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Contents
Preface xi
Part I Introductory Concepts 1
Chapter 1
Articulation and Acoustics 2
Speech Production 2
Sound Waves 6
Places of Articulatory Gestures 10
The Oro-Nasal Process 15
Manners of Articulation 15
Stop 15
Fricative 17
Approximant 17
Lateral (Approximant) 17
Additional Consonantal Gestures 18
The Acoustics of Consonants 19
The Articulation of Vowel Sounds 20
The Sounds of Vowels 23
Suprasegmentals 24
Recap 26
Exercises 27
Chapter 2
Phonology and Phonetic Transcription 35
The Transcription of Consonants 37
The Transcription of Vowels 41
Consonant and Vowel Charts 45
Phonology 47
Recap 51
Exercises 52
Performance Exercises 56
vi
CONTENTS vvv
PART II ENGLISH PHONETICS 59
Chapter 3
The Consonants of English 60
Stop Consonants 61
Fricatives 69
Affricates 71
Nasals 71
Approximants 72
Overlapping Gestures 73
English Consonant Allophones 76
Diacritics 80
Recap 81
Exercises 81
Chapter 4
English Vowels 89
Transcription and Phonetic Dictionaries 89
Vowel Quality 91
The Auditory Vowel Space 93
American and British Vowels 95
Diphthongs 97
Rhotic Vowels 99
Lexical Sets 101
Unstressed Syllables 104
Tense and Lax Vowels 105
English Vowel Allophones 107
Recap 109
Exercises 110
Chapter 5
English Words and Sentences 115
Words in Connected Speech 115
Stress 119
Degrees of Stress 121
Sentence Rhythm 124
Intonation 126
vvvv CONTENTS
Target Tones 134

Recap 138
Exercises 139
Part III GENERAL PHONETICS 143
Chapter 6
Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types 144
Airstream Mechanisms 144
States of the Glottis 156
Voice Onset Time 159
Summary of Actions of the Glottis 164
Recap 165
Exercises 166
Chapter 7
Consonantal Gestures 173
Articulatory Targets 173
Types of Articulatory Gestures 183
Stops 183
Nasals 184
Fricatives 185
Trills, Taps, and Flaps 186
Laterals 189
Summary of Manners of Articulation 191
Recap 192
Exercises 192
Chapter 8
Acoustic Phonetics 197
Source/Filter Theory 197
Tube Models 200
Perturbation Theory 202
Acoustic Analysis 203
Acoustics of Consonants 208
Interpreting Spectrograms 213
CONTENTS ii
Individual Differences 221

Recap 224
Exercises 225
Chapter 9
Vowels and Vowel-Like Articulations 227
Cardinal Vowels 227
Secondary Cardinal Vowels 232
Vowels in Other Accents of English 234
Vowels in Other Languages 236
Advanced Tongue Root 238
Rhotacized Vowels 239
Nasalization 241
Summary of Vowel Quality 242
Semivowels 242
Secondary Articulatory Gestures 244
Recap 246
Exercises 247
Chapter 10
Syllables and Suprasegmental Features 253
Syllables 253
Stress 259
Length 260
Timing 261
Intonation and Tone 264
Stress, Tone, and Pitch Accent Languages 270
Recap 271
Exercises 272
Chapter 11
Linguistic Phonetics 277
Phonetics of the Community and of the Individual 277
The International Phonetic Alphabet 278
Feature Hierarchy 282
A Problem with Linguistic Explanations 287
Controlling Articulatory Movements 289
Memory for Speech 291
x CONTENTS
The Balance Between Phonetic Forces 294

Recap 296
Appendix A: Additional Material for Transcription 303

Appendix B: Guidelines for Contributors to the Journal of the International
Phonetic Association 305
Notes 307
Glossary 313
Further Reading 321
Index 325
Preface
This book aims to help you (the student) become a knowledgeable user of phonetics.
You may be (or become) a speech pathologist who diagnoses speech disorders and
devises treatment plans for your clients. Or you may be an engineer who develops
speech user-interface technology using automatic speech recognition or speech
synthesis. Or you may be a language teacher showing your students how words and
sentences are pronounced. Or you may be a student of English seeking to improve
your pronunciation. Or you may be a cognitive scientist conducting studies on the
neural response to spoken language. Or you may be an opera singer preparing to
sing words in a language that you don’t speak fluently. Or you may be an actor
speaking a dialect you didn’t grow up speaking. In each of these cases, you could
use some knowledge of phonetics. This book, if you study it well, will help you do
your job better.
Some of you start with phonetics out of general interest. Your program of study
requires that you take some general education courses, and phonetics is one course
that meets that requirement. This book will do that, but it will enrich your life, too.
You will be a more knowledgeable person, which is the aim of general education. In
this course, you will travel the world listening to people speak different languages.
You will hear clicks and ejectives, implosives and glides. You will delve into anatomy
and acoustics, motor control and aerodynamics, sometimes applying knowledge that
you picked up in other courses, sometimes learning completely new things. And so
we will develop a picture of a most interesting, complex, and fundamental human
characteristic. We humans speak, and through our speech we form and maintain our
relationships and communities, and we transmit our accumulated knowledge from
one generation to the next.
Another aim of the book is to prepare some of you (those who are bitten by
the phonetics bug) to be ready to contribute to phonetics research. This book is an
authoritative account of phonetics by one of the greatest phoneticians of all time
(I am speaking here not of myself but of Peter Ladefoged). It is a solid foundation
for the new phonetician, and at points the book offers suggestions for research
topics and indicates where further research is needed. If you study this book well,
you should be ready to start making valuable research contributions right away
(for example, see Appendix B) and you shouldn’t shy away from doing so.
What’s New in the Seventh Edition

The seventh edition of A Course in Phonetics retains the chapter layout and
most of the content of the sixth edition. All of it has been thoroughly reviewed
and updated. I revised all of the chapters, sometimes in small ways and some-
times with a serious change in emphasis. For example, I revised the discussion
of phonology extensively to bring this book into better alignment with current
xi
xxx PREFACE
perspectives. Although there is no formal phonology in this book, the presenta-

tion will bring students into phonology with (one hopes) a pretty sophisticated
conception of phonological patterning. I also introduce speech spectrograms in
the first chapter and use spectrograms extensively on the course website and in
several additional places in the text of the book. I include more MRI and x-ray
images (again both in the text of the book and on the website). These additions
encourage you to look at speech from several points of view: (1) auditory, as one
would transcribe the utterance in the international phonetic alphabet, (2) articula-
tory, as one would see it in images of the moving vocal tract, and (3) acoustic, as
revealed by waveforms and spectrograms.
I identify with what J. C. Wells (2000) said, “I remain a great admirer of the
Daniel Jones tradition in phonetics (see Collins and Mees, 1999: 421–424). I continue
to regard it as important for budding phoneticians to learn not only to recognize but
also to perform all the sound-types of the world’s languages.” This book contains
performance exercises in most chapters, and on the website you will find audio
recordings of Peter Ladefoged demonstrating the exercises. This remains a distinc-
tive and highly valuable component of A Course in Phonetics, which I hope you
will employ. My own tendency is to look at spectrograms without listening to the
speech that they show, or to look at articulatory movement traces without attempt-
ing to pronounce the speech they represent. So it is important for me (and perhaps
also for others) to keep in mind that a part of phonetics is based on skill, and much
of the practical work of the phonetician and practical utility of training in phonetics
involves producing and recognizing sounds.
The Linguistics CourseMate

Jenny Ladefoged, with help from Peter, produced a CD for the fifth edition of A
Course in Phonetics. This was based on the extensive work of Peter and genera-
tions of students and colleagues at UCLA that went into a HyperCard stack called
Sounds of the World’s Languages. I didn’t do much with the CD for the sixth edi-
tion other than to update the format of the sound files and make sure that the links
on the CD worked (an archive of the CD has been hosted by UCLA Linguistics
for many years). For the seventh edition, with the generous help of the Department
of Linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB), this material is
now available via the Linguistics CourseMate for this book, accessed through
www.cengagebrain.com.
The Linguistics CourseMate includes interactive learning, study and exam prepa-
ration tools that support the printed textbook. CourseMate includes an interactive
eBook, as well as all of the audio files that were previously available on the CD, now
embedded and linked to tables and buttons. For example, accompanying Chapter 8,
on acoustic phonetics, is an update of a great little demo that Peter produced in 1971.
The page lets you hear each formant individually and in combination by clicking on a
button. You can also see a spectrogram of each audio file by right-clicking on the
buttons. In fact, right-click will show you a spectrogram for any audio file anywhere
on the site, and Alt-click will open the file in a separate window so you can save it
locally for further analysis or use.
PREFACE xxxx
Chapter 8 - Speech synthesis demo

Speech sounds can be minimally specified in terms of a small set of parameters, each of which can be described in
terms of how they are made (physiological characteristics), or their physical (acoustic) characteristics.
Some of these parameters are isolated in the synthesized speech tokens in this table. For example, token number 1
(linked in the column labeled "1") is composed of a monotone voice with only a first formant resonance frequency.
When you look at the spectrogram of this utterance, there is only one formant. Token 4 combines the first three
formants, token 5 is composed of only stop release burst noises and fricatives, and finally in token 7 the voice has
normal fundamental frequency variation.
This speech was synthesized in 1971 by Peter Ladefoged on a synthesizer at UCLA. The values of the parameters were a modified version of a set
provided by John Holmes.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTIC 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Rate of vibration of the vocal folds Fundamental frequency
2 First resonance of the vocal tract Formant 1 frequency
3 Formant 1 amplitude
4 Second resonance of the vocal tract Formant 2 frequency
6 Third resonance of the vocal tract Formant 3 frequency
8 Fricative and stop bursts Center of noise frequency
9 Amplitude of noise
I also expanded the web materials by adding interactive versions of many of the
homework exercises in the book. The exercises provide immediate feedback so that
you know whether you got the right answer; if not, the correct answer is given. The
exercises are not meant to be tests, given to evaluate students, but are rather designed
to help you review the materials and evaluate your own level of retention and under-
standing. Some of my testers even describe these new exercises as “fun.”
The textbook has marginal icons that direct you to material on the website
EXAMPLE
X.X
that is related to the topic under discussion, such as auditory examples, so you can
immediately hear the sounds you are reading about.
The site will also document that you have completed the exercises with a certificate
that says at the bottom “save me, print me, show me to your teacher!”
A Course in Phonetics
This document certifies that you completed exercise 10A
Completion time: Sat Aug 03 2013 22:29:54 GMT-0700 (PDT)
(save me, print me, show me to your teacher!)
Collins, B., and I. Mees. (1999). The Real Professor Higgins. The Life and Career of
Daniel Jones. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Wells, J. C. (2000). My personal history. Retrieved Aug 5, 2013, from http://www.
phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/philsoc-bio.htm.
xxx PREFACE
Acknowledgments
In the preface to the sixth edition of A Course in Phonetics I said, “When you start
from such a high point, there is a lot of room to go down and not much room to go
up.” I am still trying to avoid doing harm to this marvelous textbook, and I really
appreciate all the help that colleagues, students, and publishers have given me.
Natasha Warner (University of Arizona) wrote an incredibly detailed and helpful
review of the sixth edition. I especially appreciate that feedback. I also appreciate
the very helpful comments and suggestions that came from Susan Russell (Simon
Fraser University), Christina Gildersleeve-Neumann (Portland State University),
Lisa Davidson (New York University), Angela Carpenter (Wellesley College),
Richard Wright (University of Washington), Pat Keating (UCLA), Ian Maddiesson
(University of New Mexico), and Caroline Smith (University of New Mexico). Spe-
cial mention to Mary Beckman (Ohio State University) and Sun-Ah Jun (UCLA) for
help with the intonation section in Chapter 5. Also, much thanks to John Coleman
(Oxford) for providing and guiding my use of the vowel MRIs in Chapter 4, and for
the MRI movie on the website, and to Molly Babel (University of British Columbia)
for feedback on many of the online exercises. Professor Babel also contributed
audio as “American no. 2” in the online version of Figure 4.3 and as the voice of
Minnesota for the online lexical set examples. Alice Gaby (Monash University)
contributed audio clips for the website as the voice of Australia. John Sylak-Glassman
(University of California, Berkeley) saved me from making mistakes in the web
pages on languages of the Caucasus. I appreciate Shri Narayanan (University of
Southern California,) for his contribution of an MRI movie for the website. Continuing
thanks to Bruce Hayes (University of California, Los Angeles) for contributing his
voice as the voice of General American on the website. I am also grateful to Jenny
Ladefoged for her continued support and good humor as I change what she and
Peter produced.
Several students at UC Berkeley offered feedback on the website and I really
appreciate their help. Thank you, Sarah Bakst, Emily Cibelli, Greg Finley, Clara
Cohen, Will Chang, Melinda Fricke, Grace Neveu, Ruofan Cai, and Taylor Hickok
for feedback on the exercises.
The team at Cengage has been great. In particular, Joan Flaherty read every word
of the revised manuscript and guided the process of producing the book. I am so
grateful.
Keith Johnson
Berkeley, California
August 6, 2013
About the
Authors
Peter Ladefoged (1925–2006) was preeminent in

the field of phonetics. He received his Ph.D. from
the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1958.
He founded the UCLA Phonetics Laboratory and
was its director from 1962 to 1991, while he was
also a professor in the Department of Linguistics.
His contributions to the discipline of linguistics are
enormous and have furthered our knowledge of
language and languages in many ways. His pho-
netics fieldwork (pre-computers) took him around
the globe, carrying equipment to record and docu-
ment and describe little-known languages. He
catalogued the sounds of thousands languages.
Ladefoged also experimented with and encouraged
development of better scientific research methods
and equipment. He was instrumental in revising the IPA to include more sounds and
advocated for preservation of endangered languages. In his spare time, he consulted
on forensics cases and even served as a dialect advisor and lent his voice to the film
My Fair Lady.
Peter will be remembered for his outstanding contributions to phonetics and
linguistics, and also for his lively and impassioned teaching and his service as mentor
to a great number of doctoral students and to his
junior colleagues. Many careers have been built
on his influence, enthusiasm, and encouragement.
Keith Johnson taught phonetics in the Department

of Linguistics at Ohio State University from 1993
to 2005 and is now a professor in the Department
of Linguistics at the University of California,
Berkeley. He is the author of Acoustic and Audi-
tory Phonetics and Quantitative Methods in Lin-
guistics. His Ph.D. is from Ohio State University,
and he held postdoctoral training fellowships at
Indiana University (in Cognitive Psychology) and
at UCLA (with Peter Ladefoged and Pat Keating).
xv
Part I
Introductory Concepts
1
Articulation and Acoustics
Phonetics is concerned with describing speech. There are many different rea-
sons for wanting to do this, which means that there are many kinds of phoneti-
cians. Some are interested in the different sounds that occur in languages. Some
study the cognitive processes involved in speaking and listening. Some are more
concerned with pathological speech. Others are trying to help people speak a
particular form of English. Still others are looking for ways to make computers
talk more intelligibly or to get computers to recognize speech. For all these pur-
poses, phoneticians need to find out what people are doing when they are talking
and how the sounds of speech can be described.
Speech Production
We will begin by describing how speech sounds are made. Most sounds are the
result of movements of the tongue and the lips. We can think of these move-
ments as gestures forming particular sounds. We can convey information by ges-
tures of our hands that people can see, but in making speech that people can
hear, humans have found a marvelously efficient way to impart information. The
gestures of the tongue and lips are made audible so that they can be heard and
recognized.
Making speech gestures audible involves pushing air out of the lungs while
producing a noise in the throat or mouth. These basic noises are changed by
the actions of the tongue and lips. Later, we will study how the tongue and lips
make about twenty-five different gestures to form the sounds of English. We can
see some of these gestures by looking at an x-ray movie (which you can watch
on the book’s website—http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/acip/). Figure 1.1 shows
a series of frames from an x-ray movie of the phrase on top of his deck. In this
sequence of twelve frames (one in every four frames of the movie), the tongue
has been outlined to make it clearer. The lettering to the right of the frames
shows, very roughly, the sounds being produced. The individual frames in the
figure show that the tongue and lips move rapidly from one position to another.
To appreciate how rapidly the gestures are being made, however, you should
watch the movie.
EXAMPLE Example 1.1 plays the sounds and shows the movements involved in the
1.1
phrase on top of his deck. Even in this phrase, spoken at a normal speed, the
2
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 3
Figure 1.1 Frames from an x-ray movie of a speaker saying on top of his deck.
o ’is
1 25
n d
5 29
t e
9 34
o ck
13 37
p k
17 41
of -
21 45
4 Chapter 1 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
tongue is moving quickly. The actions of the tongue are among the fastest and
most precise physical movements that people can make.
Producing any sound requires energy. In nearly all speech sounds, the basic
source of power is the respiratory system pushing air out of the lungs. Try to talk
while breathing in instead of out. You will find that you can do it, but it is much
harder than talking when breathing out. When you talk, air from the lungs goes
up the windpipe (the trachea, to use the more technical term) and into the larynx,
at which point it must pass between two small muscular folds called the vocal
folds. If the vocal folds are apart (as yours probably are right now while you are
breathing in and out), the air from the lungs will have a relatively free passage
into the pharynx and the mouth. But if the vocal folds are adjusted so that there is
only a narrow passage between them, the airstream from the lungs will set them
vibrating. Sounds produced when the vocal folds are vibrating are said to be
voiced, as opposed to those in which the vocal folds are apart, which are said to
be voiceless.
EXAMPLE In order to hear the difference between a voiced and a voiceless sound,
1.2
try saying a long ‘v’ sound, which we will symbolize as [ vvvvv ]. Now
compare this with a long ‘f ’ sound [ fffff ], saying each of them alternately—
[ fffffvvvvvfffffvvvvv ]. (As indicated by the icon in the margin, an audio file
illustrating this sequence is on the website.) Both of these sounds are formed in
the same way in the mouth. The difference between them is that [ v ] is voiced
and [ f ] is voiceless. You can feel the vocal fold vibrations in [ v ] if you put your
fingertips against your larynx. You can also hear the buzzing of the vibrations in
[ v ] more easily if you stop up your ears while contrasting [ fffffvvvvv ].
EXAMPLE The difference between voiced and voiceless sounds is often important in dis-
1.3
tinguishing words. In each of the pairs of words fat, vat; thigh, thy; Sue, zoo, the
first consonant in the first word of each pair is voiceless; in the second word, it is
voiced. You can check this by saying just the consonant at the beginning of each
of these words and try to feel and hear the voicing as suggested in the example.
Try to find other pairs of words that are distinguished by one having a voiced
and the other having a voiceless consonant.
The air passages above the larynx are known as the vocal tract. Figure 1.2 shows
their location within the head (actually, within Peter Ladefoged’s head, in a photo-
graph taken many years ago). The shape of the vocal tract is a very important factor
in the production of speech, and we will often refer to a diagram of the kind that has
been superimposed on the photograph in Figure 1.2. Learn to draw the vocal tract
by tracing the diagram in this figure. Note that the air passages that make up the
vocal tract may be divided into the oral tract, within the mouth and pharynx, and
the nasal tract, within the nose. When the flap at the back of the mouth is lowered
(as it probably is for you now, if you are breathing with your mouth shut), air goes
in and out through the nose. Speech sounds such as [ m ] and [ n ] are produced with
the vocal folds vibrating and air going out through the nose. The upper limit of the
nasal tract has been marked with a dotted line since the exact boundaries of the air
passages within the nose depend on soft tissues of variable size.
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 5
Figure 1.2 The vocal tract.
The parts of the vocal tract that can be used to form sounds, such as the tongue
and the lips, are called articulators. Before we discuss them, let’s summarize
the speech production mechanism as a whole. Figure 1.3 (on page 6) shows the four
main components—the airstream process, the phonation process, the oro-nasal
process, and the articulatory process. The airstream process includes all the ways
of pushing air out (and, as we will see later, of sucking it in) that provide the power
for speech. For the moment, we have considered just the respiratory system, the
lungs pushing out air, as the prime mover in this process. The phonation process is
the name given to the actions of the vocal folds. Only two possibilities have been
mentioned: voiced sounds in which the vocal folds are vibrating and voiceless
sounds in which they are apart. The possibility of the airstream going out through
the mouth, as in [ v ] or [ z ], or the nose, as in [ m ] and [ n ], is determined by the
oro-nasal process. The movements of the tongue and lips interacting with the roof
of the mouth and the pharynx are part of the articulatory process.
6 Chapter 1 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Figure 1.3 The four main components of the speech mechanism.
oro-nasal
process
articulatory
process
phonation
process
airstream
process
Sound Waves
So far, we have been describing speech sounds by stating how they are made, but
it is also possible to describe them in terms of what we can hear. The way in which
we hear a sound depends on its acoustic structure. We want to be able to describe
the acoustics of speech for many reasons (for more on acoustic phonetics,
see Keith Johnson’s book Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics). Linguists and
speech pathologists need to understand how certain sounds become confused
with one another. We can give better descriptions of some sounds (such as vowels)
by describing their acoustic structures rather than by describing the articulatory
movements involved. Knowledge of acoustic phonetics is also helpful for under-
standing how computers synthesize speech and how speech recognition works
(topics that are addressed more fully in Peter Ladefoged’s book Vowels and
Consonants). Furthermore, often the only permanent data that we can get of
a speech event is an audio recording, as it is often impossible to obtain movies
Another random document with
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Scene III.
Simo.
Simo. I am not exactly inclined to believe this fellow; and I know
not whether all that he has been telling me is true, neither do I much
care. Pamphilus has given me his promise; that I conceive to be of
the greatest consequence. Now, I will go to Chremes, and entreat
him to give his daughter to my son. If I prevail, what can I do better
than celebrate the marriage this very day? As for Pamphilus, if he
refuse, I have no doubt I can compel him to keep his promise[150].
And, most opportunely for my purpose, I see Chremes himself
coming this way.
Scene IV.
Simo, Chremes[151].
Simo. Chremes, I am very glad to see you!
Chremes. O! Simo, I was looking for you.
Simo. And I for you.
Chremes. I meet you most opportunely. Several persons came to
me, and asserted, that you had told them, that my daughter was to
be given in marriage to your son to-day. For this reason, I came to
see whether they have lost their senses, or you your’s.
Simo. Hear me, Chremes; and you shall know, both what you
come to ask, and what I desire of you.
Chremes. I am all attention: pray proceed.
Simo. I conjure you, by the gods, and by our friendship, Chremes,
which has grown up with us from our earliest years, and
strengthened with our age: for the sake of your daughter, your only
child: and, for the sake of my son, whose welfare depends entirely
upon you; I entreat you to assist me in this affair: and renew your
consent to the marriage of our children.
Chremes. Ah, Simo, what need of prayers? as if it were
necessary to use so much entreaty with me, your friend. Do you
think that I am less your friend than when I offered my daughter to
your son? If the marriage will conduce to their mutual happiness, in
Heaven’s name, send for my daughter, and let them marry at once:
but, if it be found, that it would tend to the detriment, rather than to
the advantage, of both; I beseech you to consult their mutual benefit,
without partiality, as if you were the father of Philumena, and I of
Pamphilus.
Simo. Truly, Chremes, it is with that view that I wish their union,
and entreat you to consent to it. Neither should I press it so earnestly
upon you, if the present aspect of the affair did not justify my
urgency.
Chremes. How so, pray?
Simo. Glycera and my son have quarrelled!
Chremes. Indeed! I hear you.
Simo. And the breach between them is so great, that I trust that
we shall be able entirely to detach Pamphilus from her society.
Chremes. Fables!
Simo. Upon my honour what I tell you is a fact.
Chremes. A fact, by Hercules, that I’ll explain to you. The quarrels
of lovers, is the renewal[152] of their love.
Simo. You are right, and that is the reason of my request: I am
anxious that we should seize this opportunity to prevent them, while
his love is weakened by her insolence and upbraidings. Let us then
hasten his marriage, before the artifices and hypocritical tears of
these creatures recal his love-sick mind to pity. And, I trust,
Chremes, that a well-assorted marriage, and the endearing society
of his wife, will enable my son to extricate himself easily from their
toils.
Chremes. You may view the affair in that light: but I cannot think,
either that Pamphilus could be faithful to my daughter, or that I could
bear to see him otherwise.
Simo. But how do you know that, without you put him to the trial.
Chremes. But to stake the happiness of my daughter on that trial,
is hard indeed.
Simo. Yet the most serious mischief, after all, can amount but to a
separation[153], which may the gods avert. But, on the other hand, if
he fulfils our wishes, consider the advantages that will result from the
marriage: in the first place, you will restore to your friend a son: you
will ensure to yourself, a dutiful son: and, to your daughter, a faithful
husband.
Chremes. What occasion for so many words: if you think this step
so very essential to reclaim your son, I should be sorry to throw any
impediment in your way.
Simo. O Chremes! you well deserve the love I’ve always borne
you.
Chremes. But tell me——
Simo. What?
Chremes. How did you learn their quarrel?
Simo. I was informed of it by Davus himself, who is the confidant
of all their counsels; and he persuaded me to do all in my power to
forward the marriage: would he have done so, do you think, had he
not known it to be consonant to my son’s wishes? But you yourself
shall hear what he says. Within, there: send Davus hither; but here
he is, I see him coming forth.
Scene V.
Simo, Chremes, Davus.
Davus. I was coming to you, Sir.
Simo. What is it?
Davus. Why is not the bride brought? it grows late[154ᴬ].
Simo. (to Chremes.) Do you hear him? I confess to you, Davus,
that, till lately, I have been fearful, that you would prove
perfidious[154ᴮ], like the common herd of slaves, and deceive me in
this intrigue of Pamphilus.
Davus. I do such a thing, Sir!
Simo. I did suspect it, and, on that very account, I concealed from
you what I will now disclose.
Davus. What is that, Sir?
Simo. You shall hear: for, at last, I begin to think that I may trust
you.
Davus. Ah, Sir, you now appreciate my character as you ought;
you now see what kind of man I am.
Simo. This marriage was all counterfeited.
Davus. Counterfeited!
Simo. Yes, for the purpose of proving you and my son, and to try
how you would receive the proposal.
Davus. How! is it possible?
Simo. Fact, I assure you.
Davus. I never could have fathomed this design; what a profound
contrivance! deep, Sir, very deep. (bantering.)
Simo. But hear me out. After I sent you in, I most opportunely met
my friend Chremes.
Davus. (aside.) How! what does he say? All is lost, I fear.
Simo. I related to him what you had just before related to me.
Davus. (aside.) What do I hear!
Simo. I entreated him to give his daughter to Pamphilus, and, with
great difficulty, prevailed upon him to consent.
Davus. (aside.) How unfortunate!
Simo. Ha! what’s that you say[155]?
Davus. How very fortunate, I say.
Simo. Chremes now consents to an immediate union.
Chremes. Well, I will now return home, and order every thing to
be prepared: when all is ready, I shall let you know.
[Exit.
Scene VI.
Simo, Davus.
Simo. Now, I entreat you, Davus, since you have brought about
the marriage entirely by yourself——
Davus. (aside.) Yes, I have the credit of it entirely to myself. O!
curse my unlucky stars.
Simo.——to use all your influence with Pamphilus to induce him
to give up his present connexion with Glycera.
Davus. I’ll do all in my power, Sir.
Simo. You will find less difficulty now, while he is angry with his
mistress.
Davus. Be at ease, Sir, and rely on me.
Simo. About it then at once: but where is my son now?
Davus. I should not wonder if he were at home.
Simo. I will go and tell him what I have just told you.
Scene VII.
Davus (alone).
I am utterly undone: why do I not at once go straight to the
grinding-house. ’Twill be to no purpose to implore mercy: I’ve
overturned everything. I have deceived the old man, and
embarrassed the son with a marriage he detests; which I have
brought about this very day, though the father considered the
attempt as hopeless; and Pamphilus as the greatest evil that could
befal him. O! wise Davus, if you had but been quiet, this mischief
would never have happened. But, see, here come Pamphilus
himself! I’m a dead man. O! for some precipice that I might dash
myself down headlong!
[Retires.
Scene VIII.
Davus, Pamphilus.
Pam. Where is that villain who has ruined me?
Davus. (aside.) I’m a lost man!
Pam. But I confess that I am justly punished for my imprudence:
for my want of common sense. Ought I to have confided my
happiness to the keeping of such a shallow slave? I only pay the
penalty of my folly: however, the rascal shall not escape the
punishment he so richly deserves.
Davus. (aside.) If I escape this time, I think I never need know
fear again.
Pam. And what can I say to my father? Can I, who so lately
promised to marry, now refuse? with what face can I venture on such
a step as that? I know not what to do!
Davus. (aside.) Nor I, though I am racking my brains to hit upon
something. I will tell him that I have thought of an expedient to put off
the marriage.
Pam. (seeing Davus.) Oh!
Davus. I am seen!
Pam. Pray, good Sir, what have you to say for yourself? do you
see what a fine situation your rare advice has reduced me to?
Davus. But I will soon find an expedient to extricate you from it.
Pam. You will find an expedient!
Davus. Certainly, Sir.
Pam. Like your last, I suppose.
Davus. Better, I hope, Sir.
Pam. What trust can I put in such a rascal[156]? Can you remedy
a misfortune, which appears entirely ruinous? Ah! how foolishly I
relied on you, who, out of a perfect calm[157], have raised this storm,
and wrecked me on the rock of this accursed marriage! Did I not
forewarn you, that it would end thus?
Davus. You did, Sir, I confess.
Pam. What do you deserve[158]?
Davus. Death. But allow me a short time to recover myself, and I
will soon consider what is to be done?
Pam. Alas! I have not time to punish you as you deserve: the
present moment demands my attention to my own wretched affairs;
and will not suffer me to revenge myself on you.
E N D O F T H E T H I R D A C T.
A C T I V.
Scene I.
Charinus. (alone.)
[159]Is this credible, or to be mentioned as a truth, that any man
can be so innately worthless, as to rejoice at the miseries and
misfortunes of others, and even turn them to his own advantage? Ah!
is it possible that such baseness can exist? Those men have
characters of the very worst description, who make a scruple to deny
a favour; and are ashamed[160], or unwilling to give a downright
refusal at first; but who, when the time arrives for the performance of
their promises, necessarily expose themselves in their true colours;
and, though they may hesitate, yet, circumstances compel them to
give an absolute denial: and they will afterwards insult you with the
most impertinent speeches, as, Who are you? What are you to me?
Why should I resign my mistress to you? Every man for himself, Sir,
is my maxim! And, if you upbraid them with their want of honour, they
are not at all ashamed. Thus, when they ought to blush for their
perfidy, they are shameless! And, in the former case, when there
was no cause for it, they are shamefaced and timorous! But what
shall I do? Shall I go and expostulate with him on his treachery? I
will! and overwhelm him with reproaches: if any one tell me that no
advantage will result from it: I answer this, that I shall poison[161] his
joy: and even that will yield me some satisfaction.
Scene II.
Charinus, Pamphilus, Davus.
Pam. Oh! Charinus, unless the gods assist us, my imprudence
has undone both you and myself!
Char. What! imprudence! So you found an excuse at last. You
have broken your promise, Sir.
Pam. How! at last?
Char. Do you think that any thing you can say will impose upon
me a second time?
Pam. What do you mean, Sir?
Char. As soon as I had told you of my love for Philumena, she
pleased you forsooth! Alas! fool that I was! I judged of your heart by
my own. I believed you to be sincere, and you deceived me.
Pam. You deceive yourself.
Char. Did you think that your happiness would not be complete,
unless you could delude an unfortunate lover by nourishing his vain
hopes? Well, take her[162].
Pam. I take her! Alas, you know not half the miseries that oppress
me; nor how my rascal Davus has embarrassed me with his
pernicious advice.
Char. No wonder! I suppose he follows the fine example you set
him.
Pam. You would not talk thus if you knew me, or my love.
Char. (ironically.) Oh! I know every thing: you have been in high
dispute with your father; and he is now most prodigiously angry with
you: and has been striving, in vain, all this day, to prevail upon you to
wed Philumena.
Pam. To prove how little you know of my misfortunes, learn, that
no marriage was expected to take place: neither did my father think
of constraining my inclinations.
Char. O no! ’tis your inclinations that constrain you.
Pam. Hear me: you do not yet understand——
Char. I understand but too well that you are about to wed
Philumena.
Pam. Why do you vex me thus[163]? hear me, I say: he never
ceased urging me to tell my father that I was ready to marry: he
prayed, he entreated, until, at length, I was induced to comply.
Char. Who did this?
Pam. Davus.
Char. Davus?
Pam. Davus has marred all.
Char. Why?
Pam. I know not, unless the gods, in their anger, decreed that I
should follow his pernicious counsel.
Char. Is this so, Davus?
Davus. It is indeed but too true.
Char. What can you say for yourself, you rascal? May the gods
punish you as you deserve! Answer me, Slave, I say, if his greatest
enemies had been desirous of entangling him in this marriage, what
worse advice could they possibly have given him?
Davus. I have been deceived, but am not disheartened.
Char. Indeed!
Davus. Our last plan was unsuccessful, but we’ll try another:
unless you think that because the first prospered so indifferently, the
evil cannot be remedied?
Pam. Oh, far otherwise! for I have no doubt, that if that wise head
of yours goes to work, instead of the one wife you have provided me
with already, you’ll find me two.
Davus. Pamphilus, I am your slave; and, as such, it is my duty to
exert myself to the utmost to serve you, to labour for you night and
day, and even to expose my life to peril, to do you service; but, ’tis
your part, if any thing should happen cross, to pardon me: my
endeavours have been unsuccessful ’tis true; but, indeed, I did my
best; if you can do better, dismiss me.
Pam. Certainly; but first place me in the situation in which you
found me.
Davus. I will.
Pam. But it must be done directly.
Davus. Hist! Glycera’s door opens[164].
Pam. What can that signify to you?
Davus. I’m studying for an expedient.
Pam. How, at last!
Davus. And have no doubt but I shall soon find one.
Scene III.
Pamphilus, Charinus, Davus, Mysis.
Mysis. (speaking to Glycera within.) I will directly, Madam;
wherever he may be, I’ll take care to find your dear [165]Pamphilus,
and bring him to you: only, my love, let me beg of you not to make
yourself so wretched.
Pam. Mysis!
Mysis. Who is that? Ah! Pamphilus! you come most opportunely.
Pam. What’s the matter?
Mysis. My mistress conjures you by the love you bear her, to
come to her instantly: she says, she shall be miserable till she sees
you.
Pam. Heavens! I’m quite distracted: (to Davus.) Villain! behold the
misery to which we are reduced: this is your work! she has heard of
the intended marriage, and therefore sends for me.
Char. All would have been quiet, if that fellow had but been quiet.
Davus. (to Charinus.) Well done! if he does not rave enough of
himself, do try to make him worse.
Mysis. It is the rumour of your approaching marriage with
Philumena that makes her so miserable.
Pam. Mysis, I solemnly swear to you by all the gods, that I never
will forsake her; no, though my love for her should make all mankind
my foes, I never, never will forsake her. I wooed, and made her mine;
our souls accord; and I will hold no communion with those who wish
to separate us: death alone shall part us.
Mysis. Your words revive me, Pamphilus.
Pam. [166]The oracles of Apollo are not more true. I wish, that, if it
be possible, my father should not think that I throw any impediments
in the way of the marriage: if not, I will do what will be easily done,
tell him frankly that I cannot marry Chremes’s daughter. Charinus,
what do you think of me?
Char. That you are as wretched as I am.
Davus. I am studying for an expedient.
Char. (to Pamphilus.) But you are constant and courageous[167].
Pam. (to Davus.) I know what you would attempt[168].
Davus. I will both attempt, and accomplish it, rest assured, Sir.
Pam. But it must be done immediately.
Davus. It shall be done immediately.
Char. What is your plan?
Davus. (to Charinus.) Do not deceive yourself, Sir; ’tis not for you,
but for my master that I am scheming.
Char. Enough.
Pam. What are you going to do? tell me[169].
Davus. I am afraid that this day will scarcely afford me sufficient
time for action: I am sure I have none to waste in talking: let me beg
you both to withdraw from this place: you hinder me from putting my
designs into execution.
Pam. I will go to my Glycera. [Exit.
Scene IV.
Davus, Charinus, Mysis.
Davus. (to Charinus.) And you, Sir, where are you going?
Char. Shall I tell you the truth?
Davus. Oh! by all means. Now for a long story. (aside.)
Char. What will become of me?
Davus. Heyday! modest enough this, i’faith! is it not sufficient that
I give you a respite by putting off the marriage?
Char. Yet, Davus——
Davus. What now?
Char. Could I but wed her!
Davus. Absurd.
Char. If you can assist me, let me see you soon.
Davus. Why should I come, I can do nothing?
Char. Yet, if you should be able——
Davus. Well, then I will come.
Char. If you want me, I shall be at home.
[Exit.
Scene V.
Davus, Mysis.
Davus. Mysis, do you wait here for me a moment, till I come out
again?
Mysis. Why?
Davus. It must be so.
Mysis. Make haste then.
Davus. I’ll return directly, I tell you.
[Goes into the house.
Scene VI.
Mysis (alone.)
Is there no reliance to be placed in any thing in this world?
Heaven preserve me, I thought Pamphilus my mistress’s chief
blessing: a friend, a lover, a husband, always ready to cherish and
protect her: but, alas! what misery does she now endure on his
account: hitherto he has been to her a source of more evil than
good[170]. But here comes Davus! bless me, man, what are you
about? where are you going to carry the child?
Scene VII.
Mysis, Davus, (with Glycera’s child.)
Davus. Now, Mysis, I want you to assist me in this affair with all
your ready wit, artifice, and dexterity.
Mysis. What are you going to do?
Davus. Take the child from me directly, and lay him down at our
door[171].
Mysis. Mercy on me! what, upon the bare ground?
Davus. You may take some of the herbs from that altar, and strew
them under him[172].
Mysis. But why don’t you lay him there yourself?
Davus. That if my master should require me to swear that I did not
do it; I may take the oath with a safe conscience[173].
Mysis. I understand you. But tell me, Davus, how long has your
conscience been so scrupulously nice?
Davus. Make haste, that I may tell you further what I mean to do.
Oh, Jupiter!
Mysis. What?
Davus. (to himself.) The father of the bride is coming this way: I
abandon my first design.
Mysis. I don’t understand this[174].
Davus. I will pretend to come from the right: do you take care to
second what I say, as you see occasion.
[he retires
Mysis. I can’t make out a syllable of all this: but, if I can be of any
use, (which you know better than I,) I will stay; lest, otherwise, I
should be any hinderance to your plans.
Scene VIII.
Chremes, Mysis, Davus.
Chremes. (to himself.) Well, having prepared every thing for the
marriage of my daughter, I am returned to inform them that they may
now send for her. But what do I see? by Hercules, ’tis a child!
Woman, did you lay it there?
Mysis. Where can Davus be?
Chremes. Why don’t you answer me?
Mysis. (aside.) Ah! he is not here. Mercy on me, the fellow has left
me here, and gone away.
Davus. (speaking loud, and pretending not to see Chremes.)
Heavens! what a crowd there is in the Forum! what a wrangling!
provisions too are very dear. (Aside.) What else to say I know not.
Mysis. (aside to Davus.) In Heaven’s name, how could you think
of leaving me here alone?
Davus. (aloud.) Ha! what plot is this? Mysis, whose child is this?
who brought it here?
Mysis. (aside to Davus.) Are you mad to ask me such a question?
Davus. Whom should I ask? I can see no one else here[175].
Chremes. (aside.) I wonder whose child it is!
Davus. Will you answer me or not?
Mysis. Ah!
Davus. (aside to Mysis.) Move to the right.
Mysis. Are you mad? was it not yourself?
Davus. (aside to Mysis.) Take care not to say a single syllable,
except exact answers to the questions I put to you.
Mysis. Do you threaten me?
Davus. Whose child is it? (Aside to Mysis.) Speak.
Mysis. From our house.
Davus. Ha! ha! this woman’s impudence is wonderful!
Chremes. (aside.) This girl belongs to the Andrian, I am pretty
sure.
Davus. Do we seem so fit to be imposed upon?
Chremes. (aside.) I came just in time.
Davus. (quite loud.) Make haste, and take the brat from our door.
(Aside to Mysis.) Don’t stir a step.
Mysis. The deuce [176]take you, fellow, for terrifying me in this
manner.
Davus. Do you hear me or not?
Mysis. What do you want?
Davus. What! must I tell you again! whose child have you brought
here? Answer me.
Mysis. You know well enough whose child it is.
Davus. Never mind what I know: tell me what I ask.
Mysis. It belongs to your family.
Davus. To our family! but to which of us?
Mysis. To Pamphilus.
Davus. Hey! what? to Pamphilus? (very loud.)
Mysis. Yes, can you deny it?
Chremes. (aside.) I acted wisely in avoiding the match[177].
Davus. What a disgraceful trick! it ought to be publicly exposed.
Mysis. What are you making so much noise about?
Davus. What did I see brought to your house yesterday?
Mysis. O! impudent fellow!
Davus. ’Tis true: I saw old Canthara, with something under her
cloak[178].
Mysis. Thank Heaven, that there were some free women present
when my mistress was delivered[179ᴬ].
Davus. She knows little of the man she wants to practise these
tricks upon: do you think that if Chremes saw this child before our
door, he would refuse us his daughter on that account? I say he
would give her more willingly.
Chremes. (aside.) Not he, indeed.
Davus. And, to be short with you, that you may understand me at
once, if you don’t take away the child instantly, I’ll roll him into the
middle of the street, and you, Madam, into the kennel.
Mysis. [179ᴮ]By Pollux, fellow, you are drunk.
Davus. One falsehood brings on another: [180]I hear it whispered
about, that she is a citizen of Athens.
Chremes. (aside.) How!
Davus. And that he will be compelled to marry her[181].
Mysis. What then, pray, is she not a citizen?
Chremes. (aside.) By Jupiter, I have narrowly escaped making
myself a common laughing-stock to all the town.
Davus. (turning round suddenly.) Who speaks there? Oh
Chremes! you are come just in time: listen——
Chremes. I have heard every thing.
Davus. What, Sir, heard all, did you say?
Chremes. I tell you, I heard all from the beginning.
Davus. (half aloud.) He has heard all: what an [182]accident!—this
impudent wench ought to be taken hence and punished[183]: (to
Mysis.) This is Chremes himself: think not that you can impose upon
Davus.
Mysis. Alas! dear Sir, indeed I have said nothing but the truth.
Chremes. I know every thing. Is Simo at home?
Davus. Yes, Sir. [Exit Chremes.
Scene IX.
Mysis, Davus, (overjoyed, offers to take her hand.)
Mysis. Don’t touch me, you villain: if I don’t tell my mistress all
this, may I be—
Davus. Hey-day! you silly wench: You don’t know what we have
just done.
Mysis. How should I?
Davus. [184]That was the bride’s father: I wished him to know all
this; and there was no other way to acquaint him with it.
Mysis. You should have given me notice then.
Davus. [185]Do you think a thing of this sort can be done as well
by premeditating and studying, as by acting according to the natural
impulse of the moment.
Scene X.
Crito[186], Mysis, Davus.
Crito. (to himself.) I am told, that this is the street in which Chrysis
dwelt; who chose to amass wealth here, in a manner not the most
unexceptionable, rather than live in honest poverty in her own
[187]country. That wealth, however, now devolves to me[188]. But I
see some persons of whom I can inquire. God save you.
Mysis. [189]Bless me! whom do I see? is not this Crito the kinsman
of Chrysis? It is.
Crito. Oh, Mysis! God save you.
Mysis. God save you, Crito.
Crito. Alas! [190]poor Chrysis is then gone.
Mysis. She is indeed: and the loss of her has almost ruined us.
Crito. What! you? how so? has any other misfortune happened to
you? how do you live now, Mysis?
Mysis. Oh! we live as we can, as the saying goes: since we
cannot live as we would.
Crito. Has Glycera discovered her parents here?
Mysis. Would to Heaven she had.
Crito. Not yet! In an evil hour then came I here: for, in truth, if I
had known that, I would not have set a foot in this city. Glycera was
always treated as, and called the sister of, Chrysis; and has in
possession what property she left: and the example of others will
teach me what ease, redress, and profit, I have to expect from [191]a
suit at law: besides, I suppose, by this time, she has some lover to
espouse her cause; for, she was no longer in her childhood, when
she left the isle of Andros. I should be railed at as a beggar, and a
pitiful legacy-hunter. Besides, I never could be cruel enough to
reduce her to poverty.
Mysis. O excellent Crito! I see you are still the same worthy soul
you used to be.
Crito. Well, since I am come, let me see the poor girl.
Mysis. By all means.
Davus. I will go with them: as I don’t wish to meet with our old
gentleman just at this time.

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Part I Introductory Concepts 1

PART II ENGLISH PHONETICS 59

Target Tones 134

Part III GENERAL PHONETICS 143

Individual Differences 221

The Balance Between Phonetic Forces 294

Appendix A: Additional Material for Transcription 303

What’s New in the Seventh Edition

perspectives. Although there is no formal phonology in this book, the presenta-

The Linguistics CourseMate

Chapter 8 - Speech synthesis demo

Peter Ladefoged (1925–2006) was preeminent in

Keith Johnson taught phonetics in the Department

Figure 1.2 The vocal tract.

Figure 1.3 The four main components of the speech mechanism.

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