohols or closely related derivatives of
alcohols

117
 vi. The fatty acids forming the oils can be
saturated or unsaturated
vii. Most animal products contain saturated fatty
acids while most plant products contain
unsaturated fatty acids

200.State the chemical tests for presence of fixed oils and fats
a. Fixed oils and fats are coloured brown or
black with a 1% solution of Osmic acid
b. In dilute tincture of Alkanna , fixed oils and
fats slowly turn red

201.List important Processes that are employed in the

extraction of fixed oils and fats oil from raw materials
i. Decortication –crushing to remove seed coat
ii. Expression - kernels are placed onto the oil
presses and subjected to pressure with or
without application of heat
iii. Filtration - separates oil from other matters
and may be done several times to attain
purity.
iv. Steaming -at high temperature to inactivate
proteins and other materials e.g. castor oil
requires steaming

202.Mention two Extraction methods used for fixed oils and

fats
i. Expression (cold or hot)
ii. Solvent extraction

118
203.List the Physical standards used in evaluation of fats and
fixed oils
i. Specific gravity
ii. Melting point
iii. Refractive index
iv. Optical rotation
v. Color
vi. Odor
204.List the Chemical standards used in evaluation of fats and
fixed oils
i. Acid value
ii. Saponification value
iii. Iodine value
iv. Ester value

205.State the Uses of Fixed Oils and Fats

i. They are used in preparation of suppositories
ii. They are used in tablet coating
iii. They are employed as emulsifying agents
iv. They have therapeutic uses e.g. laxatives etc.

206.Regarding Castor Oil state

i. Botanical source
ripe seeds of Ricinus communis
ii. Active constituent
45-55% fixed oil, 20% protein, ricin (toxic
alkaloid), recinine and several enzymes
e.g. lipase
iii. Therapeutic uses

119
 i. Stimulant cathartic for total
colonic evacuation prior to surgery
ii. Emollient
iii. Employed in manufacture of
soaps
iv. Hydrogenated oil is used as a
stiffening agent in some
pharmaceutical formulations

207.Regarding Olive Oil state

i. Botanical source
Ripe fruit of Olea europoae
ii. Active constituent
a. Linoleic acid
b. Oleic acid
c. Palmitic acid and
d. Stearic acid
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Externally as demulcent & emollient
agent
b. Laxatives
c. Used as a purgative administered after
food poisoning

208.Regarding Cod-liverOil state

i. Natural source
Fresh livers of cod fish, Gadus morrhua
ii. Active constituent
a. Omega 3 fatty acids
b. Vitamin A
c. Vitamin D

120
 iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Prevention and cure of rickets
b. Important source of vitamin A and
D
c. For treatment of pain and stiffness
of joint in arthritis

209.Regarding Peanut Oil state

i. Botanical source
seeds of Arachis hypogaea
ii. Active constituent
a. Oleic acid 60%
b. Linoleic acid 24%
c. Palmitic acid 9%
d. Arachidonic acid
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Dietary supplements
b. Pharmaceutically solvent for
intravenous and intramuscular
injections

210.Regarding Almond Oil state

i. Botanical source
Kernels of Prunus amygdalus
ii. Active constituent
a. Oleic acid
b. Linolenic acid
c. Amygdalin (bitter almond)
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Vehicle in oily injections
b. Laxative

121
 c. Volatile oils are flavouring agents

211.Regarding Linseed Oil state

i. Botanical source
Ripe seed of Linum usitatissimum
ii. Active constituent
a. Palmitic acid
b. Stearic acid
c. Alpha linoleic acid (ALA)
d. Oleic acid
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Used in lowering blood
cholesterol levels (due to presence
of ALA), control blood pressure
b. Used in treatment of inflammation
associated with gout
c. Controls constipation
d. It is an important drying oil in the
paint and varnish industry

212.Regarding Coconut Oil state

i. Botanical source
Seeds of Cocos nucifera
ii. Active constituent
a. Lauric acid (chief constituent)
b. Myristic acid
c. Stearic acid
d. Caproic acid
e. Capric acid
f. Caprylic acid

122
 g. Palmitic acid
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Pharmaceutically in ointment base
b. Cosmetically as a moisturizer
c. Also used in making soap,
candles, chocolate, candies etc.
213.Regarding Cotton Oil state
i. Botanical source
Gossypium hirustum
ii. Active constituent
a. Oleic acid
b. Linoleic acid
c. Palmitic acid
d. Stearic acid
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Solvent in injections
b. Used in the manufacture of soaps

214.Regarding Lanolin Fat state

i. Natural source
Wool of the sheep Ovis aries
ii. Active constituent
Cholesterol, isocholesterol and
unsaturated monohydric alcohols
iii. Therapeutic uses
a. Emollient base for creams and
ointments
b. Major component of most
ointments

123
215.Regarding Lard fat state
i. Natural source
The hog, Sus scrofa
ii. Active constituent
40% solid glycerides such as myristin and
60% of mixed liquid glycerides such as
olein

iii. Therapeutic uses

In preparation of ointments and perfumes

WAXES

216.Define Waxes
Waxes are natural mixtures of esters derived from
higher monohydric alcohols e.g. ceryl and myricyl
alcohols, cholesterols and phytosterols combined with
of high molecular weight straight-chain acids

217.State the fact is used for the detection of fats when added
as adulterants to waxes
Fats and oils may be saponified by means of either
aqueous or alcoholic alkali but waxes are only
saponified by alcoholic alkali

124
218.How are waxes differentiated from fats and fixed oils
Wax has a melting point above approximately 45°C,
differentiating waxes from fats and fixed oils

219.State the general uses of waxes

i. The general uses of waxes are as hardening
agents in ointments and cosmetic creams
ii. Waxes are also used for protective coating in
industry and arts

220.Regarding Carnauba wax state

i. Naturall source
Leaves (cuticle) of Copernicia cerifera
ii. Active constituent
Alkyl esters of wax acids mainly myricyl
cerotate
iii. Therapeutic uses
Tablet coatings

221.Regarding Bees wax state

i. Natural source
The honeycomb of the bee Apis mellifera
ii. Active constituent
80% of myricyl palmitate (myricin)
15% free cerotic acid an aromatic
substance cerolein, hydrocarbons,
lactones, cholesteryl esters and pollen
pigments
iii. Therapeutic uses

125
 a. Yellow bees wax is used
-as stiffening agents in yellow ointments
-as a base in plasters
-in the manufacture of candles and
cosmetics and polish
b. White bees wax (bleached,
purified yellow wax)
-Used in pharmaceutical ointments
and in creams

222.Regarding Spermaceti state

i. Natural source
from the head and blubber of the sperm
whale Physeter macrocephalus and the
bottle-nosed whale, Hyperoodon
rostratus.
ii. Active constituent
alkyl (cetyl) esters with cetyl palmitate,
cetyl myristate, acetyl laurate and cetyl
laurate
iii. Therapeutic uses
Emollient agent

126