Here's a detailed summary of the significant points for each topic:

Chemical Messenger

-Definition: Chemical messengers are substances that facilitate communication between cells. They can be
hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, or growth factors.

Types:
1. Hormones: Produced by endocrine glands, they travel through the bloodstream to target distant organs
(e.g., insulin, cortisol).
2. Neurotransmitters: Released by neurons, they transmit signals across synapses (e.g., dopamine,
serotonin).
3. Cytokines: Small proteins important in cell signaling, particularly in the immune system (e.g.,
interleukins, interferons).
4. Growth Factors: Stimulate cellular growth, proliferation, and differentiation (e.g., epidermal growth
factor).
Receptor Interaction: Chemical messengers bind to specific receptors on target cells, triggering a response
(e.g., receptor-ligand binding).
Signaling Pathways: Include pathways like G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), tyrosine kinase receptors,
and nuclear receptors.

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Overview: Involves the breakdown and synthesis of carbohydrates to provide energy and maintain blood
glucose levels.

Key Pathways:
1. Glycolysis: Conversion of glucose to pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH.
2. Gluconeogenesis: Formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., lactate, amino acids).
3. Glycogenesis: Synthesis of glycogen from glucose for storage.
4. Glycogenolysis: Breakdown of glycogen to release glucose.
5. Pentose Phosphate Pathway: Produces NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate for biosynthesis.

Regulation: Controlled by hormonal signals (insulin, glucagon) and allosteric enzymes (hexokinase,
phosphofructokinase).

Lipid Metabolism

Overview: Involves the synthesis and degradation of lipids in the body, providing energy and forming structural
components of cells.

Key Processes:
1. Fatty Acid Oxidation (Beta-Oxidation): Breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA, producing ATP.
2. Lipogenesis: Synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA, occurring in the liver and adipose tissue.
3. Ketogenesis: Production of ketone bodies from acetyl-CoA, used as alternative energy sources during
fasting.
4. Cholesterol Synthesis: Multi-step process starting from acetyl-CoA, leading to cholesterol formation.
5. Lipid Transport: Involves lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL) to transport lipids through the
bloodstream.
Amino Acid Metabolism

Overview: Amino acids are essential for protein synthesis and can be catabolized for energy or converted to
other compounds.

Key Processes:
1. Transamination: Transfer of amino groups from amino acids to alpha-keto acids, forming new amino
acids.
2. Deamination: Removal of amino groups, producing ammonia and converting to urea for excretion.
3. Urea Cycle: Converts toxic ammonia to urea in the liver for safe excretion by the kidneys.
4. Catabolism: Breakdown of amino acids for energy, producing intermediates like pyruvate, acetyl-CoA,
or TCA cycle intermediates.
5. Synthesis: Essential (obtained from diet) and non-essential (synthesized in the body) amino acids.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle or TCA Cycle)

Location: Mitochondrial matrix.

Purpose: Oxidizes acetyl-CoA to CO₂ and captures high-energy electrons in NADH and FADH₂.

Key Steps:
1. Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate.
2. Citrate undergoes a series of transformations, releasing CO₂ and producing NADH, FADH₂, and GTP
(or ATP).
3. Regeneration of oxaloacetate to continue the cycle.

Energy Yield: Each turn of the cycle produces 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, and 1 GTP (or ATP).

Regulation: Controlled by the availability of substrates and feedback inhibition by ATP, NADH, and succinyl-
CoA.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane.

Purpose: Converts the energy from NADH and FADH₂ into ATP through the electron transport chain and ATP
synthase.

Components:
1. Electron Transport Chain (ETC): A series of complexes (I-IV) that transfer electrons from NADH and
FADH₂ to oxygen, forming water.
2. Proton Gradient: Electron flow through the ETC pumps protons into the intermembrane space, creating
an electrochemical gradient.
3. ATP Synthase: Uses the proton gradient to drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi.

Efficiency: Each NADH yields about 2.5 ATP and each FADH₂ yields about 1.5 ATP.
Electron Transport Chain

Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane.

Function: Series of protein complexes (I-IV) that transfer electrons from donors (NADH, FADH ₂) to oxygen, the
final electron acceptor.

Components:
1. Complex I (NADH Dehydrogenase): Transfers electrons from NADH to ubiquinone (coenzyme Q),
pumping protons into the intermembrane space.
2. Complex II (Succinate Dehydrogenase): Transfers electrons from FADH₂ to ubiquinone, no proton
pumping.
3. Complex III (Cytochrome bc₁ Complex): Transfers electrons from ubiquinol (reduced form of
ubiquinone) to cytochrome c, pumping protons.
4. Complex IV (Cytochrome c Oxidase): Transfers electrons from cytochrome c to oxygen, forming water
and pumping protons.
5. Ubiquinone (CoQ) and Cytochrome c: Mobile carriers that shuttle electrons between complexes.
6. Chemiosmotic Coupling: Proton gradient created by the ETC drives ATP synthesis through ATP
synthase.

These notes cover the fundamental aspects of each topic, focusing on the essential processes, key steps, and
regulatory mechanisms involved.