A Level Physics Notes
Oscillatory motion is a periodic motion with a
WAVES
TOPICS
 Oscillations
 Waves
 Superposition
Simple Harmonic Motion
Free and forced Oscillations
Oscillations and vibrations are everywhere. A
bird in flight flaps its wings up and down. An
aircraft’s wings also vibrate up and down, but this
is not how it flies.The wings are long and thin,
and they vibrate slightly because they are not
perfectly rigid. Many other structures vibrate –
bridges when traffic flows across, buildings in
high winds. A more specific term than vibration is
oscillation. An object oscillates when it moves
back and forth repeatedly, on either side of
some equilibrium position. If we stop the object
from oscillating, it returns to the equilibrium
position. We make use of oscillations in many
different ways – for pleasure (a child on a swing),
for music (the vibrations of a guitar string), for
timing (the movement of a pendulum or the
vibrations of a quartz crystal). Whenever we
make a sound, the molecules of the air oscillate,
passing the sound energy along. The atoms of a
solid vibrate more and more as the temperature
rises.These examples of oscillations and
vibrations may seem very different from one
another. In this chapter,we will look at the
characteristics that are shared by all
oscillations.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
regular to-and-fro motion.
Examples of such motion include
simple pendulum,
vibrating guitar spring,
e/m waves etc.
mass- spring system
Oscillations in mechanical systems such as simple
pendulum, mass spring pendulum are examples of
Simple Harmonic Motion.
Definition:
A body is said to be in simple harmonic motion
(shm) if its acceleration is directed towards a
fixed point in its path and is directly
proportional to its displacement from that
point.
The fixed point is called the equilibrium position
i.e. the position at which the body would come to
rest if it were to lose all of its energy.
Hence, when the displacement is positive the
acceleration is negative (and vice versa).
Definitions and equations
1.The period, T of the motion is the time
interval for a complete oscillation.
2.The frequency, f of oscillation is the number
of complete oscillations per second. SI unit is
Hertz (Hz). f = 1/T
3.The amplitude of the motion, x0 is the
maximum displacement from the equilibrium
position.
4.The angular frequency of oscillation,  is given
by  = 2/T=2f
5.Vibrating particles are said to be in phase if
they are at the same position and in the same
direction of motion at the same time.
Graphical representation of s.h.m
Graphs can be used to represent the motion
oscillations in shm.
The graph of displacement against time is a sine
wave.Velocity is found at any instant by taking
the gradient of the displacement-time graph.
Graph of velocity against time is a cosine wave
with the maximum as
Acceleration is found at any instant by taking the
gradient of the velocity-time graph.
The motion of a body vibrating with shm can be
described by this equation.
Where is the displacement about a fixed point O Page 1
(in m, and is positive to the right, negative to the
left), and ω2 is a positive constant (in s-2) and is
the acceleration of the body (in ms-2).
To obtain an expression for the velocity, v at any
displacement x from the equilibrium position:
From And
Now using the identity
Thus
Giving √
This equation requires that x = x0 when t = 0.
An alternative for x is; this requires x = 0 when t
= 0.
A graph of acceleration against displacement
BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes
Example
A particle displaying SHM moves in a straight
line between extreme positions A & B and passes
through a mid-position O.If the distance AB = 10
m and the maximum speed of the particle is 15
ms-1 find the period of the motion to 1 decimal
place.
SHM and Circular Motion
The SHM-circle connection is used to solve
problems concerning the time interval between
particle positions.
To prove how SHM is derived from circular
motion we must first draw a circle of radius 'x0'
or a (max. displacement).
Then, the projection(x-coord.) of a particle A is
made on the diameter along the x-axis. This
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
projection, as the particle moves around the
circle, is the SHM displacement about O.
Energy in SHM
Total energy in a free oscillation is conserved.
The total energy, E consists of kinetic energy,
and potential energy, U
E= +U
At any displacement x from the equilibrium
position, velocity is given by:
And
When, the kinetic energy is maximum this is the
total energy in the system and occurs when x=0
i.e
The potential energy is given as U=
The variation of U, Ek and E with displacement is
shown:
Damped Oscillations
In free oscillations total energy is constant
meaning amplitude is also constant.
In practice this is not usually the case.
The amplitude of oscillation gets progressively
smaller.The frequency is also reduced because of
damping.These types of oscillations are known as
damped oscillations. There are three degrees of
damping: light, heavy and critical.In light damping
the amplitude of oscillation is gradually reduced.
The oscillating system stops after a large
number of oscillations, eg a simple pendulum.
In heavy damping resistance is so great that the
system takes a very long time to return to the
equilibrium position.When a system is critically
damped the damping is sufficient to prevent
oscillation but not too great to delay return to
equilibrium position.
Page 2
A car’s suspension system needs to be slightly
under critical damping.
Forced Oscillations and Resonance
In free oscillations the oscillating systems do so
at their natural frequencies.
An external periodic force can be used to get
the oscillating system at any frequency.
The system is performing forced oscillations and
has the same frequency as the external periodic
BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes
force (driver frequency).The amplitude of the
forced oscillations depends on the driver
frequency and the natural frequency of the
system. When the driver frequency equals the
natural frequency of the oscillating system the
amplitude is large. Resonance is said to occur.
Forced vibrations
Forced vibration can be illustrated by a simple
experimental setup called Barton's pendulums.
Essentially a large pendulum is used to provide a
driver frequency which will make the other,
smaller pendulums oscillate at the same rate.
This driver frequency is in fact the natural
frequency of the pendulum. The frequency at
which it would oscillate at without the smaller
pendulums. The masses of the smaller pendulums
are insignificant compared to the mass of the
larger. So their effect is not of any consequence.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
3) the amplitude of Q
4) the phase difference between P and Q
Initial graphs(blue) are draw for the amplitude
of Q and the phase difference of Q against
driver frequency.
Various levels of damping are then applied to Q.
Families of curves are produced.
More damping is produced by decreasing the bob
mass of Q and/or adding cardboard fins to
increase air resistance.
On the graph it should be noted:
1. All the pendulums have the same frequency.
2. Pendulum Y has the same length as P but is not
in phase with it. It is approx. 1/4 period behind.
However, Y does oscillate with greater amplitude
than the other small pendulums. Y is said to be
resonating with P. Page 3
3. The shorter pendulums, W & X are approx. in
phase with P.
4. Pendulum Z is approx. 1/2 period behind P.
It can be seen that the amplitude of pendulum Q
Using Barton's pendulums to investigate
is maximum (maximum resonance) just before the
forced vibrations
natural frequency of the driver pendulum P.
If Q is heavily damped the amplitude is much
less at its maximum and occurs at a much lower
frequency than the natural driver frequency.
The method is to keep the length of the
dependent pendulum Q the same, while varying
the length of the driver pendulum P.
Measurements are then made of:
1) the frequency of P
Whether pendulum Q has light or heavy damping,
2) the frequency of Q
it always has a phase difference of π/2 radians
BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes
(90o) with P, at the natural frequency with which
P oscillates.
For higher driver frequencies and light damping
the phase difference rises to a maximum of π
(pi) radians (180o).
Higher driver frequencies and heavy damping
produce a phase difference only slightly above
π/2 radians.
implications & uses of resonance
implications:
1. Soldiers must 'break step' when crossing
wooden bridges.
2. Cars/aircraft/rockets are carefully designed
so that parts do not resonate producing
unwanted noises/dangerous vibrations.
3. Electrical audio circuits are subject to
'feedback' . This is the loud howling sound
produced when a microphone is too close to a
loudspeaker and the amplifier gain is too high.
uses:
1. clocks & watches - quartz crystals resonate
producing accurate timing frequencies
2. standing waves in pipes
3. ultra-sonic cleaning - dirt particles resonate
with the applied frequency and are dislodged
4. crystal radios - circuits resonate at the same
frequency as a radio station
5. radio antennas (aerials) - resonate when they
interact with radio waves
WAVE MOTION
A wave is made up of periodic motion, which is
motion repeated at regular intervals.
A wave is a phenomenon where energy is
transferred through vibrations.One complete
motion from one extreme position to another and
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
back is known as an oscillation/vibration.Waves
can be formed by moving a rope up and down,
using a ripple tank or using a slinky spring.
The source of any wave is a vibration or
oscillation.
Properties of Wave Motion
Terms used to describe wave motion:
1.Crests and troughs: The highest and lowest
points of a transverse wave respectively. In
longitudinal waves we have compressions and
rarefactions.
2.Wavelength ( λ ) is the horizontal distance
along a wave between 2 successive particles of
the wave, moving in the same direction.
3.Displacement is the distance of a particle of
the wave from its equilibrium position at any
particular time
4.Amplitude ( a ) is the maximum displacement
of a particle of the wave from its equilibrium
position.
The height of the crest/ depth of a trough from
the rest position.
5.Period ( T ) is the time for one complete
oscillation of the wave.
6.Frequency ( f ) is the number of complete
oscillations per second.
7.Velocity ( v ) the velocity of a particle of a
wave in the direction the wave is travelling.
8.Phase: Any 2 points are in phase when they
move in the same direction, have the speed and
displacement from rest position. (e.g. 2 crests
and 2 troughs)
There are 2 types of wave motion: Transverse
and Longitudinal.
Transverse waves
Transverse waves are waves in which the
direction of vibration of the particles is Page 4
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the wave.
Examples of such waves include rope waves and
water waves.
The crest is the highest points of the wave
whereas the trough is the lowest points of the
wave.
Longitudinal waves
BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes
Longitudinal Waves are waves in which the
vibration of the particles is travel parallel to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
Examples are sound wave and pressure waves.
They form compressions and rarefactions.
Compressions are region where the air particles
are close together, creating high pressure.
Rarefactions are areas where the air particles
are far apart, creating low pressure
2 types of graphs used to plot waves:
Displacement-distance graph: Plotting the
displacement of the wave at a certain instant of
time.
Displacement-time graph: Used to observe the
displacement of a specific point on a graph over a
n interval of time.
Both the transverse and longitudinal waves are
progressive waves.
The wave profile moves along with the speed of
the wave.
A particle at the origin vibrates according to the
equation where t is time, and
ω = 2πf
Suppose wave is moving from left to right.
A particle at some point a distance from the
origin will have a different phase of vibration.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
A distance λ corresponds to a phase difference
of 2π.
Thus phase difference, φ at any point P will be
given by
Hence displacement of any particle at a distance
x from the origin will be given by
Let
, motion to the right
Velocity of a wave
It is the distance moved per unit time.
Time taken for wave to move a distance equal to
one wavelength is one period.
Reflection of light
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal, at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
The angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence
Refraction of light
The bending effect of light as it passes from one
transparent material to another of a different
density is known as refraction.
Refraction is caused by the change in speed of
light.
At the boundary of 2 optical media, if there is a
sudden change in the speed of light, it will cause
the path of light to bend.
Light travels fastest in air/vacuum.
The normal is a line drawn at right angles to the
material's surface at the ray's point of entry.
The angle of incidence is the angle the light ray
makes with the normal.
The angle of refraction is the angle the
refracted light ray makes with the normal inside
Page 5
the material.
The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
normal at the point of entry are all in the same
plane.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to
the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant
BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

for a particular wavelength (Snell's Law). that is,

The ratio constant is called the relative
refractive index 'n'.
The relative refractive index between two media
where a light ray travels through one medium
(#1) and is refracted through the other medium
(#2) is given by:
Snell's Law equation can now be rewritten as:

The greater the value of refractive index of a The image is the same size as the object.
medium, the greater the bending of light, and the or A line joining a point on the image to a
denser the material is. note: when a light ray travels from a less dense corresponding point on the object is
Refractive Index medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the perpendicular to the mirror.
The refractive index of a single medium can be normal(and vice versa). The image is laterally inverted (sideways upside
defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a Common refractive indices down).
vacuum to the speed of light in the medium. Material n (λ = 589.29nm)
Here nm is defined as the absolute refractive Water 1.33 Page 6
index Diamond 2.40
Glass 1.48-1.96
Plane mirror images
All images are virtual: that is, they cannot be
where, projected on to a screen.
co is the velocity of light in a vacuum The image produced in a mirror is as far behind Critical Angle
cm is the velocity of light in the medium the mirror as the object is in front. The Critical Angle (co)is the angle of incidence in
let us consider our two materials(#1 & #2 from object distance = image distance a dense medium, such that the angle of
above). Their absolute refractive indices are
refraction in the less dense medium is 90o .
given by:
As the angle of incidence in the dense medium is
increased, the angle of refraction increases
towards 90o.
During this time a weak reflected ray is also
dividing the second equation by the first,
observed.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes
Only when the angle of incidence in the medium
exceeds the Critical Angle does all the light
become reflected internally.
We can formulate an equation for the critical
angle using Snell's Law for two media of
refractive index n1 & n2.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
When θ1= 90o and θ2= co ,
but sin(90o) = 1, therefore:
from work on relative refractive index,
Applications of total internal reflection:
Glass prisms
Optical fibres: Made up of plastic fibres that
transmit light over long distances through total
internal reflection.An optical fibre has a core of
high refractive index, coated with another
material of lower refractive index.Light rays
entering the fibre will be internally reflected at
the boundary between these 2 refractive
materials.
Optical fibre has a number of advantages over
copper wire:
1. less attenuation
2. cheaper metre for metre
3. can carry more information
4. immune to electrical interference
5. safer - no fire risk as with electric currents
6. wire-tapping more difficult
Polarisation
Transverse waves can oscillate in any plane.
Polarisation is the process by which the
oscillations are made to occur in one plane only.
This is done by passing the waves through a
'grid' so that only the waves that can fit through
the slits can continue through:
This is used in Polaroid glasses to reduce the
amount of light reaching the eye.
Polarisation also has to be taken into account
Page 7
when transmitting and receiving waves. An aerial
has to be aligned to the plane of the polarised
waves for it to receive the maximum signal.
Polarisation can also be achieved by creating
waves in one plane (for example, a laser).
Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised because
the direction of vibration and direction of
propagation are the same.
Differences between progressive and
stationary waves
Stationary Progressive
Waves Waves
Amplitude Varies from Same for all
maximum at particles in
the anti-nodes the wave
to zero at the (provided no
nodes. energy is lost).
BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

Wavelength Twice the The distance

distance between two
between a pair consecutive
of adjacent points on a
nodes or anti- wave, that are
nodes. in phase.
Phase Particles in Particles in
X-rays are produced by bombarding metal
the same adjacent
targets with high speed electrons produced
segment/ segments are
thermo-ionically. X-rays have wavelengths
between 2 in anti-phase. Properties of electromagnetic waves:
varying from 5×10-8m to 5×10-15m and are
adjacent All particles Electromagnetic waves are transverse
produced when very fast moving electrons are
nodes, are in within one waves.
stopped by a heavy metal target.
phase wavelength They are electric and magnetic fields that
A tungsten filament is heated by the passage of
have different oscillate at 90° to each other.
current through it so that electrons are
phases. They transfer energy from one place to
produced thermo-ionically.A high voltage in the
Wave Profile The wave The wave another.
range of 20kv – 125kv is applied across the anode
profile does profile They can travel through vacuum (do not
and cathode. This high voltage accelerates the
not advance. advances. require any medium to travel)
electrons to a very high speed.On colliding with Page 8
They travel at 3.0 x 108 m/s in vacuum.
the metal target the electrons decelerates
Energy No energy is energy is They will slow down when travelling through
rapidly, the kinetic energy of the electrons is
transported transported water or glass.
converted to heat and disturbance of the
by the wave. by the wave. They obey the laws of reflection and
electronic configuration in the atoms of the
refraction.
metal targets. Electrons are knocked off from
They carry no electric charge.
their energy level and other electrons fill up the
Their frequencies do not change when
energy levels producing electro-magnetic waves
travelling from one medium to another.
called X-rays. Only 1% of the Ek of the electrons
Only their speeds and wavelength will
Electromagnetic Waves is converted to x-rays, the other 99% is heat
change.
energy.
X-rays Most of the x-ray tubes use tungsten as the
Production of x-rays by electron bombardment metal target because it has the highest
on a metal target efficiency of the production of x-rays.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes
Uses of X-rays
LASERS
Laser stands for light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation.
In X-ray imaging, a beam of high-energy
photons is produced and passed through
the body structure being examined.
The beam passes very quickly through
less dense types of tissue such as
watery secretions, blood, and fat,
leaving a darkened area on the x-ray
film.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
Muscle and connective tissues blocking a patient’s trachea (windpipe) or
(ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) oesophagus.
appear grey.Bones will appear white.
X-rays may be taken of any part of the
body to detect tumour (or cancer) cells.
The use of X-rays as a treatment is
known as radiation therapy and is largely
used for the management (including
palliation) of cancer; it requires higher
radiation energies than for imaging
alone.
Laser light can be used to remove cancer
or precancerous growths or to relieve
symptoms of cancer.
It is used most often to treat cancers Page 9
on the surface of the body or the lining
of internal organs.
Lasers can focus very accurately on tiny
areas, they can also be used for very
precise surgical work or for cutting
through tissue (in place of a scalpel)
Laser therapy causes less bleeding and
damage to normal tissue than standard
surgical tools do, and there is a lower
risk of infection.
Lasers also may be used as coagulators
to relieve certain symptoms of cancer,
such as bleeding or obstruction.
For example, lasers can be used to
shrink or destroy a tumour that is
BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

Uses

Wave Generation Properties Uses Dangers

Radio Waves Electrons oscillating Radio transmitters None
Red-shifted lower wavelengths from Can be modulated for Radar,Television
stars. communication Mobile phones
Microwaves Can be modulated for Microwave ovens Internal heating of body tissue Page
Red-shifted light from stars and communication Communication system 10
galaxies Resonance with molecules
Electron energy changes in atoms producing heat.
Infra-red Molecular vibration Transfer of heat energy to Thermal imaging Burns skin
Electron energy level changes materials Remote controls
Modulation for short
distance control(e.g. TV
remotes)
Visible Electron energy level changes in Starts chemical reactions Optic fibres Strong light causes damage to vision.
atoms (egg photosynthesis) Seeing!
Affects photo film
Ultra-violet Electron energy level changes in Produces ionization, Washing powder Skin cancer and blindness
atoms fluorescence (whiter than white)
Produces photoelectric Security marking
effect
Affects photofilm

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

X rays Electron deceleration Ionizing Taking images of the Mutations in cells and severe burns to
Electron energy level changes in Affect photofilm skeleton the skin.
atoms Penetrating
Produces fluorescence
produce photoelectric effect
Gamma Rays Nuclear fission Very penetrating Cancer treatment Cancers and cell mutation
Nuclear fusion Produce weak ionisation Sterilisation of
Radioactive decay Produce weak fluorescence equipment
Affects photo film

Page
11

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes
SUPERPOSITION
OF WAVES
Principle of superposition
The resultant displacement at any point of two
waves travelling through the same medium is
given by the algebraic sum of the separate
displacements due to the two waves.
Depending on the phase difference between the
waves, this resultant wave appears to move slowly
to the right or to the left or disappear
completely.
It is only when the phase difference is exactly
zero, that is when the two waves are exactly in
phase, that 'standing/stationary waves' occur.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
Two waves having the same amplitudes approach
each other from opposite directions.
The two waves are 180o out of phase with each
other and therefore cancel out (black horizontal
line).
The phase difference between the two waves
narrows. The resultant grows but is not in phase
with either of the two waves.
The phase difference between the two waves is
narrower still. The resultant is larger but is still
out of phase with the two waves.
The phase difference between the two waves is
now zero. The resultant has its maximum value
and is in phase with the two waves.
Formation of stationary waves
The conditions for formation of standing waves
are:
 two waves travelling in opposite
directions along the same line of travel
and in the same plane
 the waves have the same speed
 the waves have the same frequency
 the waves have the same approximate
amplitude
Properties of stationary waves
There are points where the displacement is
permanently zero, these points are called nodes.
Points along the wave each have different
amplitudes; those points with the greatest
amplitude are called antinodes.
At points between successive nodes the
vibrations are in phase. The diagram shows how
a standing wave moves up and down over time.
Page
12
 separation of adjacent nodes or adjacent
antinodes is half a wavelength (λ/2)
 hence separation of adjacent nodes and
antinodes is λ/4 the maximum amplitude
is 2a (twice that of a single wave) a
standing wave does not transfer energy
(its two components however, do
transfer energy in their respective
directions)
Stationary or Standing waves have become very
important in physics in the last hundred years or
so. Understanding them has not only given
insights into sound but many other important
BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes
topics e.g. AC circuit theory, quantum mechanics,
nanotechnology.
Closed Pipes
In the diagrams, P is the site of a node, while Q
is at an antinode.
Nodes are always formed at the closed end of a
pipe, where the air cannot move.
Antinodes are always formed at the open end of
pipes.
As with stretched strings, the distance between
node and antinode is 1/4 of a wavelength.
The diagram above represents the fundamental
frequency, where n=1. This is the 1st harmonic.
The diagram above represents the 3rd harmonic,
sometimes called the First Overtone.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
The diagram above represents the 5th harmonic,
sometimes called the Second Overtone.
Looking at the different wavelengths in terms of
the length of the pipe L ,
we can then make wavelength the subject of each
equation.
Interference of waves
In accordance with the principle of superposition
two waves in the same place at the same time,
they produce an effect which is equal to the
combined effects of the 2 waves. This
phenomenon is known as interference.
Certain conditions have to be met however for
the effects of interference to be capable of
being observed.
 The waves from light sources must be
coherent with each other. Coherence
means that they must be of the same
frequency, with a constant phase
difference between them.
 The amplitude (maximum displacement)
of interfering waves must have the same
magnitude. Slight variations produce lack
of contrast in the interference pattern.
Young's Double Slit Experiment - Apparatus
Typically distance (D) between the double slits
and the screen is ~ 2 m (200 cm).
The slit separation is ~ 10-3m (1mm).
The preferred monochromatic light source is a
sodium lamp.
Young's Double Slit Experiment - Display
Page
The fringes become dimmer from the centre 13
travelling outwards.
Young's Double Slit Experiment - theory
The separation (y) of bright/dark fringes can be
calculated using simple trigonometry and algebra.
Consider two bright fringes at C and D.
For the fringe at C, the method is to find the
path difference between the two rays S1C and
S2C . This is then equated to an exact number of
wavelengths n.
A similar expression is found for the fringe at D,
but for the number of wavelengths n+1 .
The two expressions are then combined to
exclude n .
BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes
With reference to triangle CAS2 , using
Pythagoras' Theorem:
substituting for AC and S2A in terms of xC , a
and D
(i
also, with reference to triangle CBS1
ii
Subtracting equation (ii from equation (i ,
( Diffraction
Using 'the difference of two squares' to expand
the LHS,
The path difference S2C - S1C is therefore given
by:
In reality, a ~ 10-3m and D ~ 2 m . The length a is
much smaller than D. The two rays S2C and S1C
are roughly horizontal and each equal to D,
 For a bright fringe at point C the path
difference S2C - S1C must be a whole
number (n) of wavelengths (λ)i.e
λ where n=0;1;2;3;…
Hence,
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL
 NOTE;For a dark fringe on the
screen,the path difference should be
given as λ where
n=0;1;2;3;…
Hence,
Diffraction grating
Rearranging to make xC the subject, The clear spaces on a diffraction grating act as
equally spaced slits. So light rays diffracted at
Similarly for the next bright fringe at D, when
the same angle (θ) and in phase with each other
the path difference is one wavelength longer
will interfere constructively. Whenever this
(n+1),
happens, a bright fringe called the principal
maxima is produced.
hence the fringe separation xD - xC is given by,
assigning the fringe separation the letter y ,
y hence
The path difference between successive light Page
rays must therefore be a whole number (n) of
is the spreading of waves through a
14
wavelengths (λ).Using simple trigonometry, if d is
narrow slit or around the edge of an
the distance between slits, then the path
obstacle as a result of the superposition
difference is dsin(θ).
of wavelets from a plane wavefront.
Hence,
refers to the spreading {or bending} of
So discrete bright fringes (principal maxima) are
waves when they pass through an opening
produced at specific angles for particular
{gap}, or round an obstacle (into the
wavelengths of light.
“shadow” region). {as shown below}
For significant diffraction to occur, the
size of the gap of the wave
BY MR CHIBWOWA