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vi
Contributors vii
L. Diane Parham, PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA Kari J. Tanta, PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA
Professor Program Coordinator
Occupational Therapy Graduate Program Children’s Therapy Department
School of Medicine UW Medicine—Valley Medical Center
University of New Mexico Renton, Washington;
Albuquerque, New Mexico Clinical Assistant Professor
Division of Occupational Therapy
Andrew Persch, PhD, OTR/L University of Washington
Assistant Professor Seattle, Washington;
Division of Occupational Therapy Adjunct Faculty
The Ohio State University Department of Occupational Therapy
Columbus, Ohio University of Puget Sound
Tacoma, Washington
Teressa Garcia Reidy, MS, OTR/L
Senior Occupational Therapist Carrie Thelen, MSOT, OTR/L
Fairmount Rehabilitation Programs Occupational Therapist II
Kennedy Krieger Institute Division of Occupational Therapy, Physical Therapy and
Baltimore, Maryland Therapeutic Recreation
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center
Lauren Rendell, OTR/L Cincinnati, Ohio
Occupational Therapist
Spalding Rehabilitation Hospital Kerryellen Vroman, PhD, OTR/L
Aurora, Colorado Associate Professor and Department Chair
Occupational Therapy
Pamela K. Richardson, PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA College of Health and Human Services
Acting Associate Dean University of New Hampshire
College of Applied Sciences and Arts Durham, New Hampshire
San Jose State University
San Jose, California Beth Warnken, MOT, OTR/L, ATP
Occupational Therapist II
Zachary Rosetti, PhD Division of Occupational Therapy, Physical Therapy and
Assistant Professor of Special Education Therapeutic Recreation
Boston University Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center
Boston, Massachutsetts Cincinnati, Ohio
Colleen M. Schneck, ScD, OTR/L, FAOTA Renee Watling, PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA
Professor and Chair Clinical Assistant Professor
Department of Occupational Therapy Division of Occupational Therapy
Eastern Kentucky University Department of Rehabilitation Medicine
Richmond, Kentucky University of Washington
Seattle, Washington;
Judith W. Schoonover, MEd, OTR/L, ATP, FAOTA Autism Services Lead
Occupational Therapist/Assistive Technology Professional Children’s Therapy Center
Loudoun County Public Schools Dynamic Partners
Ashburn, Virginia Kent, Washington
Patti Sharp, OTD, MS, OTR/L Jessie Wilson, PhD, OT Reg. (Ont.)
Occupational Therapist II Discipline of Occupational Therapy
Department of Occupational, Physical Therapy and School of Public Health, Tropical Medicine & Rehabilitation
Therapeutic Recreation Services
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center James Cook University, Douglas Campus
Cincinnati, Ohio Townsville, Queensland
Australia
Jayne Shepherd, MS, OTR/L, FAOTA
Assistant Chair, Associate Professor Christine Wright-Ott, OTR/L, MPA
Director of Fieldwork Occupational Therapy Consultant
Department of Occupational Therapy The Bridge School
Virginia Commonwealth University Hillsborough, California
Richmond, Virginia
ix
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the children who are featured in the video clips and case studies:
A special thank you to the parents who so openly shared their stories with us:
Charlie and Emily Adams Lori Chirakus Sandra Jordan Ann Ramsey
Robert and Carrie Beyer Joy Cline Joanna L. McCoy Teresa Reynolds-Armstrong
Freda Michelle Bowen Sondra Diop Maureen P. McGlove Tuesday A. Ryanhart
Nancy Bowen Lisa M. Grant Jill McQuaid Julana Schutt
Kelly Brandewe Ivonne Hernandez Stephanie L. Mills P. Allen Shroyer
Ernesty Burton Shawn Holden David J. Petras Douglas Warburton
Ruby Burton Luann Hoover Theresa A. Philbrick
We are very appreciative of the siblings and buddies who agreed to help us out:
Aidan Robert
Lori Todd and Keith
Megan Tommy, Owen, and Colin
We thank all the therapists and physicians who allowed us to videotape their sessions and
provided us with such wonderful examples:
A special thanks to Matt Meindl, Melissa Hussey, David a pleasure with whom to work. Jane O’Brien would like to
Stwarka Jennifer Cohn, Stephanie Cohn, and all the authors thank her family—Mike, Scott, Alison, and Molly—for their
who submitted videotapes. Thank you to Emily Krams, Alicen continual support. She would also like to thank her colleagues
Johnson, Britanny Peters, Katherine Paulaski, Kate Loukas, and students at the University of New England, all the authors,
Scott McNeil, Jan Froehlich, MaryBeth Patnaude, Molly and Jane Case-Smith.
O’Brien, Keely Heidtman, Greg Lapointe, Caitlin Cassis, Jane Case-Smith thanks her family—Greg, David, and
Judith Cohn, Jazmin Photography, and Michelle Lapelle. A Stephen—for their support and patience. She also thanks her
special thanks to Mariana D’Amico, Peter Goldberg, and Carrie colleagues in the Division of Occupational Therapy, The Ohio
Beyer for all their expertise with videotaping. Jolynn Gower, State University, for their support. We both thank all the
Penny Rudolph, Tracey Schriefer, and Katie Gutierrez were authors for their willingness to share their expertise and their
instrumental in developing and completing this text and were labor and time in producing excellent chapters.
x
Contents
SECTION I Foundational Knowledge for Occupational Children’s Occupations, Performance Skills,
Therapy for Children and Contexts, 79
Infants: Birth to 2 Years, 79
1 An Overview of Occupational Therapy for Children, 1 Early Childhood: Ages 2 to 5 Years, 87
Jane Case-Smith Middle Childhood: Ages 6 to 10 Years, 94
Essential Concepts in Occupational Therapy for Children
and Adolescents, 1 4 Adolescent Development: Transitioning from Child
Individualized Therapy Services, 1 to Adult, 102
Inclusive and Integrated Services, 4 Kerryellen Vroman
Cultural Competence That Embraces Diversity, 6 Adolescence, 102
Evidence-Based Practice and Scientific Reasoning, 8 Adolescent Development, 102
Comprehensive Evaluation, 9 Physical Development and Maturation, 105
Ecologic Assessment, 10 Physical Activities and Growth: Teenagers with
Analyzing Performance, 12 Disabilities, 105
Occupational Therapy Intervention Process, 12 Puberty, 106
Interventions to Enhance Performance, 13 Psychosocial Development of Puberty and Physical
Activity Adaptation and Environmental Maturation, 107
Modifications, 18 Cognitive Development, 108
Interventions Using Assistive Technology, 18 Psychosocial Development, 109
Environmental Modification, 20 Search for Identity: Identity Formation, 109
Consultation, Coaching, and Education Roles, 20 Self-Identity and Well-Being, 112
Consultation and Coaching, 21 Sexual Orientation: Gender Identity, 112
Education Roles, 21 Self-Concept and Self-Esteem, 112
Adolescence and Mental Health, 113
Areas of Occupation: Performance Skills and
2 Foundations and Practice Models for Occupational Patterns, 115
Therapy with Children, 27 Work: Paid Employment and Volunteer
Jane Case-Smith
Activities, 115
Overarching Conceptual Models, 28
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living, 116
Occupation and Participation, 28
Leisure and Play, 117
Ecologic Theories, 30
Social Participation, 117
Occupational Therapy Practice Framework and
Evolution of Adolescent-Parent Relationships, 120
World Health Organization International
Environments of Adolescence, 121
Classification of Functioning, Disability,
Occupational Therapy to Facilitate Adolescent
and Health, 32
Development, 121
Child-Centered and Family-Centered Service, 33
Strength-Based Approaches, 34 5 Working with Families, 129
Conceptual Practice Models Specific to Performance Lynn Jaffe, Sharon Cosper
Areas, 36 Reasons to Study Families, 129
Cognitive Performance, 36 The Family: A Group of Occupational Beings, 130
Social Participation, 40 System Perspective of Family Occupations, 131
Sensorimotor Performance, 44 Family Subsystems, 133
Biomechanical Approaches, 51 Parents, 133
Neurodevelopmental Therapy, 51 Siblings, 133
Task and Environment Adaptation, 54 Extended Family, 134
Coaching and Consultation Models, 56 Family Life Cycle, 134
Early Childhood, 135
3 Development of Childhood Occupations, 65 School Age, 136
Jane Case-Smith Adolescence, 137
Developmental Theories and Concepts, 65 Family Resources and the Child with Special Needs, 137
Cognitive Development, 65 Financial Resources, 137
Motor Development, 67 Human Resources, 138
Stages of Motor Learning, 70 Time Resources, 139
Social-Emotional Development, 71 Emotional Energy Resources, 139
Self-Identity and Self-Determination Development, 74 Sources of Diversity in Families, 140
Development of Occupations, 76 Ethnic Background, 140
Ecologic Models and Contexts for Development, 77 Family Structure, 141
xi
xii Contents
Relationship of Hand Skills to Children’s 11 Interventions to Promote Social Participation for Children
Occupations, 230 with Mental Health and Behavioral Disorders, 321
Play, 230 Claudia List Hilton
Activities of Daily Living, 231 International Classification of Functioning, Disability,
School Functions, 231 and Health, Occupational Therapy Practice
Evaluation of Hand Skills in Children, 231 Framework, and Social Participation, 321
Intervention Models, Principles, and Strategies, 232 Importance of Social Skills and Social
Biomechanical and Neurodevelopmental Participation, 321
Approaches, 232 Occupational Therapy Goals for Social Participation
Occupation-Based Approaches, 240 and Social Skills, 322
Adaptation Models, 249 Social Participation Impairments in Specific Childhood
Conditions, 322
9 Sensory Integration, 258 Autism Spectrum Disorders, 322
L. Diane Parham, Zoe Mailloux Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, 323
Introduction to Sensory Integration Theory, 259 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, 323
Neurobiologically Based Concepts, 259 Anxiety Disorders, 323
Sensory Integrative Development and Childhood Learning Disabilities, 323
Occupations, 261 Mood Disorders, 323
When Problems in Sensory Integration Occur, 265 Theoretical Basis of Social Deficits, 324
Types of Sensory Integration Problems, 266 Occupational Therapy Evaluation of Social
Sensory Modulation Problems, 267 Participation, 324
Sensory Discrimination and Perception Problems, 270 Assessment of Social Participation in Children, 325
Vestibular-Bilateral Problems, 271 Goal Attainment Scaling, 325
Praxis Problems, 272 Theoretical Models and Approaches for Social Skills
Sensory-Seeking Behavior, 273 Interventions, 325
Impact on Participation, 274 Peer-Mediated Intervention, 325
Assessment of Sensory Integrative Functions, 275 Sensory Integration Intervention, 328
Interviews and Questionnaires, 275 Self-Determination, 328
Direct Observations, 276 Social Cognitive, 329
Standardized Testing, 277 Behavioral Interventions, 329
Interpreting Data and Making Interventions for Social Skills, 329
Recommendations, 278 Social Interventions, 329
Interventions for Children with Sensory Integrative Description and Evidence for Specific Interventions in
Problems, 279 Social Skills Groups, 338
Ayres Sensory Integration Intervention, 279
Sensory Stimulation Protocols, 289 12 Social Participation for Youth Ages 12 to 21, 346
Sensory-Based Strategies, 290 Jessica Kramer, Kendra Liljenquist, Matthew E. Brock,
Individual Training in Specific Skills, 290 Zachary Rosetti, Brooke Howard, Melissa Demir,
Group Interventions, 290 Erik W. Carter
Consultation on Modification of Activities, Routines, What is Social Participation?, 346
and Environments, 291 Identity Development and Social Participation, 346
Participation and International Classification of
10 Cognitive Interventions for Children, 304 Functioning, Disability, and Health, 347
Angela Mandich, Jessie Wilson, Kaity Gain Role of the Environment and Culture on Social
Theoretical Foundations of Cognitive Approaches, 304 Participation, 347
Scaffolding, 306 Environment and the International Classification of
Discovery Learning, 306 Functioning, Disability, and Health, 348
Metacognition, 306 Social Participation in Adolescence and Young
Instrumental Enrichment, 306 Adulthood, 349
Rationale for Using Cognitive Approaches, 306 Interpersonal Relationships, 349
Motivation, 306 Education and Postsecondary Training, 351
Generalization and Transfer, 307 Work and Prevocational Experiences, 351
Lifelong Development, 307 Community Life, Religion, and Citizenship, 353
Cognitive Interventions, 307 Recreation and Leisure, 356
Cognitive Orientation to Daily Occupational Evaluating Social Participation, 357
Performance, 307 Youth Self-Reports of Social Participation, 357
Primary Objectives of CO-OP, 308 Parent Assessments of Social Participation, 358
Who Benefits from CO-OP?, 308 Interventions to Facilitate Social Participation, 359
Key Features of the CO-OP Approach, 309 Skill-Focused Interventions, 359
Evaluations Used in CO-OP, 314 Environment-Focused Interventions, 363
Evidence for Using Cognitive Approaches, 314 Peer Support Interventions, 363
xiv Contents
13 Interventions and Strategies for Challenging 15 Activities of Daily Living and Sleep and Rest, 416
Behaviors, 374 Jayne Shepherd
Renee Watling Importance of Developing ADL Occupations, 416
Strategies for Managing Difficult Behavior, 374 Factors Affecting Performance, 417
Behavior Happens, 374 Child Factors and Performance Skills, 417
Behavior Always has a Purpose, 374 Performance Environments and Contexts, 418
Being Prepared for Problem Behavior, 376 Evaluation of Activities of Daily Living, 420
Behavior Management Approaches, 377 Evaluation Methods, 421
Preventing Challenging Behavior, 377 Team Evaluations, 422
Supporting Positive Behavior, 379 Measurement of Outcomes, 422
General Strategies, 380 Intervention Strategies and Approaches, 423
Specific Strategies, 381 Promoting or Creating Supports, 423
General Support Strategies, 384 Establishing, Restoring, and Maintaining
Intervening When Children are Known to Have Performance, 423
Challenging Behaviors, 384 Adapting the Task or Environment, 426
Positive Behavioral Support, 384 Prevention and Education, 431
Functional Behavioral Analysis, 385 Specific Intervention Techniques for Selected
ADL Tasks, 433
14 Feeding Intervention, 389 Toilet Hygiene and Bowel and Bladder
Kimberly Korth, Lauren Rendell Management, 433
Feeding: Definition and Overview, 389 Dressing, 438
Incidence of Feeding Disorders, 389 Bathing or Showering, 443
Common Medical Diagnoses Associated with Feeding Personal Hygiene and Grooming, 445
Disorders, 390 Sexual Activity, 445
Feeding Development and Sequence of Mealtime Care of Personal Devices, 447
Participation, 390 Sleep and Rest, 448
Anatomy and Development of Oral Evaluation of Sleep and Sleep Needs at Different
Structures, 390 Ages, 450
Pharyngeal Structures and Function, 391 Sleep Issues for Children with Disabilities, 450
Phases of Swallowing, 391 Occupational Therapy Interventions for Sleep
Stages and Ages of Feeding Development, 392 Disorders, 451
Mealtime: An Overview, 393
Contextual Influences on Mealtime: Cultural, Social, 16 Instrumental Activities of Daily Living, Driving,
Environmental, and Personal, 394 and Community Participation, 461
Comprehensive Evaluation of Feeding and Swallowing M. Louise Dunn, Kathryn M. Loukas
Skills, 396 Occupational Development of Instrumental Activities of
Initial Interview and Chart Review, 396 Daily Living and Community Participation, 462
Structured Observation, 397 Late Adolescence (16 to 18 Years), 462
Additional Diagnostic Evaluations, 397 Early Adolescence (12 to 15 Years), 464
Intervention: General Considerations, 398 Middle Childhood (6 to 11 Years), 465
Safety and Health, 400 Preschool (3 to 5 Years), 465
Intervention Strategies, 400 Personal and Contextual Influences on Instrumental
Environmental Adaptations, 400 Activities of Daily Living and Community
Positioning Adaptations, 400 Participation, 466
Adaptive Equipment, 402 Personal Influences, 466
Interventions to Improve Self-Feeding, 402 Contextual Influences, 467
Modifications to Food Consistencies, 403 Evaluation of Instrumental Activities of Daily Living and
Modifications to Liquids, 403 Community Participation, 468
Interventions for Dysphagia, 404 Measurement of Outcomes, 468
Interventions for Sensory Processing Transition Planning, 470
Disorders, 405 Theoretical Models and Intervention Approaches, 471
Behavioral Interventions, 406 Family- and Client-Centered Models of Practice, 471
Interventions for Food Refusal or Selectivity, 407 Ecological Models, 475
Delayed Transition to Textured Foods, 407
Delayed Transition from Bottle to Cup, 408 17 Play, 483
Neuromuscular Interventions for Oral Motor Kari J. Tanta, Susan H. Knox
Impairments, 409 Play Theories, 483
Transition from Nonoral Feeding to Oral Form, 484
Feeding, 410 Function, 486
Cleft Lip and Palate, 411 Meaning, 486
Other Structural Anomalies, 411 Context, 486
Contents xv
26 Intervention for Children Who Are Blind or Who Have 28 Neuromotor: Cerebral Palsy, 793
Visual Impairment, 747 Patty C. Coker-Bolt, Teressa Garcia, Erin Naber
Kathryn M. Loukas, Patricia S. Nagaishi Introduction, 793
Terminology, 747 Prevalence and Etiology of Cerebral Palsy, 793
Visual Impairment, 751 Practice Models to Guide Interventions for Children
Developmental Considerations and the Impact of with Cerebral Palsy, 794
Visual Impairment, 751 Sensorimotor Function in Children with Cerebral
Parent-Infant Attachment, 752 Palsy, 794
Sleep and Rest, 752 Associated Problems and Functional Implications, 796
Exploration and Play, 752 Assessment, 798
Learning, Education, and Academic Performance, 753 Occupational Therapy Interventions, 799
Use of Information from Other Sensory Systems, 754 Adaptive Equipment Training, 800
Sensory Modulation, 754 Casting, Orthotics, and Splinting, 801
Activities of Daily Living and Instrumental Activities Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy, 802
of Daily Living, 755 Physical Agent Modalities, 805
Social Participation and Communication, 755 Therapeutic Taping and Strapping, 805
Occupational Therapy Evaluation, 756 Positioning, Handling, and Neurodevelopmental
Occupational Therapy Intervention, 756 Treatment, 805
Develop Self-Care Skills, 758 Community Recreation, 806
Enhance Sensory Processing, Sensory Modulation, and Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 806
Sensory Integration, 758 Robotics and Commercially Available Gaming
Enhance Participation in Play or Productivity Through Systems, 806
Postural Control and Movement in Space, 758 Medical Based Interventions, 808
Develop Occupation-Based Mobility Through Body
Awareness and Spatial Orientation, 759 29 Pediatric Hand Therapy, 812
Develop School-Based Tactile-Proprioceptive Perceptual Jenny Dorich, Karen Harpster
Skills, 760 Assessment, 812
Improve Manipulation and Fine Motor Skills, 760 Initial Screening and Assessment, 813
Maximize Use of Functional Vision, 760 Clinical Assessment, 814
Encourage Social Participation, 760 Standardized Assessment Tools, 817
Strengthen Cognitive Skills and Concept Unstructured Clinical Observations, 818
Development, 760 Intervention Principles and Strategies, 819
Maximize Auditory Perceptual Abilities, 761 Pain Management, 819
Supporting the Transition to Adulthood, 761 Splinting, 821
Specialized Professionals, Services, and Equipment for Casting, 823
Children with Visual Impairment, 761 Kinesiology Tape, 823
xviii Contents
Child and Family Education: Activity Modification, Intensive Care Unit, 846
Joint Protection, and Energy Conservation, 824 Children with Spinal Cord Injury in the Intensive
Wound Care, 824 Care Unit, 846
Scar Management, 825 Children with Traumatic Brain Injury in the Intensive
Edema Control, 825 Care Unit, 846
Desensitization and Sensory Re-education, 826 Children with Burn Injury in the Intensive Care
Range of Motion Exercises, 826 Unit, 847
Strengthening, 827 Acute Care, 847
Reducing Muscle Tone, 827 Children with Spinal Cord Injury in Acute Care, 847
Fine Motor Skills and Bimanual Coordination, 827 Children with Traumatic Brain Injury in Acute
Mirror Therapy, 827 Care, 848
Interventions for Specific Conditions, 827 Children with Burn Injury in Acute Care, 848
Congenital Differences of the Upper Extremity, 827 Inpatient Rehabilitation, 849
Upper Extremity Impairments Caused by an Children with Spinal Cord Injury in Inpatient
Underlying Disorder, 828 Rehabilitation, 852
Upper Extremity Injury, 831 Children with Traumatic Brain Injury in Inpatient
Rehabilitation, 852
30 Trauma-Induced Conditions, 839 Children with Burn Injury in Inpatient
Amber Lowe, Patti Sharp, Carrie Thelen, Beth Warnken Rehabilitation, 853
Introduction, 839 Outpatient Rehabilitation and Community
Spinal Cord Injury, 839 Reintegration, 853
Traumatic Brain Injury, 840 Children with Spinal Cord Injury in Outpatient
Burn Injury, 840 Rehabilitation and Community Reintegration, 855
Therapeutic Relationships, 843 Children with Traumatic Brain Injury in
Grief Management, 843 Outpatient Rehabilitation and Community
Caregiver Education, 844 Reintegration, 855
Multidisciplinary Team, 844 Children with Burn Injury in Outpatient
Post-Trauma Occupational Therapy Interventions, 844 Rehabilitation and Community Reintegration, 856
Post-Trauma Continuum of Care, 844 Conclusion, 856
SECTION I Foundational Knowledge for Occupational Therapy for Children
CHAPTER
1
2 SECTION I Foundational Knowledge for Occupational Therapy for Children
Assessment Child or adolescent and family concerns and interests are assessed in a welcoming and open interview.
Child or adolescent and family priorities and concerns guide assessment of the child.
Team interaction Child or adolescent and family are valued members of the intervention team.
Communication among team members is child- and family-friendly.
Relationships among team members are valued and nourished.
Intervention Child or adolescent with caregivers guide intervention.
Families choose level of participation they wish to have.
Family and child or adolescent interests are considered in developing intervention strategies.
When appropriate, intervention directly involves other family members (e.g., siblings, grandparents).
Life span approach As child transitions to preadolescence and adolescence, he or she becomes the primary decision
maker for intervention goals and activities.
CASE STUDY 1-1 A Strength-Based Approach with a Child Who Has High
Functioning Autism
Victor is a 10-year-old boy with high functioning autism. He Victor organizes the photographs into stories that he uses
has extraordinary visual perceptual skills and visual memory; to learn how to engage with others socially. Amy also helps
he also has significant delays in social skills. In particular, he him organize the photographs into a social story; she
has difficulty knowing how to interact with his peers on the creates a visual step-by-step procedure for initiating a social
playground or in unstructured social activities. The therapist, interaction.
Amy, suggests that he video record his peers when they are The other children were interested in his videos and
playing together or talking on the playground. Using these stories; they read the stories and praised Victor’s skills in video
videos, Victor has examples of appropriate social interactions. recording and photography. His interest in and talents for
He and Amy analyze the videos together, discussing how the photography resulted in a sequence of naturally occurring
children initiate and respond to social interaction; he practices social interactions that allowed Victor to practice the social
some of the interactions with Amy. Amy encourages him to skills. By using a strength-based approach, he not only had
watch the examples of positive social interactions a number used his talents to learn new skills, but also his peers recog-
of times. nized and appreciated his talent, establishing enhanced con-
Using the videos, Victor makes and labels photographs of texts for social participation.
different examples of social interactions. With Amy’s help,
selects activities that are most useful for obtaining the child and self-efficacy is more likely to make repeated and sustained
family’s goals.128 efforts to achieve his or her goals, despite lack of immediate
success.7 Case Study 1-1 illustrates use of a strength-based
Strength-Based Approaches approach with a child who has high functioning autism spec-
Using holistic approaches, occupational therapists begin inter- trum disorder. Chapter 12 explains how an occupational thera-
vention by considering the strengths of a child or youth. With pist’s emphasis on strength-based approaches can facilitate
a full understanding of the child’s strengths and interests, prac- increased self-determination and skills in self-advocacy in youth
titioners develop a plan to increase participation by building on with disabilities. Identifying an adolescent’s strengths can be
those strengths. By identifying the positive aspects of a child’s particularly potent in interventions to promote social participa-
behavior and areas of greatest competence as well as perfor- tion and friendship networks because it helps peers and family
mance limitations, the occupational therapist can access these members recognize and acknowledge the adolescent’s talents
strengths to overcome the challenges to participation. The and interest and establish these as the basis for social interac-
strength-based model contrasts with the traditional medical tion. Kramer and colleagues (Chapter 12) describe a commu-
model, in which the focus of intervention is on identifying the nity service program, EPIC Service Warriors, in which youth
health or performance problem and resolving that problem. As with disabilities serve others by cleaning up parks and making
explained in many chapters of this book, focusing on a child’s food at homeless shelters. This program expands the social
performance problem does not always lead to optimal participa- networks of youth with disabilities, demonstrates a model of
tion and improved quality of life. Because occupational thera- community inclusion, and changes the way these adolescents
pists are concerned with a child’s full participation in life think about themselves. Envisioning roles for youth and
activities, focusing solely on impairment narrows the vision of adults with disabilities to serve others can enhance self-efficacy
what the child can become and do. and change society’s view of potential roles for people with
Children and youth with disabilities often have unique disabilities.
strengths that are overlooked by professionals, but if these A strength-based approach when offering parent supports
strengths are identified and encouraged, they can lead to and education is equally important. By identifying positive
increased participation. For example, a youth with high func- characteristics in the child, occupational therapists can help
tioning autism may have excellent visual memory or analytic relieve parents’ stress and can improve parents’ engage-
abilities. For this youth, cognitive approaches that engage the ment.49,121 Steiner121 found that when occupational therapists
youth in problem solving and in determining how to structure acknowledged the strengths of parents of children with autism
social activities can help him overcome social skill limitations. (versus noting their deficits), parents demonstrated more
For a child with spastic quadriparesis cerebral palsy who has a positive affect and physical affection toward their child. When
joyous sense of humor, encouraging his sense of humor in a occupational therapists made positive statements about a child,
social group can help to build peer supports and friendships parents repeated their statements and, less expected, demon-
that increase his participation in school activities. strated more playful behaviors and physical affection.121
As explained in numerous chapters, strength-based
approaches can lead to increased self-efficacy and self- Family-Centered Practices
determination. When an occupational therapist acknowledges In a family-centered approach, the occupational therapist is
a child’s strengths and competence, the child becomes more invested in establishing a relationship with the family character-
self-efficacious and motivated, and he or she may be more ized by open communication, shared decision making, and
willing to take on performance challenges. A child with positive parental empowerment.12 An equal partnership with the family
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sekä oikealla uunilla tiilipiippuineen. Vasta 1822 korjattiin Utsjoen
pappilan rakennus perinpohjin ja lisättiin uutisrakennuksilla. Tätä
varten oli Lapin kirkolliskassasta määrätty 1,911 pankkoruplaa, joka
täysin riitti. Päärakennuksessa oli nyt 4 asuinhuonetta ja kyökki,
kaikki valoisia, lämpimiä ja rattoisia. Terveyteni oli hyvä ja saatoin
siis vaikeudetta hoitaa, tosin ei paljotöistä, mutta laajojen matkojen
tähden rauhatonta ja vaivaloista virkaani. Matkat minua eivät
suuresti rasittaneet, mutta oli ikävää, että kuulijani suvisin siirtyivät
pois paikkakunnalta, toiset viedäksensä porojansa Jäämeren
rannoille, toiset kalastaaksensa siellä. Sillä aikaa kasvi- ja
hyönteistiede, kalastus ja metsästys antoivat minulle mieluista
toimintaa, joka oli sitä hauskempaa, kun olin virkeässä
kirjeenvaihdossa useiden tiedemiesten kanssa monessa Euroopan
yliopistossa. Tuo kaikki sai minut hyvin viihtymään, sitä enemmän
koska viime vuodet olivat olleet väestöllekin edulliset. Porolaumat
olivat kolmena viime vuotena karttuneet kahdenkertaisiksi,
lohensaalis ja merikalastus olivat onnistuneet, kaloista oli saatu
kohtuhinta ja Venäjän tavarat olivat olleet halpoja. Jokainen
lappalainen, joka osasi käyttää pyssyä tai ketunrautoja, oli saanut
myydä useita kalliita ketun ja naalinnahkoja. Tämä kaikki lisäsi
väestön viihtymystä, ja sai minutkin tyytyväiseksi. Olin onnellinen
saadessani elää tyytyväisten ja siveellisten ihmisten parissa,
vaikkakin 70 pohjoisasteella, jossa tosin olin erilläni sivistyneestä
ihmiskunnasta, mutta jonka kanssa kuitenkin pidin yhteyttä
kirjevaihdon kautta; ja olihan toivossa siirtyminen suotuisampaan
paikkaan. Varastohuoneeni oli hyvässä kunnossa, minulla oli
riittävästi ampumaneuvoja, hyönteisneuloja, ja paperia
kasvikokoelmia varten. Näin hyvin varustettuna pääsin kevääseen.
Pieni sade ja muutamat lämpöiset päivät huhtikuun alussa olivat
kukkuloilla saaneet aikaan paljaita paikkoja, joissa laihtuneet porot
saivat ruokaa tarvitsematta sitä kaapia hangen ja useita jalkoja
syvien kinosten alta.
Yleensä sopii melkein sanoa, että täällä ei ole kevättä eikä syksyä
— suuri etu tälle maakunnalle, koska sen tähden kelirikon ajat eivät
kestä kovin kauvan. Kun talvi on loppumaisillaan ja suvi alkaa,
näyttää siltä kuin luonto sulautuisi lämpömiin ilokyyneleihin, jotka
eivät ainoastaan vuoda ja juokse, vaan kohisten ja ryskien syöksyvät
suihkuina alas pilviä piirtävistä vuorista ja katoavat alla oleviin järviin,
puroihin ja jokiin, jotka niitä kuljettavat mahtavaan Jäämereen. Ja
kun sitten lyhyt suvi on lopussa, näyttää ikäänkuin aurinko
hämmästyksellä katselisi, kuinka lähestyvän talven kaikkea tuhoava
voima, jonka ennustajana käy pohjoistuuli syyskuun alussa, joskus jo
elokuun lopussa, tukehuttaa sen, mitä se tarmokkaalla työllä on
pikaisesti maan helmasta houkutellut eloon. Kauniina ja lämpöisenä
elo- tai syyskuun päivänä saa joskus nähdä, kuinka luonto verestyy
virkistävän sateen jälkeen. Kaikki silloin kauniisti viheriöitsee. Täysin
kehittyneet marjat riippuvat terttuina ja ovat jo saaneet, vaikkeivät
olekaan kypsiä, kauniin punan puun etelään leviävissä oksissa.
Mutta äkkiä tuuli kääntyy pohjoiseen tai koilliseen, riehuu jonkun
aikaa ja tyyntyy yöksi. Silloin ne tavataan aamulla jäätyneinä, ja kun
aurinko sulattaa niistä kuuran, putoilevat lehdet ja marjat maahan,
jonka helmasta ne ovat lyhyenä elonaikanaan imeneet ravintonsa.
Eräs kaunis syyskuun päivä oli houkutellut minut likeisimmälle
vuorelle, jossa kotvan aikaa annoin tuskin tuntuvat viimantuulet
Rastekaisen jättiläisvuorelta sivellä kasvojani. Järvi kimelsi vielä
laskevan auringon säteissä, kun kaksi sutta, varmana merkkinä siitä,
että porolappalaiset ja talvi olivat tulossa, tallustivat ylös tunturille.
Mikonpäivänä oli maa jo laaksoissa lumen peittämä. Se on tavallista,
vaikka lumi toisina vuosina vielä voikin kadota. Mutta muutaman
päivän jälkeen tulee uutta lunta ja paksu usva peittää koko seudun.
Pian katoo aurinkokin näkyvistä ja kuun hallitusaika alkaa. Silloin on
lappalainenkin kotona. Kentillä, jotka suvella ovat tyhjät, vilisee taas
upeita poroja, ja niiden omistajat rientävät temppeliin ylistämään
Jumalaa lämpimissä rukouksissa. Mutta kun kokous on lopussa ja
kirkkoväki maanantai-aamuna lähtee pois, silloin turhaan kuuntelee
ihmisääntä. Ainoastaan riekko, jota tapaa melkein joka pensaan
takana, antaa onean äänensä kuulua ja viitsii tuskin siirtyä kulkijan
jaloista pois. Suvi on siis tuota pikaa muuttunut talveksi.
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