PUNE VIDYARTHI GRIHA’s

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AND G K PATE (WANI) INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT,
PUNE – 411 009

PROJECT REPORT
ON

Design and Implementation of Solar PV System and Solar Thermal System

SUBMITTED BY
Padekar Rupali Vilas (B190072548)
Bendarkar Niranjan Ulhas (B190072508)
Sonawane Shriraj Pradip (B190072570)
Shingare Kajal Gorakh (B190072568)

Class
BE (ELECTRICAL)
Year
2023-24

GUIDED BY
Prof. U. B. Sarode
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
PVG’s COET & GKPIM, PUNE-9

SAVITRIBAI PHULE PUNE UNIVERSITY, 2023-24

 PUNE VIDYARTHI GRIHA’s
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AND G K PATE (WANI) INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT,
PUNE – 411 009

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the following students, studying in B. E. (Electrical) and having respective exam
numbers, have satisfactorily completed the work for their Project (Semester II) under my guidance, in the
following topic:

Design and Implementation of Solar PV System and Solar Thermal System

The report is submitted as a partial fulfillment of the requirement of the Under Graduate degree course in
Electrical Engineering, Savitribai Phule Pune University, during the academic year 2023-24.

1. Padekar Rupali Vilas (B190072548)

2. Sonawane Shriraj Pradip (B190072570)
3. Bendarkar Niranjan Ulhas (B190072508)
4. Shingare Kajal Gorakh (B190072568)

Prof. U. B. Sarode Dr. M. S. Thakare

GUIDE Head of Department
Assistant Professor Dept. of Electrical Engg.
Dept. of Electrical Engg. PVG’s COET & GKPIM,
PVG’s COET & GKPIM, Pune-9
Pune-9
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us immense pleasure to have an opportunity to acknowledge and express gratitude

towards everyone who guided us and helped us during the preparation of the Project.

we would like to thank our Head of Department Dr. M. S. Thakare sir, for his kind support
and co- operation for the Project. Also, I take up this opportunity to thank our respected
guide Prof. U. B. Sarode sir. He has been instrumental in guiding us throughout the process
and helping us tackle the problems we faced.

I would also like to thank our Project coordinator Dr. U. S. Thakar ma'am for out looking
the whole Project completion process and we are also grateful to all other faculty members
for their support and help whenever required.

Also we are grateful to Mahatma Phule Agricultural College, Pune to give the access and
provide the required information about the Solar Cooking System. And lastly I would like to
thank Agarwal Renewable Energy to give us opportunity to work with them and guided us
in the throughout the project.
 ABSTRACT

Solar energy has obtained significant attention as a promising renewable energy source, offering a
sustainable solution to our growing energy demands. Its immense potential is evident in the estimation that
the sunlight reaching Earth's surface in just an hour and a half could power the world's energy needs for an
entire year. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, in particular, have emerged as a frontrunner in harnessing this
abundant solar energy, transforming it into electricity for various applications.

It delves into the intricacies of designing and implementing solar PV systems, emphasizing their role in
fostering a sustainable future. It explores the methodological framework for off-grid or standalone systems,
which operate independently of the electrical grid, often catering to remote areas with limited grid access. A
case study of an off-grid bus shelter at Eastern Illinois University (EIU) serves as a practical illustration of
this methodology. The bus shelter, powered entirely by solar PV, utilizes a battery backup system to ensure
continuous power supply during adverse weather conditions. Furthermore, the paper presents a
comprehensive case study of a solar thermal system at Mahatma Phule Agricultural College in Pune, India.
This system employs Scheffeller's reflector technology, enhancing its efficiency and cost-effectiveness while
reducing reliance on conventional energy sources. The dual investigation into solar PV and solar thermal
systems provides valuable insights into the practicality and effectiveness of solar energy solutions for both
electricity generation and thermal applications.

It also concludes by highlighting the transformative potential of solar energy in shaping a greener and more
sustainable future. The adoption of solar PV and solar thermal systems offers a viable pathway towards
reducing our dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating the environmental impact of energy production.
 INDEX
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Objective 14
1.1.1 General objective 15
1.1.2 Specific objectives 15
1.2 Scope 15
1.3 Significance of the study 16

Case 1: Case study of solar thermal system Installed at Mahatma

Phule Agriculture College, Shivajinagar, Pune

1.4 Background 17
1.5 Basics of Solar Energy 18
1.6 Solar Energy Potential 19
1.7 Harnessing Solar Power 20
1.7.1 Photovoltaic systems 20
1.8 Types of Solar Thermal system 20

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Scheffler Concentrator for Solar Cooking 23
2.2 Solar Photovoltaic System 29

Chapter 3 Site Survey

3.1 Study location 32
3.2 Methodology 33
3.3 Mathematical development of scheffler reflector 36
3.4 Distribution of crossbars on the reflector frame 40
3.4.1 Calculation of equations for crossbars ellipses 41
3.4.2 Calculation of depths and arc lengths for different crossbars 42
3.5 Fixed focus tracking 45
3.6 Moving with the Sun 46
3.7 Materials 50
3.8.1 Pyranometer 50
3.8.2 Infrared thermometer 52
3.9 Intallation of scheffler concentrator 53
3.10 working principle 54

Chapter 4 Analysis and Experimental Evaluation of Elliptical Dish (Scheffler)

4.1 Solar irradiation 55
4.2 Available Solar radiation 55
4.3 Solar angles 58
4.4 Data gathered during the experiment 61
4.5 Why the ray from the elliptical dish was not focused 63
 4.6 Remedies taken 64
4.7 Simulation & Calculations of Payback Period 67
4.8 Interpretation of Result 70

Chapter 5 Introduction
Case 2: Design and implementation of solar PV system
5.1Solar PV Grid-Connected System 75
5.1.1Types of Grid Connected PV System 75
5.1.2 Components of a grid connect PV system 76

Chapter 6 Site Survey and Shadow Analysis

6.1 Site Survey 80
6.2 Shadow type 83
6.3 Shading analysis 85
6.4 Space between two rows 90

Chapter 7 Design procedure on Site

7.1 Description of design element 92
7.2 Inverter Input voltage range and max voltage 92
7.2.1 Inverter Start-up voltage 93
7.2.2 Inverter and MPPT 93
7.2.3 DC to AC ratio and inverter design 93
7.2.4 Inverter and the utility grid 93
7.2.5 Solar Array Fuse 93
7.2.6 DC Combiner Box 93
7.2.7 DC Distribution Box 94
7.2.8 AC Distribution Box 94
7.2.9 Cables 94
7.3 Junction Boxes 94
7.4 Metering 94
7.5 Connection to the Building Electrical System 95
7.6 Earthing 95
7.7 Surge Protection 96

Chapter 8 Design and Engineering

8.1 Pre Bid Layout 98
8.2 Post Bid Layout 99
8.3 Voltage Drop and Power Losses 100
8.4 AC Cables 101
8.5 String sizing 102
8.5.1 Calculation of string sizing 103
8.5.2 Types of stringing 106
8.5.3 For RCC and Roof top with 3 types of stringing
Chapter 9 Design Using Sofwares and Its Calculations
9.1 Design of PV system using SAM Software 109
9.2 Site Details With All Parameter 112
9.2.1 Manufacturing Process And Site Visit 113
9.2.2Comparison between three module 117
9.2.3Array design sheet 118
9.3Calculation 119
9.4 DC Output Power Calculation 120
9.5 Output AC power Calculation 121
9.6 Output Current Calculation 121
9.7 Circuit Breaker Rating Calculation 122
9.8 Cable length calculation 123

Chapter Conclusion and Recommendation 123

10

References 125
 List Of Tables

Sr.No. Name of The Table

1 Summary of literature review
2 Summary of material of scheffler reflector
3 specification of silicon pyranometer
4 Monthly average daily global radiation
5 Data collected on February 14/2024
6 Solar data collected on March 31/2024
7 Cost Benefit Ratio
8 Design Procedure For RCC
9 Design Procedure For Ground Mounts
10 Site Details With All Parameters
11 Comparison for Three Modules In technical parameters
12 String calculation sheet
13 Site Analysis
14 Calculation from Datasheet
15 Technical specification
 List of figures
Figure 1. 1 (i) Parabolic trough (ii) central receiver (iii) parabolic dish ....................... 21
Figure 1. 2 scheffler reflector (a) picture (b) schematic [1], [3] .................................... 21

Figure 2. 1 Schematic diagram of the Scheffler concentrator system ......................... 25

Figure 2. 2 a Scheffler technology tested in Ludhiana (Latitude ................................ 26

Figure 3. 1 Study location .......................................................................................... 32

Figure 3. 2 summary of methodology ........................................................................ 33
Figure 3. 3 scheffler reflector ..................................................................................... 34
Figure 3. 4 Section of Scheffler reflector in a paraboloid [1]..................................... 36
Figure 3. 5. Description of parabola of a Scheffler reflector. ..................................... 38
Figure 3. 6 Description of the Scheffler reflector and crossbars on parabola curve .. 42
Figure 3. 7 Ellipse of the crossbar for the Scheffler concentrator .............................. 43
Figure 3. 8 Radius, depth and arc length details for the nth crossbar ......................... 44
Figure 3. 9 Hourly and seasonal tracking mechanism for Scheffler reflector [25] .... 46
Figure 3. 10 Parabolas focusing the sunlight at a fixed focus by moving with the sun
......................................................................................................................................47

Figure 4. 1: declination angle of sunrays ..................................................................... 59

Figure 4. 2: hour angle Variation of the hour angle in a day [26] ............................... 59
Figure 4. 3 variation of declination of angle for all months of the year where n is gained from table .
..................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4. 4 sunset hour angle variation in months....................................................... 61
Figure 4. 5-Day length hours. ...................................................................................... 62
Figure 4. 6 monthly average Extraterrestrial radiation ................................................ 62
Figure 4. 7 conduction heat transfer ............................................................................ 65

Figure 5. 1 comparison data from both scheffler and parabolic dish .......................... 67
Figure 5. 2 comparison data from both scheffler and parabolic dish .......................... 68
Figure 6. 1 : Grid Connected PV System ...................................................................................... 75
Figure 6. 2 : Network topology of Central Inverter ....................................................................... 77
Figure 6. 3 : Network topology of string inverter........................................................................ 78
Figure 6. 4 : Network topology of micro inverter ....................................................................... 79
Figure 6. 5 : Site survey image showing equipment location ...................................................... 82

Figure 7. 1 : Horizontal and Vertical arrangement ...................................................................... 82

Figure 7. 2: Core shadow and partial shadow on PV panel ......................................................... 85
Figure 7. 3 : Calculation of an object's azimuth angle a and elevation angle γ ........................... 86
Figure 7. 4 : Surrounding areas with angular grid ....................................................................... 87
Figure 7. 5 : sun path diagram with shadow outline .................................................................... 87
Figure 7. 6 : Solar path finder ...................................................................................................... 88
Figure 7. 7: Thumb rule for shadow analysis dimension are in mm ........................................... 89
Figure 7. 8 : Turbo wind image on the sheet roof ....................................................................... 90

Figure 9. 1: Stringing of modules in series and parallel. ............................................................. 102

Figure 9. 2 : Module datasheet of DHOOP Polycrystalline ........................................................ 104
Figure 9. 3 : DELTA (50-60 kW) inverter data sheet ................................................................. 104
Figure 9. 4 : 20 MMS structure with type 1 stringing having 20 modules in each strings .......... 106
Figure 9. 5 : 20 MMS structure with type 2 stringing ................................................................. 106
Figure 9. 6 : Auto Cad drawing showing type 1 stringing of 20 modules connected in series. .. 107
Figure 9. 7 : Auto Cad drawing showing type 2 stringing of 20 modules connected in series ... 107
Figure 9. 8 : Auto Cad drawing showing type 3 stringing of 20 modules connected in series ... 108
Figure 9. 9 : Auto cad image showing the correct way of stringing the 20 module which is
connected in series. ...................................................................................................................... 108
Figure 9.10 : Manufacturing Plant Site Visit Goa……………………………………………115
Figure 9. 11 : Ground Mount Array Layout .............................................................................. 119
 Abbreviations & Nomenclature
DNI-direct normal incidence
STSC-scheffler type solar concentratorSR-scheffler
reflector
PVC-photovoltaic cellAa-aperture
area
PTSC-parabolic trough solar collectorTr Receiver
temperature [°C]
Tsky Sky temperature [°C]

Nomenclature
ε- Emittance
δ- delta (declination angle) [ 0]
τ - transitivity
ρ- Density, [kg/m3]
ɸ–Latitude [0]
ꞷs- sunset hour angle [0]
α- solar altitude [0]
ꞷ- Omega (hour angle) [0]
θz- zenith angle [0]
θ- Incident angle [0]
𝐻𝑜- is the monthly mean daily radiation on a horizontal surface in the absence of the atmosphere
𝑁𝑠− -is the monthly mean value of day length at a particular location,
𝑠𝑛
= - is the monthly mean daily number of hours of observed sunshine hours, a, b is
climatologically determined regression constant.
Aa-Area, [m2]
Ar Receiver area
C -Concentration ratiod- Diameter,
[m]
f- focal

Ib -Solar beam irradiation, [W/m2] Id- Solar

diffuse irradiation, [W/m2] Ig- Global solar
irradiation, [W/m2] k -Thermal conductivity,
[W/mK]
S-sun

Sh- shadow
 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Objective
Case 1: For thermal system
 The Performance assessment of elliptical dish (scheffler) has both general and specific
objectives.

 Harness solar energy efficiently for cooking purposes.

 Concentrate sunlight onto a focal point to achieve high temperatures.

 Provide a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional cooking methods.

 Reduce reliance on conventional fuels and decrease environmental impact.

 Enable versatile cooking methods including boiling, frying, baking, and pasteurization.

 Serve as a cost-effective solution for long-term cooking needs.

 Facilitate cooking in regions with limited access to conventional fuels.

 Support disaster relief efforts by providing a reliable cooking source during emergencies.

 Enhance outdoor activities and eco-tourism experiences with a sustainable cooking option.
Case 2: For Grid connected PV system
Design and Implementation of solar PV system
• To promote the grid-connected SPV rooftop and small SPV power generating plant among
community, industrial and commercial organizations.
• To mitigate fossil fuel dependence based on the generation of electricity which is environment
friendly
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution by generating clean energy, contributing to
a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy mix.
• Lower electricity bills by generating your own electricity, which can lead to long-term cost
savings.
• To produce electricity to meet a portion or all of a building's or facility's energy needs, reducing
reliance on non-renewable energy sources like fossil fuels

14
 1.1.1 General objective
a) To Performance assessment of an elliptical dish (scheffler reflector) In case of Cooking System at
Girls Hostel of Mahatma Phule Agricultural College ShivajiNagar, Pune.”
b) Design and Installation of Grid connected PV system at J.P Trivedi Boys Hostel, Shivajinagar ,
Pune

1.1.2 Specific objectives

a) For Thermal System:
 To find the focal point of elliptical dish (scheffler)
 To assess the effect of seasonal change of sun‟s position on a receiverperformance
 Adjusting the reflector using corrective tracking system

b) For PV system:
 To find solar radiation at the site location.
 To find total generation and output voltage of all strings with required calculations

1.2 Scope
a) For Thermal System
Even if the assessment of elliptical dish reflector is broad, the process to be followed are limited
certain activities.
 Adjusting the elliptical dish reflector to a point where the exact focal point isgained.
 Recording the daily solar incident and compare it with the time of the day.
 Comparing the performance of Scheffler reflectors with solar dish concentrator

b) For PV system:
 Sun is a powerhouse of energy and this energy moves around in the form of electromagnetic
radiations.

 These radiations are of several types such as light, radio waves, etc. depending upon the wavelength
of the radiations emitted. A very less percentage of sun‟s radiations reach the earth‟s atmosphere in
the form of visible light.

 Solar cells use this visible light to make electrons. Different wavelength of light is used by different
solar cells.

 Solar cells are made up of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, which is used to produce

15
 electricity.

 The electricity is conducted as a stream of tiny particles called electrons and the stream is called
electric current.

 Two main types of electric currents are; DC (direct current) in which the flow of current is in the
same direction while in AC (Alternating current) it may reverse the direction of current.

 A typical solar cell has two layers of silicon, which is n-type at the top and p-type at the bottom.

 When sunlight strikes the solar cell, the electrons are absorbed by silicon, they flow between n and p-
layers to produce electric current and the current leaves the cell through the metal contact. The
electricity generated is of AC type

 This sector gives lot of reasearch options and gives huge scope for finding intrest and
development in this sector

1.3 Significance of the study

a) For Thermal System
The findings of this study will redound to the benefit of society considering that solar energy plays
an important role as an alternative source of green energy. The greater demand for solar energy as a
source of green energy justifies the need for more effective environmental (ecosystem) protection
approaches. Thus, institutions that apply the recommended approach derived from the results of the
study will be able to contribute for better free energy source. Researchers will be guided on what
should be emphasized by the results to harness a better energy. Their study will help them uncover
solar energy data that will be gained from the scheffler reflector. Finally, society those living around
the off grid area will be benefited if appropriate installation of scheffler reflector is done.

b) For PV system:
 Significance of installation of PV system. Give me summary
 The installation of photovoltaic (PV) systems, which convert sunlight into electricity, has
several significant benefits:
 Environmental Benefits: PV systems produce clean, renewable energy, reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and reliance on fossil fuels. This helps combat climate change and reduces air
pollution.
 Economic Benefits: PV systems can lower electricity bills and provide a return on
investment through energy savings and potential incentives such as tax credits and rebates.
Over time, they can also increase property values.

16
  Energy Independence: By generating their own electricity, users can reduce dependence on
the grid and enhance energy security. This is especially important in areas prone to power
outages or where energy costs are high.
 Technological Advancement: The growth of PV systems drives innovation in energy
technologies, leading to more efficient and affordable solar solutions and fostering job
creation in the renewable energy sector.
 Scalability and Flexibility: PV systems can be installed on a small scale (residential
rooftops) or large scale (solar farms), making them adaptable to various energy needs and
locations.
 Overall, the installation of PV systems contributes to a sustainable energy future, economic
growth, and environmental protection.

1.4 Background
In today‟s world, the energy requirements are met by burning of fossil fuel, which are, not only
limited but also release pollutants that intoxicate the world and affect its climatic pattern. To reduce
this dependence on the fossil fuel, scientists are making effort to use other sources of energy, which
are present in abundance and are inexhaustible like sun, water etc. to generate electricity. These
non-conventional sources of energy have the capacity to solve world energy crisis. Among the
various non-conventional energy sources, solar energy contributes a large portion [5]. This history
of using solar energy in daily life has been known since 1455 BC [6], still, complete utilization of
this form of energy has not been possible.

The total amount of energy received by earth, from the sun, in an hour is more than the energy
consumed in one year [24]. Solar energy striking the surface of Earth hits it directly or indirectly,
through a number of reflections from the atmosphere. The key obstruction with solar energy is the
erratic nature of its availability and the problem in capturing and storing it. Solar energy is also
concentrated to limited parts of the world. Solar energy can be converted into electricity by either
using photovoltaic cells or using concentrated solar power (CSP). Since its invention, photovoltaic
cells have resolved asignificant portion of the world‟s energy crisis and now contributes around 177
gigawatt or 1% of the world‟s electricity demands [8]. These cells are mixture of semi conducting
materials which are used to convert solar energy directly into electricity using photoelectric and
electrochemical processes [9]. With recent technological advancements maximum efficiency
extracted from the photo-voltaic cells was increased to around 40% but the average efficiency
remains around 15% [10]. Concentrated solar power, like photovoltaic cells, uses solar radiation to
generate electricity. When CSP can also combined with thermal storage capacity, CSP plants can
provide flexibility for grid energy because of the large capacity of thermal storage to generate
electricity even when sun is blocked by the cloud or sundown [7, 8]. Depending on the use, there

17
can be different ways to concentrate solar power to a point. For commercial purposes, where the
temperature at the focus point needs to be high, use of parabolic through or central tower.
Parabolic through and central towers are widely used because of high temperature generation at
the concentrated point. But, these are not practical as almost all parabolic concentrators have rigid
structure and the focus. This motivated the Scheffler to come up with a design where hot focus is
available at a fixed place so that solar energy can be contentedly used. He developed the Scheffler
reflector in village workshops of India and Kenya so that this technology is in reach of everyone
[11]. Scheffler [12] developed a special Scheffler reflector with 50m2 surface area to heat a 2m long
cremation chamber at 700 °C. Then different researchers started developing the Scheffler dish,
which finds its application in the households for boiling water, cooking food and in medical
applications [11–15].

1.5 Basics of Solar Energy

The source of all solar energy is the sun and all life on the earth depends on it. Knowledge of the
quantity and quality of solar energy available at a specific location is of prime importance for the
design of any solar energy system. Although the solar radiation (insolation) is relatively constant
outside the earth's atmosphere, local climate influences can cause wide variations in available
insolation on the earth‟s surface from site to site. In addition, the relative motion of the sun with
respect to the earth will allow surfaces with different orientations to intercept different amounts of
solar energy [15]. The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1.39x109m
and is 1.5x1011m from the earth, on the average [16]. The earth revolves around the sun every
365.25 days in an elliptical orbit, with a mean earth-sun distance of 1.496 x 1011 m (92.9 x 106
miles) defined as one astronomical unit (1 AU). This plane of orbit is called the ecliptic plane. The
earth's orbit reaches a maximum distance from the sun, or aphelion, of 1.52 ×1011 m (94.4 × 106
miles) on about the 3rd of July [1].
The minimum earth-sun distance, the perihelion, occurs on about January 2nd, when the earth is
1.47×1011 m (91.3 × 106 miles) from the sun. Solar energy will provide an ever-increasing fraction
of our future energy requirement. Even if solar radiation is abundant and renewable, it is diffuse.
The temperature from this diffuse source is sufficient to provide domestic hot water or home
heating, but much higher temperature is necessary to displace fossil fuels for production of
electricity or other industrial applications. Thus solar radiation must be concentrated to produce this
elevated temperature; it must also be collected and moved to the point of use. The use of solar
energy to cook food presents a viable alternative to the use of fuel wood, kerosene, and other fuels
[16].

18
 1.6 Solar Energy Potential
Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy and if only a small
amount of this form of energy is used, it will be one of the most important supplies of energy.
Energy comes to the earth from the sun. Solar energy keeps the temperature of the earth above that in
colder space, and causes current in the atmosphereand in the ocean, and the rain-cycle, and generates
photosynthesis in plants [10] [21].
The solar power at the earth‟s atmosphere is 1017 watts, whereas the solar power on earth‟s surface
is 1016 watts. The total worldwide power demand of all needs of human activities is 1013 watts.
Therefore, the sun can give 1000 times more power than what we need. If we can use 5% of this
energy, it will be 50 times what the world will require. Attempts have been made to utilize energy in
raising steam, which may be used in driving the prime movers for the purpose of generation of
electrical energy. However on account of large space required, uncertainty of availability of energy
at constant rate due to clouds, winds, mist etc. there is limited application of this source in the
generation of power. Now a days the drawbacks as pointed out that the energy cannot be stored and
it is a dilute form of energy etc. are out dated arguments, since the energycan be stored by producing
hydrogen, or by storing in other mechanical or electrical thermal storage devices, or it can be stored
in containers of chemicals called phase changing solutions. These solutions store large quantities of
heat in a relatively small volume [10] [32].

The facts speak in favor of solar energy, that world‟s reserves of coal, oil and gas will be exhausted
within a few decades. Nuclear energy involves considerable hazards and nuclear fusion has not yet
overcome all the problems of even fundamental research, compared with these technologies, the
feasibility of which is still uncertain and contested. The applications of solar energy, which are
enjoying most success today, are[15]:

b) Heating and cooling of residential building

c) Solar water heating and solar distillation on a small community scale
d) Solar drying of agricultural and animal products
e) Salt production by evaporation of seawater or inland brines
f) Solar cookers
g) Solar engines for water pumping
h) Food refrigeration
i) Wind energy, which is indirect source of solar energy
j) Solar furnaces
k) Solar photovoltaic cells, which can be used for conversion of solar energy directlyinto
electricity or for water pumping in rural areas
l) Solar thermal electric power generation by:

 Solar ponds
 Steam generators heated by rotating reflectors (heliostats mirrors by tower concept

19
  Reflector with lenses and pipe for fluid circulation (cylindrical parabolic reflectors) Etc.

1.7 Harnessing Solar Power

The most abundant and convenient source of renewable energy is solar which can be harnessed in
methods, either Photovoltaic (PV) or Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technology.

1.7.1 Photovoltaic systems

When certain semi-conducting materials, such as silicon, are exposed to sun light, they generate
small amounts of electricity. This process is known as the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric
effect defines the liberation or ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal in response to light.
It is the basic physical process in which photovoltaic (PV) cell converts sunlight to electrical energy.
Solar cells are just too expensive hence; photovoltaic cannot compete economically with other
conventional power generators. Moreover, if the photovoltaic system is assumed to have a 100%
efficiency, then the maximum power that can be generated shall never get more than 1 kW per m2
of solarcells. Thus, it is not an effective method [10] [21].

1.7.2 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)

It is a promising technology for power generation in which the solar radiation is concentrated to
generate high temperature for producing a solar thermal power plant.
With an average annual direct normal irradiance (DNI) of 2,000kWh/m2 the area required to
generate 100MW of power is about 2km2. Ethiopia receives an average annual DNI of nearly 5000
– 7000Wh/m2 according to region and season and thus hasgreat potential for the use of solar energy,
which is sufficient to operate concentrating solar power plants (CSP) [16].

1.8 Types of Solar Thermal system

In concentrating solar power (CSP) technology, sun‟s direct normal irradiation is concentrated to
produce heat with temperature ranging from 400ºC to 1,000ºC [8]. This heat is used to produce
electricity by conventional steam cycle, or combined cycle, or Stirling engine or it is used in solar
cooking. Based on the process of collecting and concentrating solar radiation, the CSP can be
categorized into following major types [21] [31]

i. Parabolic Trough: Parabolic trough-shaped mirror reflectors are used to concentrate

sunlight on to thermally efficient receiver tubes placed in the trough‟s focal line. A
thermal transfer fluid, such as synthetic thermal oil, is circulated in these tubes. Heating
the oil to 400°C by the concentrated sun‟srays, this oil is then pumped through a series of

20
 heat exchangers to make superheated steam. The steam then is converted to electrical
energy [10].
ii. Central receiver or solar tower: A circular array of heliostats (large individually
tracking mirrors) is used to concentrate sunlight on to a central receiver mounted at the
top of a tower. A heat-transfer medium in this central receiver absorbs the highly
concentrated radiation reflected by the heliostats and changes it into thermal energy to
be used for the subsequent generation of superheated steam for turbine operation [10].

(i) (ii) (iii)

Figure 1. 1 (i) Parabolic trough (ii) central receiver (iii) parabolic dish

iii. Parabolic Dish (Scheffler Solar Concentrators): is a dish-shaped reflector, used to

concentrate sunlight on to a receiver located at the focal point of the dish. The
concentrated beam radiation is absorbed into the receiver to heat a fluid or gas (air) to
approximately 1020°C [10]. The following section deals about Scheffler concentrators.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. 2 (a) scheffler reflector section in parabola (b) manufactured schefflerreflecrtor

Scheffler dish reflects light in two dimensions concentrating it to a single point. Scheffler dish that
installed at Mahatma Phule Agricultural University agricultural campus. Invented by Wolfgang
Scheffler, Scheffler reflector is a system of harvesting the solar energy. As depicted in Figure 1.2,
Scheffler collector is a collector, which tracks the movement of the sun thus focusing sunlight on a
focal point, which is fixed [16]. Scheffler reflectors are fixed focus, polar‐axis parabolic solar
concentrators that can achieve significant concentration factors at relatively low cost. The
technology is widespread in India, and gaining popularity for medium scale solar cooking and

21
process steam generation. Among other features, the reflectors need a flexible structure to cope with
the seasonal changes of the position of the sun.

Two telescopic bars fixed to the vertical ends of the reflector, which have to be adjusted manually
every 3 to 5 days in order to get a good optical performance, accomplish deformation of the
structure. Reports show that some operators do not perform this often enough, because of the
trouble of having to climb to the structure and adjusting telescopic supports in an iterative manner.
The goal of the assessment will be to adjust the upper side of mirror automatically upon adjustment
of the lower telescopic bar.

22
 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a review of the literature on scheffler reflector, historical outlook, general
application areas and the systematic design of the scheffler reflector. The main purpose of this
literature review is to reveal the academic and research areas that relatedto the topic studied.

Scheffler reflector

Munir et al. [1] descried about the design principle and construction details of an 8m2 surface area
Scheffler concentrator and tabulated mathematical calculations to design the scheffler reflector
curve and its elliptical frame with respect to equinox by selecting a specific lateral part of a
paraboloid. Crossbar equations and their ellipses, arc lengths and their radii are also calculated to
form the required lateral section of the paraboloid. Thereafter, the seasonal parabola equations are
calculated for two extreme positions ofsummer and winter in the northern hemisphere.
Daily and seasonal tracking mechanism of the sun‟s position through a simple mechanism. The
design procedure is simple, flexible and does not need any special computational setup. Thus
offering a huge potential for application in domestic as well as industrial configurations [2] Jose
Ruel as et al. developed and applied a new mathematical model for estimating the intercept factor
of a Scheffler-type solar concentrator (STSC) based on the geometric and optical behavior of the
concentrator in Cartesian coordinates. In addition, the incorporation of a thermal model of the
receptor is performed using numerical examinations to determine the technical feasibility of
attaching the STSC to a 3kWe Stirling engine [2]. In experimental set up sterling engine is placed at
the focal point, which converts heat energy into electricity.
Mathematical modelling is verified with the help of experimental results. The results allow for the
determination of the focal length, which demonstrates that the largest concentration using the STSC
with a rim angle of 450 is similar to the concentration achieved with a parabolic dish, but the
receptor improves the efficiency by 7% compared with parabolic dishes that operate with a lower
error of concentration. [3] in the same way, Rupesh J. Patil studied the performance of Scheffler
reflector of 8m2

23
with the help of single large diameter drum of 20litre capacity, which serves the dual purpose of
absorber tube and storage tank. The performance of Scheffler reflector was analyzed by average
power and efficiency in terms of boiling test conducted at Bangalore. The maximum temperature
attained by water is 94°C on clear sunny day and ambient temperature varies from 28°C to 31°C.
Both dimensional analysis and mathematical modelling was an attempt to correlate dependent and
independent variables. Vishal R Dafleet et al(4) designed, developed and analyzed experimentally
the performance of 16m2 scheffler reflectors for 2bar pressure and 110° C temperature. The system
was mainly designed for hostel with 500 students at Shivaji University for hot water for bathing and
steam for cooking and the Scheffler along with mild steel absorber plate was evaluated in February.
It was observed that radiation varies from 620 W/m2 to 937 W/m2 and maximum temperature
attained by steam is 107°C. Additionally, the performance of concentrating solar thermal devices
using Scheffler technology for water heating and low pressure, temperature steam applications in
industries as textiles, dairies, food industry etc[3]. Rupesh J Patil et al carried out work on scheffler
reflector for experimental data based modelling to establish relationship in different variables of
Scheffler reflector. Scheffler reflector was studied with a typical experimental plan of simultaneous
variation of independent variables. Experimental response data was analyzed by formulating the
dimensional equations. The models have been formulated mathematically for the local conditions. It
was observed that the mathematical models can be successfully used for the computation of
dependent terms for a given set of independent terms.
Later, Scheffler reflector has been designed to supply sufficient heat energy to the crematorium by
concentrating solar energy. It was assumed that 100kg of wood is required for cremating a single
corpse in 1 to 2Hrs if heat loss is optimized to minimum value by effective insulation of combustion
chamber. Since calorific value of wood is 19700kJ/kg. The “P” power (in MJ/hr) required to burn
completely the body in combustion chamber is determined. From this reflector was designed to
cremate a deadbody in 2hrs.

S.Kumar et al. [28] has experimentally investigated a 16m2 scheffler concentrator system and its
performance assessments. It is equipped with a polar axis tracking

24
mechanism to track the sun with its 5 and 4 meter major and manor axis respectively with its
concentration ratio of 220. The axis of rotation is congruent with the local altitude. So that the axis
of rotation of the reflector and polar axis are parallel to each other. The axis of daily rotation is
located exactly in a north–south direction, parallel toEarth's polar axis and runs through the center of
gravity of the reflector. That way the reflector always maintains its gravitational equilibrium and the
mechanical tracking device does not need to be driven by much force to rotate it synchronized with
the sun.

Figure 2. 1 Schematic diagram of the Scheffler concentrator system [28]

The focus is located on the axis of rotation and avoids it from moving when the reflector rotates.
During the day, the concentrated light will only rotate around its own center, but not move sideways
in any direction and that way the focus stays fixed. The seasonal tracking consists of a telescopic
clamp and three triangular pivot points at the reflector. The telescopic clamp is manually set once in
every three days in order to get the fixed focus in the receiver. The working fluid (water) is supplied
to the receiver and gets heated at a certain temperature for various end-use process heat
applications. A 16 square meter Scheffler technology tested in Ludhiana (Latitude: 30.9°N;
Longitude: 75.85°E), India as shown in figure below.

25
 Figure 2. 2 a Scheffler dish [3]

2.1 Scheffler Concentrator for Solar Cooking

As mentioned before, the German scientist Wolfgang Scheffler has devised a parabolic concentrator
set-up to harness solar energy using low cost set-up. A concentrating primary reflector tracks the
movement of the Sun, focusing sunlight on a fixed place. The focused light is used to heat a very
large pot, which can be used for baking breads, heating, steam generation, cooking, and water
heating [2].
Design and development of the Scheffler concentrator is to make solar cooking comfortable.
Cooking is simple and comfortable as the focus does not have to be moved and it may even be inside
a kitchen, while the concentrating reflector has to be in the sun. The concentrator is flexible
parabolic concentrator, which rotates around an axis parallel to the earth‟s axis, to cope with the sun
[3]. Additionally the reflector is adjustedto the seasons by tracking it in a simple way [4].

The tracking mechanism can be a combination of electronic and mechanical design, which tracks
the sun [28]. Scheffler also can have an automatic tracking mechanism (counter weight driven
clockwork) and due to the dish having flexible curvature gave fixed focus and thus offered a
solution to both cooking in comforts in shadow of the kitchen and also being automatic with no
need to be tracked manually. According to Munir et al [1], a simple photovoltaic device located in
the center of the reflector guides

26
daily tracking and if this technology is not available, mechanical clockwork can be replaced [24].
From the journal survey, Scheffler concentrators have been built in very different sizes: as small as
0.5 square meters and as big as the 50 square meters reflectors, including medium sizes (2, 2.7, 8,
10, 9.7, 10, 12.6, and 16 square meters), While the main construction of the concentrators (apart
from the mirror surface) consists of steel. Profiles that are known in making of furniture, water-
installation and housing are used. This material is relatively seems cheap and available. For the
concentrator surface, various materials like silvered glass mirrors, aluminum sheet, aluminized
materials areused [3].
In general, Parabolic Scheffler concentrator has a potential to deliver a high temperature for all types
of cooking and steam generations. Their specialty is due to its flexible surface curvature and a fixed
focal area. As Rupesh et al [29] investigated in a 2.7 square meters concentrator, maximum
temperature in the focus may reach 102ºC, and it is possible to boil 22 liters of water per day (with
a solar radiation of 700W/m2). A
2.7 square meters reflector may lead 1.2 liters of water to boiling point in 10 minutes. A 9.7 square
meters reflector may lead 4.5 liters of water to boiling point in 10 minutes. Thus, integration of
Scheffler with thermal storage device may give a convenient indoor cooking with or without the
presence of radiation [29].

Author Task performed methodology Result obtained Validation

A. Munir The principle Mathematica The results have Mathematica

et al.(1) and construction l modeling proved l modeling
detail of an 8m2 mathematically that
Scheffler it is possible to
reflector construct a
concentrator that
can provide fixed
focus for all the
days of the
year.

27
Desireddy Developed Mathematic 1. For working Mathematica
Shashidhar Design charts for al design and design of the l modeling
Reddy Scheffler experimenta Scheffler reflector, experimental
et al.(2) reflector using l testing inclination angle testing
the two can be varied in a
parameters that very small window
are required to of 42–44.9°.
begin the 2.The general
construction of a equation of
Scheffler parabola with
reflector using changing solar
the design charts declination
are: (seasonal change)
(a) The has also been
aperturearea proposed
and
(b) The
focal length
of the
parabola.

José Ruelas modeled and - to obtain the Experimental

et al. developed a Experimental quantityand quality analysis
Scheffler-type -modeling of energyrequired
solar by the 3 kWe
concentrator Stirling engine,
coupled with a which corresponds
Stirling engine to a thermal energy
demand of 8423 W
with a fluid
temperature of 957K

S. Kumar Experimentall experimental Thermal output Experimental

et al yinvestigated -modeling is 7.2kW at DNI testing
a 16m2 of 720W/m2 modeling
scheffler -Thermal
concentrator efficiency with
the effect of improved heat
various loss
parameterssuch -Thermal efficiency
as with improved
-optical optical efficiency
efficiency,

28
 -heat loss
coefficient
s,
-DNI on the
performance of
thesystem.
Praveen Performanc Experimental Better Efficiency Experimental
J. Sanga e Evaluation thanother solar testing
et al ofscheffler concentrators
Concentrato
r

Table 2.1 Summary of literature review

B) Solar Photovoltaic System:

A literature review of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems involves analyzing and summarizing the existing
research, advancements, challenges, and future directions in this field. Below is a structured review of the
topic:

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert sunlight directly into electricity using semiconductor materials. The
adoption of PV systems has been driven by the need for sustainable energy solutions, reductions in
technology costs, and policy support for renewable energy. This literature review explores key areas
including technology types, efficiency improvements, economic factors, environmental impacts, and future
trends.

Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells:

Monocrystalline Silicon (Mono-Si): Known for high efficiency and longevity but relatively higher costs due
to the manufacturing process.
Polycrystalline Silicon (Poly-Si): Less expensive to produce but with lower efficiency compared to Mono-Si.
Thin-Film Solar Cells:

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe): Offers a lower cost and less material usage, though concerns exist regarding
cadmium toxicity.
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS): High efficiency and flexibility but production complexity limits
widespread adoption.
Amorphous Silicon (a-Si): Lower efficiency and stability but cheaper and flexible, often used in small-scale
applications.
Emerging Technologies:

29
Perovskite Solar Cells: Rapid improvements in efficiency and potential for low-cost production, though
stability and toxicity issues need addressing.

Organic Photovoltaics (OPVs): Potential for low-cost, flexible applications, but currently limited by low
efficiency and stability.

Quantum Dot Solar Cells: Offer tunable bandgaps and high theoretical efficiencies, though practical
Recent research has focused on enhancing the efficiency of solar cells through:

Materials Engineering: Introduction of new materials and composites to improve light absorption and charge
carrier mobility.

Surface Texturing: Techniques such as nano-texturing to reduce reflectance and increase light absorption.

Passivation Layers: Development of passivation layers to reduce recombination losses at the surface and
interfaces.
Multi-Junction Cells: Stacking cells with different bandgaps to capture a broader spectrum of sunlight,
achieving higher efficiencies.

Cost Trends:
Reduction in Production Costs: Advances in manufacturing techniques and economies of scale have
significantly lowered the cost of PV systems.

Grid Parity: Many regions have reached or are approaching grid parity, where the cost of solar electricity is
equal to or less than conventional electricity sources.
Financial Incentives:

Government Policies: Subsidies, tax incentives, and feed-in tariffs have been crucial in promoting the
adoption of solar PV systems.

Financing Models: Innovative financing options such as power purchase agreements (PPAs) and leasing
have lowered the initial cost barrier for consumers.

Positive Impacts:
Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Solar PV systems contribute significantly to reducing carbon
emissions compared to fossil fuel-based energy sources.
Resource Sustainability: Solar energy is abundant and renewable, reducing dependency on finite resources.
Negative Impacts:

Manufacturing Impact: Energy-intensive manufacturing processes and the use of hazardous materials can
pose environmental challenges.
End-of-Life Management: Recycling and proper disposal of PV modules are crucial to mitigate
environmental harm from waste and toxic materials.

30
Technological Innovations:

Continued research in materials science to develop more efficient and cost-effective solar cells.
Integration with energy storage solutions to address intermittency issues and ensure a reliable power supply.

Market Growth:
Expanding applications in residential, commercial, and utility-scale projects.
Growth in off-grid and hybrid systems in developing regions to provide energy access.

Policy and Regulatory Frameworks:

Strengthening international collaborations and policy frameworks to support research, development, and
deployment of solar PV technologies. Addressing grid integration challenges to ensure stability and
efficiency in power systems with high solar penetration.

31
 CHAPTER THREE: Site Survey

3.1 Study location

Mahatma Phule Agricultural College at Pune about 130 km to the capital city of Maharashtra ,Mumbai
. Specifically, it is located at geographical coordinates 18.5264, 73.8434 and at an altitude of 571
m above mean sea level.

Figure 3. 1 Study location

32
 3.2 Methodology
Under methodology, the work passed through a series of steps like, data collection, designation of
the research, and simulation of the desired output, to figure out the best reflector‟s best tracking
system.
The present study is to carry out performance assessment of elliptical dish (scheffler). To achieve
the objective of the work, surveying the literature from the related work and understanding the
working mechanism of scheffler reflector referring from journals, books and other articles. To
analyze the available solar potential of the study area, direct solar radiation measurement and
system thermal calculation is done.

Methodology

Using materials like pyranometer, infrared thermometer and

Data collection nominal thermometer were used to collect solar data. Solar
(primary and intensity, ambient temperature and temperature from the
secondary) scheffler and parabolic dish collectors were recorded parallel
with solar intensity.

Mathematical and theoretical design of 16m2 scheffler

reflector is developed.
Research design

Checking the position of sun‟s seasonal change and its effects

Experimentation on performance of the scheffler with time. Achieving the
exact focus point of the ray. After harnessing enough
temperature, cook or boiling 5kg of coffee.

The result gained from experiment will be simulated using

Simulation Comsol Multi-physics software package and Microsoft excel
to validate the result.

Figure 3. 2 summary of methodology

33
Scheffler reflector is a lateral portion of the paraboloid, which provides fixed focus and shadow less
concentration throughout the year. The lateral portion is obtained by the intersection of an inclined
plane with the paraboloid. The side view of inclined sectionalplane and paraboloid are represented by
a line (E1E2) and a parabola in a 2D plane as shown in Figure 3.3. It should be noted that the
present analysis has been carried out assuming the collector axis (Y-axis) is pointing towards the
sun when solar declination angle δ=0°. The hourly tracking axis of the Scheffler reflector of focal
length „f „ passes through the focus and the point P (2f, f). Positive X axis points towards north in
northern hemisphere and south in southern hemisphere and Z axis lies in east-west direction in
Figure 3.3. The inclined line E1E2 has to be chosen such that the reflector is balanced with respect
to pivot point P so that a nominal force is required for tracking the sun.
For the assessment of the scheffler reflector (elliptical dish) which has been installed, this report has
passed through series of processes to identify its technical problems why it could not concentrate the
ray coming from the sun. For instance, different solar data has been gathered. To collect those data
differentscientific materials are used. To list some of them, infrared thermometer, pyranometer (with
multi-meter which converts incoming beam radiation to millivolts) and nominal thermometer. Later
the millivolts displayed on multi-meter manually converted in to watts per square meter (W/m2).

Figure 3.3 scheffler reflector.

34
The contour created because of the intersection of an inclined section plane and a paraboloid is an
ellipse. It shows the elliptical rim of the Scheffler reflector, which appears as a circle (aperture) in
the top view. The details are shown in Figure 3.4. A parabola of focal length f with its vertex at
origin and axis aligned with y-axis is writtenin the following form

𝑥2 = 4𝑓𝑦 (1)

The slope intercept of the line E1E2 is given as

𝑦 = (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡) (2)

If the line E1E2 and parabola intersect at points E1 (x1,y1) and E2 (x2,y2) the radius of the aperture
of scheffler which same as semi-minor axis of its elliptical ring which isgiven by
𝑥1−𝑥2
𝑅𝑎 = (3)
2

By substituting eq. (3.2) in eq. (3.1)

𝑥2 = 4(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡) (4)
𝑥2 − (4𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼) + 4𝑓𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 0 (5)The roots of
the above equations are:
4𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼+√(4𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼)2−16𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
𝑥1 = (6)
2

4𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼−√(4𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼)2−16𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
𝑥2 = (7)
2
The x-coordinate of the Centre of the aperture is given by
𝑥1−𝑥2
𝑥𝑐 = (8)
2

From equations (2), (3) and (4)

𝑥𝑐 = 2𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 (9)
Then from figure1, X1 and X2 can be represented by
2𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 + 𝑅𝑎 (10)
2𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 − 𝑅𝑎 (11)
The elliptical dish has to be balanced at P(2f,f) while rotation for hourly tracking of sun is on
progress. This helps to reduce the rotational force (torque) required to rotate the dish. Thus, length
E1P and PE2 along the parabola must be equal. Reddy et al [25] found that α should have values
within the limits of 420 and 44.90. The upper limit is fixed to
44.90 due to geometrical constraints whereas below 410 will make xint negative casting

35
absorber‟s shadow on the reflector. Since the aim of this report is not only to clarify the design of
scheffler reflector, the portion of this document stands on performance assessment of the elliptical
dish which is installed in Mahatma Phule Agricultural University college of Agriculture and
Veterinary Medicine compound. During the assessment, relevant data has been recorded.

3.3 Mathematical development of scheffler reflector

From its design concepts, scheffler reflector is a side view of a parabola. A concentrator is primary
reflector, which tracks the movement of the Sun, focusing sunlight on a fixed place. The focused light
is used to heat the absorber, which boils the water.

Figure 3. 4 Section of Scheffler reflector in a paraboloid [1]

Unlike a conventional paraboloid concentrator, the Scheffler fixed focus concentrator is a lateral
part of a paraboloid as shown in figure above. While designing a parabola curve for the Scheffler
reflector, all calculations are done with respect to equinox (zero solar declination). In order to
calculate the equation of the parabola curve, the calculations are made by considering the side view
of the paraboloid. In this way, the paraboloid and reflector frame are drawn in the form of a
parabola curve and straight line respectively. We can write from the basic parabola equations with
its axis passingthrough the y-axis as described in the following section.
(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑝𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑝 (12)

Where mp is the slope of parabola and Cp is the y-intercept of the parabola.

36
Taking first derivative of Eq. (3.12) for the slope of parabola

𝑃′(𝑥) = 2𝑚𝑝𝑥 (13)

3.3.1 Procedure to Design the Concentrator Parabola

The following are the basic steps in the design of parabola [30]

i. Selection of x-coordinate of point Pn (xp) in order to get a reasonable distance to the focal
point; calculation of y-coordinate of point Pn (yp) and slope mP with the help of Equations
(3.12) and (3.13).
ii. Selection of XE1 and XE2 figure 3.5 in order to get a surface of approximately 16m2 and a
balanced collector; calculation of YE1, YE2 and angle of the line joining the points E1 and
E2.
iii. Check if the two aims are roughly reached (calculation of surface area right and left of Pm
and check their difference for balancing and their sum for collector surface); otherwise
adapt a new set of Pn, E1 and E2.
iv. Calculation of semi-major and semi-minor axis of the concentrator frame.

For a surface area of 16m2, the x-coordinate of the point Pn is taken as 5.74. (All calculations are
based on the point Pn with x-coordinate as 5.74. This coordinate defines the distance of this point to
the focal point, which is also an indicator to the average distance of the reflector surface to the focal
point. A value is taken that keeps this distance small, but still leaves some space between the inner
collector edge and the focal point in order to avoid shading from the building that usually exists
around the focal point.
Therefore, collectors with a higher surface area will generally have a point Pn with a higher x-
coordinate. The first derivative of Equation (3.12) at this point is equal to the slope at the point. The
tangent cuts this point Pn at an angle of 45° with x-axis (directrix), so we can write:

37
 Figure 3. 5. Description of parabola of a Scheffler reflector.

P (5.74) =tan450

P (5.74) =1

According to the definition of parabola, the coordinates at point Pn are given as:

P (5.74) =1/2*(5.74)

P (5.74) =2.86

By using equation (3.2) the values of mp are calculated as

P‟ (m) =2mp, p‟(x) =1

1
𝑚𝑝 = = 0.08
2 ∗ 5.74
Again for equation (3.1)

P(x) =p‟ (5.74) =2.86

Cp =mpx2+cp=0The parabola
equation for equinox is given as:
(𝑥) = 0.08𝑥2 (14)

In order to construct a balanced reflector, two points XE1 and XE2 are calculated on a

38
 graph paper as 2.62 and 9.13. The reason of selecting these points is to construct a
balanced parabola in order to rotate the reflector with a nominal force. In this way, the line joining
these two points E1 and E2 of the parabola curve represents the cutting section of the elliptical frame
of the Scheffler reflector. This line E1E2 is not parallel to the tangent at point Pn (which makes 45°
angle with x-axis) but makes a 43.23° angle as shown in Figure 3.5. The structure is equilibrated and
needs a little force to move thereflector.

As we can see in Figure above, the general equation of this straight line is given by: G(x) =mgx +
Cg (15)
Where mg is the slope of the line and cg is the y-intercept of the line
Differentiating equation with respect to x-gives
G‟(x) =mg Mg =tan43.23
G‟(x) = tan43.23
G‟(x) =0.94

The coordinate x of point E1 (xE1) is selected to be 2.64 and the coordinate y is calculated to be
0.56 by using Eq. (3.15). By substituting the values of x, y and mg in Eq. (3.15), the y-intercept
(Cg) is calculated to be -1.92 and the equation of the straightline becomes:
G‟(x) = 0.94x-1.92 (16)

The coordinate x of point E2 (xE2) is calculated by comparing and solving Eqs.(1) and (4), the
general form of a quadratic equation is as follows i.e.
P(x) =G(x)

Which gives the general form of a quadratic equation,

𝑚
𝑥2 − ( 𝑔) + [( ) − ( ) (17)
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑝

Through solving Eq. (3.17) with the help of a quadratic formula to get two points ofintersection
(xE1 and xE2) of the parabola curve and straight line, we get:

39
 + [( mg )2 − (𝑐𝑝−𝑐𝑔
𝑚𝑔 1

𝐸1
𝑋 = )]2 (17a)
2𝑚𝑝 2𝑚 𝑝
𝑚𝑝

𝑚𝑔 − [(mg )2 − (𝑐𝑝−𝑐𝑔 1
𝐸2 𝑋 = )]2 (17b)
2𝑚𝑝 2𝑚𝑝
𝑚𝑝

By equating the two equations of lines (parabola and straight lines), the point ofintersection for
the two graph lines can be calculated.

0.08𝑥2 = 0.94𝑥 − 1.92

Rearranging the equation,

𝑥2 − 11.75𝑥 + 24 = 0 (18)

The two roots are 9.13 and 2.62.

The straight line cutting the curve represents a cutting plane of an ellipse with axes ratio a/b = cosα,
where “a” and “b” are the semi-minor axis and semi-major axis respectively. For a given paraboloid,
the cutting section of the lateral part will make an ellipse and its projection on the ground
(horizontal plane) will make a circle. Therefore, the semi- minor axis of the ellipse and radius of
projection on the ground will become the same.The projection of this ellipse on the horizontal plane
(xz-plane) is a circle with a diameter of 2a. The general equation for the diameter of circle (2a) is
calculated for a Scheffler reflector by subtracting Eq. (3.17b) from Eq. (3.17a) and is given by:
𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑝−𝑐𝑔 1
2𝑎 = 2[(2𝑚𝑝 ) −( 𝑚𝑝 )]2 (19)

The semi-minor axis of the ellipse is 2.74m and semi major axis of the reflector is calculated to be
3.75m by dividing with axes ratio (cos 43.230).

3.3 Distribution of crossbars on the reflector frame

For the construction of the Scheffler reflector, it is necessary to know the exact position of the
crossbars on the reflector frame. The frame of the Scheffler reflector is elliptical in shape and this
can easily be calculated by using the equation of ellipse, which is given below:
𝑥 𝑦
( )2 + ( )2 = 1 (20)
𝑏 𝑎

Where „a‟ is the semi-minor axis of the ellipse, b is the semi major axis of the ellipse. In order to
locate any point “yn” with respect to “xn” on the elliptical frame, Eq. (10) can be written as:

40
 𝑦𝑛 = cos 43.23[𝑏2 − 𝑥2]0.5 (21)

Equation above is used to calculate the position of crossbars on the elliptical frame of the Scheffler
reflector. A number of points can be taken but not more than seven to nine crossbars are sufficient to
make the required section of the paraboloid for a 16m2 Scheffler reflector.

3.3.1 Calculation of equations for crossbars ellipses

The cutting planes of the crossbars are perpendicular to the cutting plane of the reflectorframe and are
shown in the form of seven straight lines (q1–q7) as shown in Figure 3.7.The inclination angle of the
cutting plane of crossbars is found to be -46.770 by subtracting the angle of the cutting plane of the
reflector frame from 900. These cutting lines are ellipses with axes ratio (aq/bq) = cos 46.77. Starting
from the middle crossbar (q4, passing through Pc), we take from the basic equation of the line and it
is given as:
𝑞4(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑞4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑞4 (22) Slope of the
middle crossbar is calculated as:
𝑚𝑞4 = tan(−46.77) = −1.06

The x-coordinate of the point of intersection (Cf) of the middle crossbar and the reflector frame is
the central point of xE1 and xE2. The y-coordinate is calculated by substituting this value of x in Eq.
(3.16) and is given as follows:

𝑞4(5.43) = 3.2

Substituting the values of mq4, q4(x) and x in Eq. (3.22), the y-intercept (Cq4) for the middle
crossbar is calculated and the equation of the middle crossbar (q4) for 16m2 surface area of the
Scheffler reflector is given as:

𝑞4(𝑥) = −1.06𝑥 + 8.94 (23)

It is evident from Fig. 3.7 that the slopes for all cutting crossbars are the same as these are
perpendicular on the same cutting plane of the Scheffler frame. As the crossbars are equally
distributed (from the center of the reflector frame), so the difference between the two successive y-
intercepts can be set according the requirement and based on size facets of the glass mirror attached.
In this case, 0.7 is taken.

41
The equations for the 4th, 5th and 6th crossbars are calculated by adding 0.70, 2(0.70) and 3(0.70) in
the y-intercepts values of Eq. (3.23) respectively. Similarly, the equations for 3rd, 2nd and 1st
crossbars are calculated by subtracting 0.70, 2(0.70) and 3(0.70) from the y-intercepts values of Eq.
(3.23) respectively.

The equations for all crossbars can be generalized as qn(x) = mqx + Cqn. Similarly, for a semi-
minor axis (aqn) of any crossbar ellipse, Eq. (3.19) can be modified for crossbars and the reflector
frame and is generalized as:

Where subscript “n” represents the number of crossbars

Figure 3. 6 Description of the Scheffler reflector and crossbars on parabola curve

3.3.2 Calculation of depths and arc lengths for different crossbars

After the calculation of equations for different crossbars, the depths and lengths of arcsfor
different crossbars are calculated for the construction of the Scheffler concentrator[1]. The
depth of reflector for the nth crossbar (Dn) is calculated from the followingformula and is
explained in Figure 3.8 shown below [1].

42
Crossbar y-intercept Equation of cutting Semi-minor Semi-major axis
n Cqn (m) section cross bars on xy axis aqn bqn (m)
plane (m)
1 6.84 q4(x) = -1.06x +6.84 7.06 10.31

2 7.54 q4(x) = -1.06x +7.54 7.35 10.73

3 8.24 q4(x) = -1.06x +8.24 7.62 11.13

4 8.94 q4(x) = -1.06 x +8.94 7.89 11.52

5 9.64 q4(x) = -1.06 x +9.64 8.15 11.89

6 10.34 q4(x) = -1.06 x +10.34 8.39 12.26

7 11.04 q4(x) = -1.06 x +11..04 8.64 12.61

Table 3. 1 Equations, semi-minor axis and semi-major axis of different crossbars.

Figure 3. 7 Ellipse of the crossbar for the Scheffler concentrator

𝑎𝑞𝑛
∆𝑛 = −𝑍 (25)
𝑐𝑜𝑠46.77
1
((𝑎𝑞𝑛)2 − (𝑦𝑛)2)2
𝑍=
𝑐𝑜𝑠46.77
From basic formula ellipse by substituting value of z in equation 3.15 we get
1
[𝑎𝑞𝑛−(𝑎𝑞𝑛)2−(𝑦𝑛)2]2
∆𝑛 = −𝑍 (26)
𝑐𝑜𝑠46.77

43
We can see that all of the crossbars are the parts of the ellipses that differ slightlyfrom the
circle segment.

Figure 3. 8 Radius, depth and arc length details for the nth crossbar [3]

For the solar concentrator optics, different approximations are valid to concentrate energy cheaply
rather than to form a precise image [17]. As the small segments are usedfor large ellipses, these small
elliptical segments are taken as the parts of circle segments. In this case, since it is along the
crossbar, a small placement deviation also means a small angle deviation. For an nth crossbar,
radius (Rn), depth (△n), arc length (bn) and angle made with half arc length (βn) are shown in
Figure 3.8 shown.
It is evident from Figure 3.8

(𝑅𝑛)2 = (𝑅𝑛 − ∆𝑛)2 + (𝑦𝑛)2

Simplifying the above equation,

(∆𝑛)2+(𝑦𝑛)2 (27)
𝑅𝑛 =
2∆
It is clear that from Figure 3.6,

In this manner radius (R), depth (Δ), arc length (b) and angle made with half arc length(β) of the all
the cross bars are calculated by using the equations (27)– (29).

44
 3.4 Fixed focus tracking
Elliptical dish is a fixed focus tracking [27]. The present crossbar design is compatiblewith the
unique seasonal tracking mechanism employed in Scheffler reflector,
originally proposed by the German engineer Wolf Gang Scheffler, to achieve stationary focal point
throughout the year. The tracking mechanism is briefly explained with the help of schematic, shown
in Figure 3.10. The reflector is attached to a shaft along north- south direction at point P with a pivot
joint. It rotates for hourly tracking of the sun from sunrise to sunset. It rotates with a constant speed
of 1rev/day and is inclined at an angle ϕ, which is the latitude angle of the installation site. This can
be automated with the help of a controller and a DC motor powered by a mini-solar panel. It should
be noted that the reflector has to be reset to its initial position for tracking the sun next day.
Two telescopic clamps with locks are provided at the top and bottom of the reflector and are joined
to E1 and E2 using pivot joints as shown in Fig. 3.10. When the position of the sun (solar declination
δ) in sky shifts in a north-south direction with the change in season, the sunrays do not focus at F. In
order to refocus solar radiations back at F, the two telescopic clamps are unlocked and the parabola
is manually tilted towards the sun‟s new position. Once the light gets refocused at F, the bottom
telescopic clamp is locked. After that, the top telescopic clamp connected to E1 is to be manually
pushed or pulled to flex the Scheffler reflector profile until a minimum spot size (a sign of proper
concentration) is achieved at the focal plane. The top clamp is then locked and Scheffler reflector is
ready for the use. This adjustment can be performed once a week, or less frequently near the
solstices, to avoid significant deviation of the spot from focus. This will ensure proper utilization of
the installed reflector. The pushing and pulling action of top telescopic clamp causes elongation or
compression of the major axis of the elliptical rim with corresponding contraction or elongation of
the minor axis, as shown in. When E1E2 (major axis of the elliptical rim) is elongated, the parabolic
support moves closer to the inclined plane with a reduced curvature. Each crossbar experiences
contraction from two ends at the elliptical rim. This will result in a reduction of overall curvature of
the Scheffler reflector.
It is evident that the diameter of aperture circle is equal to the minor axis of the elliptical rim. With
elongation of the major axis and subsequent contraction in minor axis, aperture area reduces
whereas with contraction of the major axis and subsequent expansion in minor axis, aperture area
increases. It is worth mentioning here that telescopic arrangement employed for seasonal adjustment
causes a change in curvature of the crossbar as well as that in the curvature of parabolic support. It
should be noted that the Scheffler reflector is designed for equinox. The elongation and contraction
of

45
E1E2 changes the focal length of the Scheffler parabolic support without altering the spatial
coordinates of focal point F and pivot point P. Hence, the distance between F and P remain twice
the focal length at the equinox.

Figure 3. 9 Hourly and seasonal tracking mechanism for Scheffler reflector [25]
The sun gives us the impression of movement because the earth is revolving under our feet. One
way to stop moving while rotating is to locate our self in the center or axis of the rotation, the same
way, the hot focus of the Scheffler concentrator can be kept at a fixed place in the axis of rotation of
the reflector giving maximum convenience for utilization of solar energy [10]. For daily tracking,
these reflectors rotate along an axis parallel to polar axis with an angular velocity of one revolution
per day to counterbalance the effect of daily earth rotation. The daily tracking is accomplished with
the help of a small self-tracking Photovoltaic system or clockwork operated by gravity, which
provide angular velocity at one revolution per day.

3.4 Moving with the Sun

Just as the earth spins around an axis through the North Pole and the South Pole, the Scheffler
Reflector spins around an axis parallel to that, just in the opposite direction. (To counteract the
earth‟s rotation), this is called polar mounting or mounting on a polaraxis. The speed is one revolution
per day, or, better, half a revolution in half a day, since we do not use it at night. In this way, the
concentrator keeps facing the sun in a constantmanner [35].

46
 For practical reasons, the shape of the reflector should be such that the hot focus is outside of the
reflector, either on the north side or on the south side. This way the hot focus can be even inside a
building while the concentrator remains outside. The beam radiation has to be always parallel to the
y-axis. Note that in moving with the sun there is a change in the aperture area, the focus F and the
center of the Scheffler concentrator(black dot) remain stationary.

Figure 3. 10 Parabolas focusing the sunlight at a fixed focus by moving with the sun

47
 Components and material of Scheffler dish
The key components of Scheffler dish are:

 Reflector dish
 Receiver
 Dish stand
 Tracking System

Summary of material of scheffler reflector

1.Mirror

parameter Specification
Type Solar grade mirror with low iron content or Aluminum
reflector with glass like finish for an outdoor use.
Aluminum reflectors should have a proper back support
for the precise reflective surface area.
Parameter Specification
Material Tempered and toughened Solar grade glass/Glass
Infused Aluminum/Aluminum tested for scratches and
durability.
Shape Flat mirror cut in required sizes for different models
Size All dimensions of a mirror should be less than the
diameter of the receiver
Thickness 2-3 mm for Solar Grade Mirror/ 0.5mm for Aluminum
Reflector
Reflective Coating High quality silver back coating
Reflectivity At least 90%
Cross bar structure consisting of square bars and angle
Design sections to form a shape of parabola with metal channels
bolted above the square bars for fixing mirror.
Material all sections & bars made of Standard mild steel and
channels of Aluminum
Shape Parabolic shape
Thickness of structural Various hallow sections have variable thickness.
components
Fixing of mirrors on On the base structure with the help of industrial adhesive
Support Structure and fasteners after ensuring equinox position of the
support structure

2.Receiver
The receiver of scheffler dish is placed at the focus of
the dish to capture the incident solar radiation and
transfer it to the thermal medium used in the system.
Design Spherical type receiver
Material Boiler grade Mild Steel / SA516 ASTM1

48
Size & Thickness Diameter is based on the kg of to be cook or boiled at
the same time rate required as per the process

3.Dish stand
Parameter Specification
The basic framework of the dish stand is a steel
structure. The structure is designed to withstand wind
speed in operating conditions as well as in parked stage
as per the applicable structural design code. The overall
system rests on a civil foundation. The rotary support,
counter weight and other equipment‟s like an electric
motor for tracking are attached on the Dish stand.
Design Rectangular/Triangular conical shape steel structure
consisting of standard IS (Indian Standards) sections,
pipes and angles fixed on a cement concrete column
Material Mild Steel structure and cement concrete
Strength & Durability Designed to withstand 160 Km/hr. of wind speed with
a life span of 20 years
1. Tracking System
Tracking system enables the dish to be focused towards
the sun to capture maximum possible direct radiation
during the day. It also tracks the sun as it changes its
position during the seasons
Parameter Specification
Automatic mechanism (Microprocessor based/Timer
Mechanism based) for daily tracking and manual mechanism for
seasonal tracking in 16m2 scheffler dish system.
Automatic mechanism (Timer based) for daily tracking
and Semi-Automatic mechanism with the help of
switches for seasonal tracking in 32 m2 scheffler dish
system
Equipment used  Standard Electric Motor, Rope with counter
weight,
Gear box, Chain, Timer and Threaded Bars for
timer based daily tracking
 Set of photo sensors, chains, motors, gears and
actuators for microprocessor based daily tracking
Table 3. 2 Components and its Specification

49
 Figure 3. 13 (a) Tracking mechanism (b) footage and support (c) reflector

3.7 Materials
Many materials are used during the data collection. These materials are Pyranometer and infrared
thermometer.

3.8.1 Pyranometer
The Pyranometer model- SP Lite2 measures incoming solar radiation (sun plus sky radiation)
with a photodiode detector. Output from the photodiode is a current, which is converted to voltage
by an internal shunt resistor. The Pyranometer model- SP Lite2 can be used in solar energy
applications such as plant growth, thermal convection and evapotranspiration.
The Pyranometer model- SP Lite2 is used for measuring solar radiation. It measures the solar
energy received from the entire hemisphere i.e. field of view. The output is expressed in Watts per
square meter (W/m2). The Pyranometer model- SP Lite2 is designed for continuous outside use,
and its calibration is valid only for unshaded natural daylight – not for artificial light. It is most
usually used to measure solar radiation being received on the horizontal plane. However, the
Pyranometer model- SP Lite2 can, if required, be used in an inverted or tilted position [35 ].

3.9.1.1 Specifications of silicon pyranometer (SP lite 2)

Spectral range (overall) 400 to 1100 nm
Sensitivity 60 to 100 µV/W/m²
Response time SP Lite2 (95%) < 500 ns
Directional response (up to 80° with 1000 W/m² beam) < 10 W/m²
Temperature response SP Lite2 < -0.15 % / °C
Operational temperature range -40 °C to +80 °C
Maximum solar irradiance 2000 W/m²
Field of view 180 °
Table 3. 3 specification of silicon pyranometer

Good quality, reliable radiation data is extremely important for all activities in the solarenergy sector.
Photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar power (CSP) thermal systems may have slightly differing
requirements, but they need accurate solar radiation information for the same reasons [17]. Efficient
utilization of solar energy for systems designs and selection of components for agricultural,
industrial, telecommunications and household applications require knowledge of the actual solar
radiation reaching the

50
earth‟s surface at location of interest. Hence, in the process of collecting data pyranometer was used
to measure the solar intensity reaching on earth‟s surface.
There is the scientific standard instrument used for measuring solar radiation. The World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the International Standards Organization (ISO) define
these types of instruments. In a solar monitoring station, solar radiation is measured in three ways:

Figure 3. 14 pyranometer with its multi meter

 Global Solar Radiation: is the sum of the beam and the diffuse solar radiation on a surface.
The most common measurements of solar radiation are total radiation on a horizontal
surface, often referred to as global radiation on the surface. A “Pyranometer” measures
global Solar Radiation, which is a radiometer with a glass dome that has a hemispherical
view of the whole sky.
 Direct Solar radiation: is the solar radiation received from the sun without having been
scattered by the atmosphere. Beam radiation often referred to as direct solar radiation. The
direct solar radiation is measured by a “Pyrheliometer.” This is a radiometer with a 5º view
that is pointed accurately at the Centre of the sun by an automatic Sun Tracker. It only sees
the sun and its aureole.
 Diffuse Solar Radiation: is scattered by aerosols in the atmosphere and reflected by clouds.
It received from the sun after its direction has been changed by scattering by the atmosphere.
Diffuse radiation is referred to in some meteorological literature as sky radiation or solar sky
radiation. A Pyranometer mounted on a sun tracker with a shading mechanism to block the
direct solar irradiance measures it.

51
 Global=direct + diffuse

Figure 3. 15. World measurement organization solar radiation quantities

3.8.2 Infrared thermometer

It essentially consists of a lens to focus the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector, which
converts the radiant power to an electrical signal that can be displayed in units of temperature after
being compensated for ambient temperature. This permits temperature measurement from a
distance without a contact with the object to be measured. A non-contact infrared thermometer is
useful for measuring temperature under circumstances where thermocouples or other probe type
sensors cannot be used or do not produce accurate data for a variety of reasons. It is also used to
measure a high temperature where it is difficult to reach and make a contact.

Figure 3.16 infrared thermometer

52
 3.9. Installation of the Scheffler Concentrator
While installing a Scheffler reflector at any site, the axis of rotation is fixed very precisely at an
angle equal to “the latitude of the site” with horizontal in north-south direction. For daily tracking,
these reflectors rotate along an axis parallel to polar axis with an angular velocity of one revolution
per day to counterbalance the effect of daily earth rotation [1]. Scheffler reflectors are classified as
standing reflectors and laying reflectors depending upon the direction of the concentrator face. All
standing reflectors face towards south in the northern hemisphere, and north in the southern
hemisphere, as well as providing focus at ground level. But the laying reflectors face north in the
northern hemisphere, and south in southern hemisphere, as well as providing an elevated focus. The
installation detail for standing reflectors in the northern hemisphere(at Ø° latitude angle) is shown in
Figure 3.17 below.

Figure 3.17 Installation and daily tracking details of Scheffler reflector (valid forstanding
reflectors in northern hemisphere)

53
 3.10 Working principle
The Scheffler reflector system works on the following principles:

a. The Elliptic reflective dish turns about north-south axis parallel to earth„s (South-North
in Southern Hemisphere) axis, tracking by manual moment of disc, the sun„s movement
from morning (East) to evening (West), and maintaining gravitational equilibrium of the
dish.
b. The Elliptic reflector also performs change in inclination angle while staying directed to
sun, in order to obtain sharp focal point.

c. Focus lies at the axis of rotation. It remains in a fixed position, where the concentrated
ray is captured and transferred to the Rice and Pulses confined in the receiver.

54
 CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS AND EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF ELLIPTICAL DISH (SCHEFFLER)

4.1 Solar irradiation

Solar irradiation is the amount of available solar energy on the ground surface over a specified time,
expressed as kWh/m2 or MJ/m2. Irradiance (1kWh/m2 = 3.6 MJ/m2). The sum of direct and diffuse
solar irradiation called global irradiation. Solar irradiation is important factor for the design and
operation of the solar energy system [30].

4.2. Available Solar radiation:

Since the measurements of solar radiation are often not available, attempts have been made by
many investigators to establish relationship linking the values of the radiation (global or diffuse)
with the metrological parameters like number of sunshine hours, cloud cover and precipitation.

4.2.1 Monthly average global radiation:

To estimate monthly average global solar radiation on horizontal surface considers the following
equation.

Month Gsc(Solar Constant n (nth day of the δ ( solar ωs ( sunset hour

in J/s-m2) months) declination in angles in degree)
degree)
Jan 1367 17 -20.9 82.62
Feb 1367 47 -13.0 85.54
March 1367 75 -2.40 89.19
April 1367 105 9.40 93.19
May 1367 135 18.8 90.12
June 1367 162 23.1 98.25
July 1367 198 21.2 97.50
Aug 1367 228 13.5 94.63
Sept 1367 258 2.20 90.74
Oct 1367 288 -9.60 86.74
Nov 1367 318 -18.9 83.38
Dec 1367 344 -23.0 81.79
Table: Monthly average global radiation

55
the monthly average daily global solar radiation falling on a horizontal the surface at a particular location

𝑜= is the monthly mean daily radiation on a horizontal surface in the absence of the atmosphere
𝐻

𝑛𝑠= is the monthly mean daily number of hour of observed sunshine hours,

𝑁
𝑠= is the monthly mean value of day length at a particular location,
a, b -climatologically determined regression constant.

4.2.2. Monthly average daily diffuse radiation: The monthly average daily diffuse radiation on a
horizontal surface can be determined from the monthly average daily global radiation on a
horizontal surface and the number of bright sunshine hours.

4.2.3 Monthly Average Hourly Global Radiation on a Horizontal Surface: The monthly
average hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface can be calculated from the knowledge of the
monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal surface.

4.2.4 Monthly Average Hourly Diffuse Radiation on a Horizontal Surface: The monthly average
hourly diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface can be calculated from the

56
The ratio of average hourly total to daily total radiation as a function of hour relative to solar noon
and the day length. The number of days is assumed symmetrical about solar noon and the hours
indicated by their midpoints. In the present study, the monthly average hourly horizontal global and
diffuse radiation for the given sunshine hours of
Mahatma Phule Agricultural city also calculated and plotted by the excel worksheet. The global
solar radiation and diffuse solar radiation calculated from the following equation. Moreover, the
direct normal radiation (beam) is the difference between global and diffuse radiation.
I*As*α = h*As*(Ts-Ta) + 𝜀*𝜎*As*(Ts-Tsky) (35)
Where I, α, 𝜎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 are solar radiation, absorptivity, Stefan Boltzmann constant and emissivity
respectively.
The monthly average radiation outside of the atmosphere (extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal
surface) 𝐻𝑜calculated as:

39
Ho
extraterrestirial solar radiation (MJ/m2)

38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29

Ho
Months

Figure 4. 1 monthly average Extraterrestrial radiation

57
 12.6 Monthly Averaged day length Hours (Ns)

12.4

12.2

12

11.8

11.6

11.4

11.2

11

Months

Figure 4. 2-Day length hours.

4.3 Solar angles

The time used in all of the sun-angle relations is the Solar Time. Solar time is a time based on the
apparent angular motion of the sun across the sky, with solar noon the time with the sun crosses the
meridian of the observer [4]. Watch time (Standard time) is described on longitudes and is
dependent on the standard meridian for each country.
The difference in minutes between solar time and standard time is given by

solar time = standard time + 4(Lst+Lloc)+E (38)Where:

Lst is the standard meridian for the local time zone Local is the
longitude of the location in question
E is equation of time E (in minutes)

E = 229.2(0.000075+ 0.001868 cos B - 0.032077sinB- 0.014615cos2B -0.04089sin2B)

360
B= (𝑁 − 1) (39)
365

4.3.1 The hour angle (ω): To describe the earth's rotation about its polar axis, we usethe concept
of the hour angle (ω). As shown in the figure below the hour angle is the

58
angular distance between the meridian of the observer and the meridian whose plane contains the
sun. The hour angle is zero at solar noon (when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky). At this
time the sun is said to be „due south‟ (or due north in the Southern Hemisphere) since the meridian
plane of the observer contains the sun. The hour angle increases by 15 degrees every hour [26].
The hour angle (ω) is defined as the angle between the meridian parallel to sunrays and the meridian
containing the observer [26]
The Hour angle: Hour angle is given by the following equation.

(40)

Figure 4. 3: hour angle Variation of the hour angle in a day [26]

4.3.2 Declination angle (δ): Declination angle is the angular position of the sun at solar noon (i.e.,
when the sun is on the local meridian) with respect to the plane of the equator,north positive and south
negative, −23.45 ≤ δ ≤ 23.45. the angle between the earth- sun line and the plane through the equator
is called the solar declination angle (δ). The number of day n is from 1 to 365. Then the declination
angle (δ) is calculated as follows.
284+𝑛
δ = 23.45 ∗ sin(360 ∗ ) (41)
365

Figure 4. 4: declination angle of sunrays

59
The plane that includes the earth„s equator is called the equatorial plane. If a line is drawn between
the center of the earth and the sun, the angle between this line and the earth's equatorial plane is
called the declination angle (δ). At the time of year when the northern part of the earth's rotational
axis is inclined toward the sun; the earth„s equatorial plane is inclined 23.45 degrees to the earth-sun
line. At this time (about June 21), we observe that the noontime sun is at its highest point in the sky
and the declination angle δ = +23.45 degrees. We call this condition the summer solstice, and it
marks the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere. As the earth continues its yearly orbit
about the sun, a point is reached about 3 months later where a line from the earth to the sun lies on
the equatorial plane. At this point, an observer on the equator would observe that the sun was directly
overhead at noontime. This condition is called an equinox since anywhere on the earth, the time
during which the sun is visible (daytime) is exactly 12 hours and the time when it is not visible
(nighttime) is 12 hours. There are two such conditions during a year; the autumnal equinox on about
September 23, marking the start of the fall; and the vernal equinox on about March 22, marking the
beginning of spring. At the equinoxes, the declination angle (δ) is zero. The winter solstice occurs
on about December 22 and marks the point where the equatorial plane is tilted relative to the earth-
sun line such that the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun. We say that the noontime
sun is at its "lowest point" in the sky, meaning that the declination angle is at its most negative value
(i.e., δ = -23.45 degrees). By convention, winter declination angles are negative. Declination (δ) can
be found from the equation

Figure 4. 5 variation of declination of angle for all months of the year where n is from table 4.

30
declination angle (δ)
20

10
dec. angle (δ)

declination…
0

-10

-20

-30 Months

60
Sunset hour angle is:

ꞷs=cosc-1(-tanɸ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿) (42)
ɸ=is altitude of Mahatma Phule Agricultural, which is 7.670

𝛿=declination angle

sunset hour angle (ꞷs)

94
93
92 sunset hour angle (ꞷs)
sunset hour angel [0]

91
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83

Months

Figure 4. 6 sunset hour angle variation in months

4.4 Data gathered during the experiment

The temperature data tabled below has measured from both absorber of scheffler reflector and
parabolic dish. The parabolic dish of a diameter 1.8m that has a calculated focal length of 0.72m
while the depth of the dish is 0.28m is used. The data from parabolic dish has taken only for the
sake of comparing it with scheffler reflector‟s performance at the same time. The table shown
below indicates the solar data i.e. temperature from receivers of both scheffler (elliptical dish) and
solar dish collector. The time given is indicated based on Indian local time. The other is the solar
intensityat different height from the ground. The two data from the two table is taken at multiple days
in February and March and the average data is received. The data in the following table has been
collected on January 19/2024.

61
 local time (hr.) Tr scheffler(0C) Tr solar dish Solar intensity
(0C) (W/m2)
11:10am 40 130 929.9
11:20am 55 149 960.4
11:30am 130 210 968
11:40am 160 140 983.2
11:50am 140 150 1006.1
12:00pm 180 180 1013.7
12:10pm 260 150 1021.3
12:20pm 225 155 1067.1
12:30pm 245 156 1082.3
12:30pm 270 160 1089.9
12:40pm 273 157 988
12:50pm 280 162 940
13:00pm 297 167 960.4
13:10pm 300 165 1067.1
13:20pm 276 150 1082.3
13:30pm 285 180 929
13:40pm 296 173 899.4
13:50pm 212 174 929.9
14:00pm 154 181 960.4
14:10pm 123 188 1006.1
14:20pm 67 195 1021.3
14:30pm 41 190 990.9
Table 5. 1 Data collected on February 14/2024
There are multi Solar data received during the assessment of scheffler for Rice and Pulses cook or
boil, but for simplicity, two tables are selected since most of them have a similar to indication.

62
 Time(hr) Tr scheffler (0C) Tr dish (0C) Solar intensity
(W/m2)
12:00pm 160 110 838.4
12:10pm 185 140 853.7
12:20pm 200 156 861.3
12:30pm 220 158 868.9
12:40pm 235 165 914.6
12:50pm 260 175 929.9
13:00pm 262 173 914.6
13:10pm 266 170 914.6
13:20pm 278 178 975.6
13:30pm 275 177 929.9
13:40pm 269 175 739.3
13:50pm 222 177 868.9
14:00pm 218 160 929.6
14:05pm 215 173 945.1
14:10pm 208 176 853.7
14:15pm 193 178 884
14:40pm 75 180 914.6
Table 5. 2 solar data collected on March 31/2024

4.5 Why the ray from the elliptical dish was not focused
After examining the dish, the following reasons are drafted why rays are not focusing appropriately.
 The North-South direction of the hourly and seasonal rotation of the dish was not considered
appropriately (South-North direction in Southern Hemisphere)
 The two telescopic clamps are not fitting the exact hourly changes to compensate changes of
sun‟s position during the day
 The receiver designed for Rice and Pulses cook or boiling does not transfer heat required all
over its surface i.e. the reaction surface (the surface that the reflected ray strikes) is too
small. It is multilayered and temperature lost is high.
 The engine that rotates the reflector following the sun‟s position is not positioned well.

63
 Beyond the above four reasons, the reflector has no any other problem to function accordingly.

4.6 TESTING PROCEDURE AND EXPERIMENTATION:

The Scheffler reflector used here has an area of 16 m^2 . The sunlight that falls onto this reflector is reflected
sideways to the focal point away from the reflector. The axis of daily rotation is located exactly in
northsouth direction, parallel to earth axis and runs through the centre of gravity of the reflector. Thus the
reflector always maintains its gravitational equilibrium and the mechanical tracking device (clockwork) can
be moved easily in position with the sun. The focus is located on the axis of rotation to prevent it from
moving when the reflector rotates. During the day, the concentrated light is rotated around its own center but
not in sideways. Thus, the focus stays fixed. At the focus it has a receiver to hold 20 liter water. The
parameters measured were: ambient temperature, water temperature, solar radiation and wind speed. The
built in thermometer is used to measure water temperature which has a range of – 200° C to 1250 ° C. Wind
speed is measured by battery operated digital Anemometer with a range 0.3 to30 m/s and with a facility to
show ambient temperature. A pyranometer is used to measure the radiation. The experimentation was carried
in the month of February to March 2024. The readings were taken between 9 AM to 10:35AM at 31 March
2024

4.6.1 Remedies taken

Different measures have taken to harness the possible amount of energy from the reflector to cook
or boil Rice and Pulses beans. These are:
 Finding the better ray focusing area by observing the reflector through assessment during
the whole of sunny day. This measurement is done and the better result is gained as shown
in the table.
 Changing the receiver that has a better reaction surface. The same material ofreceiver with
previous is raised and the result is much better.
 Identifying the time at which the ray is focused and it is displayed usinggraphs.
 The parabolic solar dish collector was manufactured, and assessed with the scheffler
reflector at the same time and the result is compared.

64
4.6.2 Heat transfer in terms of temperature gradient method
Conduction heat transfer: - Conduction is a process of heat transfer generated by molecular
vibration within an object. The object has no motion of the material during the heat transfer process.
The example below well explained about conduction heat transfer.

Figure 4. 7 conduction heat transfer

As figure 4.7, there is a metal stick. Using a candle to heat the left side of the stick for a while, then
the right side of the stick will be found to be hot as well. It is because the energy has been
transferred from the left side of the stick to the right side. In addition, this kind of heat transfer is
conduction. After knowing a subject‟s conduction is the heattransfer from one end to the other end, it
is important for calculating about the heat transfer rate. Based on the experiment experiences, for
the one dimension conduction heat transfer in a plane wall, the amount of heat energy being
transferred per unit time
is proportional to the normal temperature gradient 𝑑𝑇and the cross-sectional area A [7]
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 (43)
𝑑𝑥

Where q is the heat-transfer rate (W), A is cross-sectional area (m2), k is the thermal

conductivity of the material (W/ (m.K)), 𝑑𝑇 is the temperature gradient. The Equation
𝑑𝑥

(1) is the formula of calculation of conduction heat transfer rate; it is also known as Fourier‟s law of
heat conduction. The minus sign means heat transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. If
the heat transfer rate q divided by the cross sectional areaA, the equation (1) can be derived as:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞′′ = −𝑘 (44)
𝑑𝑥

65
Where q‟‟ is called conduction heat flux. The heat flux was derived from the Fourier‟s law of heat
conduction; it can be described as the heat transfer rate through unit cross sectional area. The
amount of the thermal conductivity k indicates the substance‟s ability of transferring heat. If it is a
big amount, it means the substance has high level of ability on heat transfer. The number of the
thermal conductivity depends on the material; of course, it is also affected by the temperature
outside.

The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface solves for the following equation

The different quantities involved here are recalled below:

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant stress (SI unit: J/(kg·K))

• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)

• Utrans is the velocity vector of translational motion (SI unit: m/s)

• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)

2
• qr is the heat flux by radiation (SI unit: W/m )

• α is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K)

• S is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)

• Q contains additional heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)

For a steady-state problem, the temperature does not change with time and the terms with time
derivatives disappear. However, in this case study since the analysis of heat transfer in receiver of
the (cook or boiler) is time dependent. Therefore, the above equation will be as it is, No term of the
equation will be disappeared. The first term on the right- hand side of Equation 4 is the thermos-
elastic damping and accounts for thermo-elasticeffects in solids:
𝑑𝑆
Qted = −α ∗ T (46)
𝑑𝑡

It should be noted that the d ⁄ dt operator is the material derivative, as described in theTime Derivative
subsection of Material and Spatial Frames.

66
4.7 SIMULATION AND RESULT
4.7.Simulation of data gathered
Solar data collected during the assessment, which is labeled in the above section can be more
clarified by showing it in the graphs. After a series of assessment procedure, positive results have
been harnessed from the scheffler reflector. As shown in table 5.1 and 5.2, the temperature recorded
from the scheffler reflector is compared with temperature recorded from parabolic solar dish
collector. However, the time of the day at which the maximum temperature harnessed from the
elliptical dish (scheffler reflector) is minimum. As one can refer from the two the graphs above, the
temperature of the receiver of Rice and Pulses cook or boiler rises from (5:00AM) in a short time
and it declines at about (8:30 PM) local time.

graph from table 1

300

250
temperature(0C)

200

150

100
Tr scheffler (deg.celcius) Tr dish(deg. celcius)
50

Figure 5. 1 comparison data from both scheffler

time (hr.)
and parabolic dish

This shows the problem is not with the dish but due to the North South positioning error occurred
during the installation time, the elliptical dish that has a fixed receiver in a design could not
concentrate the beam radiation coming from the sun. During the morning (before 5:00AM) and
afternoon (after 14:00PM) even if the day is sunny day there is no concentration of beam radiation
i.e. the receiver cannot harness the temperature required for Rice and Pulses cook or boiling
purpose. The time gap at which required amount of temperature gained is short. The time gap at
which the required temperature

67
is available is discovered during the assessment. The Rice and Pulses is cook or boiled at the
available temperature to both scheffler dish and solar dish collector.

Since the installation defect happened, the dish could not concentrate the beam radiation. However,
after series of attempts to make the concentration happened, results have been gained. As shown
below, the temperature needed to cook or boil Rice and Pulses has been harnessed. As the result is
simulated using the terms of temperature gradient method software package. Calculating the heat
flux and putting the result in terms of temperature gradient method, processing the simulation the
temperature distribution on the receiver has been gained in figure 5.4. The temperature versus time
is also a result we can extract from the Terms of temperature gradient method software package as
indicated in figure 5.5.
In a similar way, the graph from the table 5.2 is plotted below as the shape of it is nearly similar with
the figure 5.1 and the temperature of the scheffler receiver rises during mid-day and falls during the
afternoon from the two graphs.

graph from table 2

350

300
temperature (0C)

250

200

150

100

50

time of the day (hr.)

T(dish) T(scheffler)

Figure 5. 2 comparison data from both scheffler and parabolic dish

68
Cost Benefit Ratio:

No. of No. of Food Pressure Operating Fuel Annual Payback

Conce meals per type (kg/cm^ days / Replaced Amount Period
ntrators day 2) year of Fuel Without
saved subsidy
(years)
4 800 Rice (20 10-12 243 LPG 36 3 to 5
kg kg/day
Rice per
day)
Pulses
(20
Kg/day)

69
 4.8 Interpretation of the result
When the two graphs are observed, even if the data they represent is taken at the different days, the
outcome is nearly similar. The two graphs show comparison of parabolic solar dish and elliptical
dish concentrators. The temperature level on the graph is taken from the receivers of both dishes. The
curve on both graphs of scheffler reflector and parabolic solar dish are expressed below.
Parabolic solar dish: - The temperature which will be gained at the focus point has no big
difference irrespective of time and solar angle, because tracking mechanism of the parabolic solar
dish is performed manually until maximum possible amount of temperature is gained at the focus
point . Since its tracking, mechanism is done manually solar angle and position of the sun does not
affect the temperature gained at focus point. This is good for a long time operation during the sunny
day. The maximum temperature of 2000C have found from the parabolic solar dish. The advantage
of parabolic solar dish is that uniform temperature and maximum operational time since its tracking
mechanism is manually.

Scheffler (elliptical dish): - the curve, which indicates the temperature recorded throughout the day
from the receiver of scheffler reflector is small during the morning time and becomes large during
the mid-day. Because the reflected solar beam will be concentrated during the mid-day and it
disperses after 14:30 PM. Since the focus of thescheffler reflector is fixed, type in design, there is no
option for manual tracking as parabolic solar dish. The reason for this is that the reflector has not
installed appropriately according to the manufacturer‟s manual. The rotation of the dish for daily
tracking and telescopic clamps are not exactly working as referred from the manual. So, the
working time for scheffler reflector Rice and Pulses cook or boiler is finally fixed from 11:00AM-
14:30 PM local time. On a sunny day, maximum temperature of up to 3300C were recorded which is
good enough for cook or boiling Rice and Pulses. The advantage of scheffler reflector is that
maximum temperature have harnessed from it where the operation time is too short.

70
 Fig. (a)Scheffler dish installed at Mahatma Phule Agriculture College Pune

Concentrated solar beam

Fig. Temperature on absorber

71
 Fig. Cooking Utensils With the Vapour Injectors

Fig. Vapour Storage meter Connected to the Main Tank

72
Fig. Pyranometer and its digital multi meter

Fig. infrared thermometer

73
ABBREVIATIONS

SPV Solar Photovoltaic

DC Direct Current

AC Alternate Current

O&M Operation and Maintenance

ESCO Energy Service Company

MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracker

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

BIS Bureau of Indian Standards

74
 CHAPTER FIVE
CASE 2: Design And Implementation Of Solar Grid Connected System

5.1 Solar PV Grid-Connected System

When sunlight fall on solar panels it produce Direct Current (DC). This DC is
converted into AC with the help inverter. When the PV system generates extra power
than the required capacity, than the excess amount of power is sent to the utility grid.
The excess power going into the grid spins meter backward. If we use more power than
PV system is producing, inverter will draw the needed power from the utility grid. This
is back and forth process is called “net metering”, i.e. the “net” electricity purchased
over the entire billing period.

Figure 6. 1 : Grid Connected PV System

5.1.1Types of Grid Connected PV System

i. Residential :-
In residential system plant size lie in the range between 1kW-10kW. It is generally
installed on the roof of house or building .The power produce by these system is
first consume by the load that is connected to the house or building and the excess
amount of power is fed into the utility grid.
ii. Commercial:-
In commercial system plant size lie in the range between 10kWp-50kWp.
Generally it is installed in office, shopping centre, small factories.
iii. Industrial:-
In industrial system plant size lie in the range between 50kWp -1000kWp
75
 (1Mw).Generally it is installed in big factories having large sheet roof

Utility Sector :-
In utility sector plant size lie in the range between 1Mw- Gw .It is installed on large
area of land. The power produce by PV System is directly fed into utility grid. Ex
solar park

5.1.2 Components of a grid connect PV system

 Solar Panels:-Solar panels absorb solar energy from the sun and convert it
to Direct Current. When the multiple solar panels interconnected together
in “strings”. It is called a solar array.

 Solar Panel Mounts (Racks) and Solar Tracker: - Solar panel mounts
provide proper directional and latitudinal orientation to PV Array to maximize
power production, it also provide the stability that is needed to the PV Array
from the wind. Solar panels can be mounted on the roof, ground. Solar tracker
is used for orienting a solar panel or solar array toward the sun.

 Solar trackers increase morning and afternoon exposure, which at the right
latitudes and in the right climates can improve the amount of power produced
by PV system.

 Array junction box: It is used to gather the different array strings connection
at one location.

 Net Meter: Net meter show net consumption of power that is consume by the
consumer.

 Bi-directional Meters: Bi-directional meters measure the amount of power that

is imported to the grid and exported to the grid.

 Inverter: Inverter convert DC (Direct Current) into AC (Alternating Current).

Types of Grid-connected Inverters: Grid-connected inverters are classified
into four different categories:
 Central inverters (several kW to 100 MW range).
 String inverters (around a few hundred Watts to a few kW)
 Multi-string inverters (typically rated around 1 kW to 10 kW range).
 Module Inverters or Micro Inverters (typically rated around 50 to 500 W).

76
  Central Inverter:-
In the figure shown below. PV array that consists of three strings, in each string consists of
three series connected modules. Before these strings are connected to the utility grid, all the
strings is connected to DC side of the central inverter and the single AC are connected to the
utility grid.

Figure 1. 2 : Network topology of Central Inverter

 Advantages of a Central Inverter

1. Easy system design and implementation
2. Low cost per Watt
3. Easy accessibility for maintenance and troubleshooting

 Disadvantages of a Central Inverter

1. High DC wiring costs and power loss due to Voltage Drop.
2. Single MPPT for the entire PV system
3. System output can be drastically reduced in case of partial shading and string mismatch
4. Difficult to add strings or arrays for future expansion
5. Single failure point for the entire system
6. Monitoring at array level
7. Huge size
77
  String Inverter:-

In the figure shown below. The PV array consists of three strings, each string consists of three
series connected modules each PV string is connected to a single string inverter at the DC
side and all AC outputs of inverters are combined and connected to the utility grid.

Figure 1. 3 : Network topology of string inverter

 Advantages of a String Inverter:

1. Smaller in size when compared to central inverters
2. Better MPPT capability per string
3. Scalability for future expansion by adding parallel strings
4. Short DC wires

 Disadvantages of a String Inverter

1. The installation requires special racking for the inverter for each string
2. Poor flexibility during partial shading partial shading
3. Cost per Watt is high as compare to central inverter.

78
  Micro Inverter:-
Micro inverters are also known as module inverters. Each module has one inverter which is
connected on the back of the module. The DC terminals of the modules is connected to the
DC side of the inverter and then all the AC wires of all terminals are gather and then
connected to the utility grid.

Figure 1. 4 : Network topology of micro inverter

 Advantages of Micro Inverters

1. Resilience to partial shading effects as compared to the central and string inverters.
2. MPPT at module level
3. Highest system flexibility for future expansion
4. DC wiring costs is minimum.
5. Monitoring at module level
 Disadvantages of Micro Inverters
1. Per Watt cost is high.
2. Maintenance costs is high.
3. Difficult access for maintenance since the installation is under the PV modules.

79
 CHAPTER SIX: SITE SURVEY AND SHADOW ANALYSIS

6.1 Site Survey:

Our client is J.P. TRIVEDI Boys Hostel, Shivajinagar, Pune. Once we get the confirm order from the
customer. Engineering team will go to the customer location for site survey to examine the area where
solar PV system is going to be installed. Site survey is very important in order to begin planning of PV
system to be installed. It help to survey whether the site is suitable for PV installation or not.

 Document and items to be carried during site visit

1. Compass
2. Measuring Tape
3. Shading Analyzer
4. Camera
5. Site plan of the area to be ascertain.
6. Photograph of the area where PV system is going to be installed (i.e. Sheet Roof,
Ground Mount, RCC), meter location and nearby surrounding area.
 The site survey team are required to collect the following information:-
1. Latitude and Longitude of the location
2. Area of the roof
3. Type of roof
1. RCC
2. Sheet Roof
i. GI Metal Sheet Roof
ii. Asbestos Roof
3. Ground Mounts
4. Car/bus port
4. Obstacle that cause shading in the solar panels.
5. Dimension of the Obstacles ( Length, Breadth and height)
6. Earth pit Location
7. ACDB location
8. Inverter Location
9. LT Panel location
10. Distance between ACBD and LT Panel

80
 11. Roof access area
12. Water supply point

13. Is there is any tree or building near to PV installation area

14. Custom is having DG set or not ( if yes then its capacity)
15. Is there any existing cable route is there or not

 For RCC type:-

1. Roof structure ,type of roofing
2. Slab thickness
3. Check whether it is plane RCC or there is any obstruction (i.e. beam and columns)
4. Height of parapet wall

 For Sheet Roof Type:-

1. Type of sheet roof
i. . Asbestos roof
ii. . GI Metal sheet roof
2. Is there is any skylights or not ( if yes than what is the dimension of skylights)
3. Is there is any turbo wind in the sheet roof ( if yes than height of turbo wind )
4. Tilt angle of sheet roof

 For Ground Mounts:-

1. Area where PV system is going to be installed
2. Overhead cable is there or not
3. Is there is any transmission line tower is there or not
4. Trees is there or not

 Checklist for site plan:-

A checklist is given below for a site survey of grid-connected photovoltaic systems.

1. Documents copies of, site plan or roof plan, should be obtained from the customer if
available.
2. The point given below should also be marked on the site image or a copy of the site
plan with additional photographs, if necessary
i. Usable area for the PV system.
ii. Chimneys, antennae, skylights, turbo wind in building installations or sheet
roof.
81
iii. Trees (approximate distance and height).
iv. Other shadings (overhead cables etc

Figure 7. 1 : Site image

J.P. TRIVEDI Boys Hostel, Shivajinagar, Pune

82
6.2 Shadow type
The PV arrays should be installed in a shadow free area. Generally, grid connected
Systems are usually installed on roofs, RCC where there is some obstruction is there
which cause shading. Shading or shadow falling on the PV should be avoided as it
reduce the output of PV array.
There are different types of shading:
6.2.1 Temporary Shading:
Temporary shading includes snow (especially in mountain areas), leaves, bird
droppings and different types of soiling. Dust and soot soiling especially in industrial
areas or fallen leaves and bird drop fall on the PV array cause shading which will
decrease the output of PV array. This types of shading can be reduce by increasing the
tilt angle of the PV array.
For example:-
This type of shading is washed away by streaming water or rain water. A tilt angle of
12 degree or more is typically required to accomplish this. More tilt angle will
increases the speed of stream water toward downward direction and consequently
help to remove dust, bird drop, leaves. This kind of shading can be decreased by
increasing the tilt of the PV array.

Figure 7. 1 : Horizontal and Vertical arrangement

Shading caused by the snow generally affects only two rows in case of horizontal
arrangement (losses caused by snow is reduced by half) and four rows of cells on
each module in case vertical arrangement.

83
  Shading resulting from the location:

Shading occurs due to Neighboring structures or building, trees and even tall
structures or building can shade the PV array. It must be taken into consideration that,
because of the growth of trees and bushes, vegetation may shade the PV array simply
after years. Overhead cable may cast the moving shadow.

 Shading resulting from the building:

Shading coming from the building is direct shadows. Special consideration should be
paid to chimneys, antennae, lightning conductors, satellite dishes, rooftop and rooftop
superstructures. Some shading can be avoided moving the PV modules or the
obstruction causing the shading for example antennae. The shading can be reduced by
selecting while choosing how the cell and modules are wired up and during the
systems concept.

 Self-shading:

Self-shading of the modules is caused by the row of modules in front. Space

requirements and shading losses can be minimized by providing a proper tilt angles
and distances between the module rows. A poorly designed PV system may also
cause shading in sloping roof installations.

 Direct shading:
Direct shading can cause high losses of energy. The closer the shadow object, the
darker the shadow will be since the module is hit by the core shadow and the less
diffuse light reaches the PV module. Along these lines, the core shadow fall on the PV
modules reduce the energy of the cell by an around 60% to 80%. Whereas the partial
shadow only 50% of the energy.

84
 Figure 7. 2: Core shadow and partial shadow on PV panel

Where

Ds = sun diameter

D= thickness of shadow casting object LS=

sun to earth (panel) distance
6.3 Shading analysis:-
So as to evaluate the shading coming because of the obstruction, a shading analysis is
generally done. For this, the shadow layout of the surroundings of the PV system is
recorded for one point in the system. The shadow analysis is generally done based on
the data that is received from the site survey report. The shadow analysis can be done
using

i. PV Syst
ii. Solar path finder
iii. Sun path diagram
iv. Sketch up
v. Site plan

 Site plan

When using a site plan, the distance and the dimension of shadow-casting objects are
determined. From this data, the azimuth angle a an and the elevation angle γ are
determined

85
 Figure 7. 3 : Calculation of an object's azimuth angle a and elevation angle γ

The elevation angle γ is calculated from the difference between the heights of the
PV
System ℎ1 and the height of the shading object ℎ2 and its distance d:

The elevation angle is worked out for all obstacles in the area surrounding the PV
system, requiring the height and distance between the objects from the PV system.
The azimuth angle of the obstacles can be calculated directly from the site plan.
 Using a sun path diagram
In order to assess the shading, the sun path diagram can also be for shading analysis
used using as axes the elevation angle γ and the azimuth angle a perspective of the
system, the objects can be directly seen through this diagram and can directly read off
and note down the elevation and azimuth angles.

86
 Figure 7. 4 : Surrounding areas with angular grid

Figure 7. 5 : sun path diagram with shadow outline

The result of the shading analysis is the silhouette of shading brought caused by the
surroundings in the sun path chart. From Figure shown above we can read the shading
that happens in a specific month. In the shown above, the area is 50 percent shaded on
87
 21 December. From 21 February onwards, no a more shading happens. There will be
no shading in the period from March to October.

Shade analysis tools using software

Several software are available for shadow analysis. With the help of software
accurate shadow analysis can be done and there is less chance of error than manual
methods.
 Solar Path finder:-
The Solar Path finder uses a transparent, convex plastic dome to give a panoramic
view of the entire site i.e. Trees, buildings or other obstacles. The shading analysis is
done by looking two things at same time. Panoramic views of the whole site is
reflected on the dome and the sun path diagram is seen through the dome, the object
that is reflected on the dome can be seen over the sun path arc on the diagram ,
shading that occur on the site during the time or months is indicated on the sun path
diagram . With the help of sun path finder we can get instantaneous information of
multiple site and can find optimal location of solar panel. Sun path finder can be used
any time of the day, year, even in cloudy condition as it use only reflection method.

Figure 7. 6 : Solar path finder

88
 Applying Thumb rule:

The general rule of thumb is to locate the PV array at a distance away from the object
is given below

Figure 7. 7: Thumb rule for shadow analysis dimension are in mm

In north side shadow will fall up to = (height of the obstacle in mm x 1.5 mm) In
east side shadow will fall up to = height of the obstacle in mm
In west side shadow will fall up to = (height of the obstacle in mm x 1.5 mm) In
south side shadow will fall up to = 500 mm

 For Roof Top:

In sheet roof if there is skylight or chimney and turbo wind than Shadow
area= height of air wind / chimney (in mm) x 1.5mm

89
6.4 Space between two rows:
The PV array should be installed in such a way that one row of the modules does not
cast a shadow on the row. To calculate the minimum distance between PV Array rows
to avoid the shading.

This can be calculated using basic trigonometry as shown in the figure below:

𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑧𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)
𝑅𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑌) = (𝑋) ×
𝑇𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)

Figure 7. 8 : Calculating the minimum distance between rows

90
 A. In case of RCC:-

Distance between row spacing of module when

i. Latitude is less than 18o

Figure 7. 9 : Distance between row spacing when latitude is less than 18 degree

ii. Latitude is greater than 18o

Figure 7. 10: Distance between row spacing when latitude is greater than 18 degree

91
 CHAPTER SEVEN: Design procedure on site

Around 110 square feet (including the clearance between solar PV Array and rows)
shadow-free area required for the installation of a rooftop solar PV system. The solar
panels that is going to be installed on the Sheet roof, RCC, Ground Mount should be
south facing with a tilt angle depending on the latitude of the location of the site. The
minimum gap of 3.28 feet i.e. 1 m is required from the parapet wall for cleaning and
servicing of the PV System and between the rows of solar PV array sufficient gap
(depending upon tilt angle and latitude of the location) needs to be provided to avoid the
shading of a PV row by an adjacent PV row. The solar grid inverter should be placed in
a safe and easily accessible place.
A. For RCC:

Latitude Module to Module gap Pitch

Less than 18o 500 mm 1500mm

Greater than 18o 650 mm 1650 mm

B. For Ground Mounts:-

Latitude Module to Module gap Pitch

Below 15 o 1970 mm 6000mm
Between 15 o to 25 o 2470mm 6500mm
above 25 o 3470mm 7500mm

7.1. Description of design element:-

Solar Grid inverter

The solar inverter convert DC power generated by solar PV modules into AC power

7.2 Inverter Input voltage range and max voltage:-

Inverters is design to operate within a voltage range that is set by the manufacturer's
(specification can be seen on that inverter datasheet).The maximum voltage range and
operating voltage range of an inverter are the two main parameters that should be kept
in mind while stringing the inverter and PV array. PV designers should to exceed the
maximum input voltage of the inverter while designing PV array. The PV

92
array voltage should lie within the input voltage range of the inverter to ensure that the
inverter functions properly.

7.2.1 Inverter Start-up voltage:-

Apart from the operating voltage range, another important parameter is the start-up
voltage i.e. the lowest voltage required for the inverter to kick on. Inverter cannot be
trigger if PV voltage is lower than minimum input voltage of the inverter given in data
sheet.

7.2.2 Inverter and MPPT:-

Each inverters have in built MPP trackers to insure that the maximum power is
extracted from the PV array. Each inverter comes with a voltage range that allows it to
track the maximum power of the PV array.

7.2.3 DC to AC ratio and inverter design

As a thumb rule, designers should choose DC to AC ratio range not less than 80% and
not more than 125% depending on the location, irradiance and type of inverter used.
For best stringing designer, use the manufacturer's datasheet to determine the
maximum and minimum allowed PV array sizes.

7.2.4 Inverter and the utility grid:-

Since grid-tied inverters transfer power into the grid, they are expected to maintain a
very high quality of power to guarantee that the acceptable power flows into the grid. For
that reason, inverters should have a very low harmonic content on the line currents,
grid-tied inverters should have active islanding detection capability per IEEE 1547.
Islanding refers to the situation in which the grid tied inverters setup continue to inject
power from the PV system even though the power from the grid operator has been
restricted due to fault of scheduled maintenance. Due to safety concerns, islanding
needs to be prevented. Therefore, inverters are expected to detect and respond
immediately by switching their output so that no more power flows into the grid. This
is also referred to as anti-islanding capability.

7.2.5 Solar Array Fuse:

The cables coming from the array strings to the inverters is provided with DC fuse
protection. Fuses should have a voltage, current rating as required. The fuse should
have DIN rail mountable fuse holders and shall be housed in thermoplastic IP 65
enclosures with transparent covers.

93
 7.2.6 DC Combiner Box:
A DC Combiner Box is used to combine the all the DC cables of the solar PV arrays
with DC fuse protection for the outgoing DC cables to the DC Distribution Box.

7.2.7 DC Distribution Box

A DC distribution box shall be placed close to the solar grid inverter. The DC
distribution box shall be of the thermo-plastic IP65 DIN-rail mounting type and shall
comprise the following components and cable terminations: − Incoming positive and
negative DC cables from the DC Combiner Box;
DC circuit breaker, 2 pole (the cables from the DC Combiner Box will be connected to
this circuit breaker on the incoming side);
DC surge protection device (SPD)Outgoing positive and negative DC cables to the solar
grid inverter.
As an alternative to the DC circuit breaker a DC isolator may be used inside the DC
Distribution Box or in a separate external thermoplastic IP 65 enclosure adjacent to the
DC Distribution Box. If a DC isolator is used instead of a DC circuit breaker, a DC fuse
shall be installed inside the DC Distribution Box to protect the DC cable that runs from
the DC Distribution Box to the Solar Grid Inverter.

7.2.8 AC Distribution Box:

An AC distribution box shall be mounted close to the solar grid inverter. The AC
distribution box shall be of the thermo-plastic IP65 DIN rail mounting type and shall
comprise the following components and cable terminations:

1. Incoming 3-core / 5-core (three-phase) cable from the solar grid inverter
2. AC circuit breaker, 2-pole / 4-pole
3. AC surge protection device (SPD)
4. Outgoing cable to the building electrical distribution board.

7.2.9 Cables:
1. All cables shall be supplied conforming to IEC 60227/ IS 694 & IEC 60502/IS 1554.
Voltage rating: 1,100V AC, 1,500V DC
2. For the DC cabling, XLPE or XLPO insulated and sheathed, UV stabilized single
core flexible copper cables shall be used. Multi-core cables shall not be used.

94
 3. The total DC voltage drop on the cable segments from the solar PV modules to the
solar grid inverter shall not exceed 2.0%.
4. The total AC voltage drop on the cable segments from the solar grid inverter to the
building distribution board shall not exceed 2.0%
5. The DC cables from the SPV module array shall run through a UV stabilized PVC
conduit pipe of adequate diameter with a minimum wall thickness of 1.5mm.
6. Cables and wires used for the interconnection of solar PV modules shall be provided
with solar PV connectors (MC4) and couplers.
7. All cables and conduit pipes shall be clamped to the rooftop, walls and ceilings with
thermo-plastic clamps at intervals not exceeding 50 cm. The minimum DC cable size
shall be 4.0 mm2 copper. The minimum AC cable size shall be 10 mm2 copper. In three
phase systems, the size of the neutral wire size shall be equal to the size of the phase
wires. The following color coding shall be used for cable wires:
 DC positive: red (the outer PVC sheath can be black with a red line marking) − DC
negative: black
 AC single phase: Phase: red; neutral: black
 AC three phase: Phases: red, yellow, blue; neutral: black
 Earth wires: green
8. Cables and conduits that have to pass through walls or ceilings shall be taken
through a PVC pipe sleeve.
9. Cable conductors shall be terminated with tinned copper end-ferrules to prevent
fraying and breaking of individual wire strands. The termination of the DC and AC
cables at the Solar Grid Inverter shall be done as per instructions of the manufacturer,
which in most cases will include the use of special connectors.

7.3 Junction Boxes:-

1. Junction boxes and solar panel terminal boxes shall be of the thermos-plastic type with
IP 65 protection for outdoor use and IP 54 protection for indoor use.
2. Cable terminations shall be taken through thermo-plastic cable glands. Cable ferrules
shall be fitted at the cable termination points for identification.[39]

7.4 Metering:-

1. A net meter is to be installed in between the solar grid inverter and the building
distribution board to measure gross solar AC energy production (the “Solar Generation
Meter”). The Solar Generation Meter shall be of the same accuracy class as the service
connection meter or as specified by design.

95
2. The existing service connection meter needs to be replaced with a bidirectional meter for
the purpose of net-metering. Installation of the Solar Service Connection Meter is carried
out by DESA. It is not in the scope of the work of the Installer.

7.5 Connection to the Building Electrical System

1. The AC output of the solar grid inverter shall be connected to the building‟s
electrical system after the service connection meter and main switch on the load
side.
2. The solar grid inverter output shall be connected to a dedicated module in the Main
Distribution Board (MDB) of the building. It shall not be connected to a nearby load or
socket point of the building.
3. The connection to the electrical system of the building shall be done as shown in
typical wiring diagram shown below.

7.6 Earthing
The PV module structure components shall be electrically interconnected and shall be
grounded.

1. Earthing shall be done in accordance with IS 3043-1986, provided that earthing

conductors shall have a minimum size of 6.0 mm2 copper, 10 mm2 aluminium or 70
mm2 hot dip galvanized steel. Unprotected aluminium or copper-clad aluminium
conductors shall not be used for final underground connections to earth electrodes.
2. A minimum of two separate dedicated and interconnected earth electrodes must be
used for the earthing of the solar PV system support structure with a total earth
resistance not exceeding 5 Ohm.
3. The earth electrodes shall have a precast concrete enclosure with a removable lid for
inspection and maintenance. The entire earthing system shall comprise non-corrosive
components.

7.7 Surge Protection:

1. Surge protection shall be provided on the DC side and the AC side of the solar
system.
2. The DC surge protection devices (SPDs) shall be installed in the DC distribution
box adjacent to the solar grid inverter.
3. The AC SPDs shall be installed in the AC distribution box adjacent to the solar grid
inverter.

96
 CHAPTER NINE: Design and Engineering
Before starting the installation work, the design team required to draw the layout of the
site. The drawing include Array Layout along with shadow analysis of site in case of any
obstacle, the SLD (Single Line Diagram), AC/DC Cable layout , Cable size , cable
length calculation is also done, equipment layout , earthing layout for AC, DC and
Lightning Arrestor Layout , Module Cleaning Layout (if required), Structure drawings
.[40]

While drawing layout design engineer have to see the site survey report and site image.
The site survey report include:-

1. Latitude and Longitude of the location

2. Area of the roof
3. Type of roof
i. RCC
ii. Sheet Roof
 GI Metal Sheet Roof
 Asbestos Roof
 Ground Mounts
 Car/bus port
4. Obstacle that cause shading in the solar panels.
5. Dimension of the Obstacles ( Length, Breadth and height)
6. Earth pit Location
7. ACDB location
8. Inverter Location
9. LT Panel location
10. Distance between ACBD and LT Panel
11. Roof access area
12. Water supply point
13. Is there is any tree or building near to PV installation area
14. Is there any existing cable route is there or not
15. Roof access area
16. Tilt angle in case of sheet roof
17. Nearby any building is there which may cause shadow in PV system
97
Note :-

In case of any doubt related to the site the design engineer directly call to the custom and
clear his / her doubt.

After going through the site survey report and site image provided by the site engineer
the design engineer prepare two type of layout.

1. Pre bid Layout

2. Post bid Layout

8.1 Pre bid

Layout

Pre bid layout is simple layout it include

1. No of modules

2. Plant capacity in kWp

3. Latitude and longitude of the site

4. Layout

PV module placed in shadow free area. Shadow analysis (using thumb rule) is also done
in case of any obstacle present in the site.
5. Walkway layout and safety line layout

Note: - Walkway and safety line layout are given only in sheet roof not in RCC
and Ground Mount
 The thickness of walkway is 400 mm and for safety line thickness is 80mm.

 The designer draw the walkway and safety line layout.

Sometime designer get less capacity than the customer requirement in that case the
designer complete the pre bid layout and forward it to the customer. Once customer is
ok with the layout the design engineer have to draw post bid of the site.

98
8.2 Post Bid Layout:

Post bid layout include detail engineering given below:

1. Layout
a) Array Layout

b) Equipment layout

c) String layout

d) Earthing layout (AC, DC and DC)

e) Lightning arrestor (LA) layout

f) Structure layout

g) Safety line layout

h) Walkway layout

i) PV cleaning layout

2. Single line diagram (SLD)

a) Number of string
b) Protection of each electrical component ( AJB, inverter, ACDB)
c) Electrical component ( AJB , Inverter , ACDB)
d) Cable size
e) Cable length
3. Energy generation report
a) PV Syst
4. Shading analysis
a) PV Syst
b) Google sketch up ( also use for 3D modeling)
c) Creo
d) Helioscope
5. STADD report :

99
 a) Used for structure analysis for PV modules and wind speed calculation.
6. Bill of material
7. WBS
8.3 Voltage Drop and Power Losses

DC Cables

DC Cables Voltage drop depends on 3 parameters:

1. cross sectional area of conductor (mm2)
2. Length of wire
3. Current flow in the wire.

Voltage drop in a cable, is due to the wire's resistance, results in power losses in the
cable. As the increase in length of the wire result in loss of power to the inverter and
decrease the system efficiency.
According to IEC 62548: Design requirements for Photovoltaic (PV) arrays
recommends that the DC cables loss should not exceed 3% of the PV array voltage at
its maximum power point. Therefore the sum of the voltage drop in the string plus the
voltage drop in the PV array cable must be less than 3%.
Following formula is used to determine the DC voltage drop:

Where:
LDC = Length of DC Cable in Meters IDC =
DC Current in Amperes
ρ= resistivity of the wire Ω/m/mm2
ACABLE = Cross sectional area of DC Cable in mm2

The resistivity basically dependent upon the type of material used in the Cable, it is
different for Al and Cu Cable, it also depends on the cable strands.

After completing the system design the string current and the total array current is
known once the string and array size is finalized. Now we need to calculate the
minimum cable length required to meet the required voltage drop.

The Cross sectional area of cable can be determined by using the following formula:

100
Where
Loss= percent max voltage loss

VMP String = MPP voltage of the string/array

the power loss can be calculated from the formula below:

8.4 AC Cables
The AC Cable is used between the Inverter output and the ACCB/ACDB, or to the
kWh meter.
It is recommended that maximum AC Voltage drop is 2%
The formula for determining the voltage drop on single phase AC Cable is:

Where:

LAC = Route length of AC Cable in meters IDC

= Current in Ampere
ρ = Resistivity of wire in Ω/m/mm2

ACABLE = Cross sectional area of cable in mm2 Cos

Ø = Power Factor
Also,

101
 Where:
Loss = percent max voltage loss in the conductor, expressed as a fraction VAC =
AC Voltage of the Grid
For single Phase:

8.5 String sizing:-

A panel string is a group of panels that is connected or wired into a single input of
power inverter. String sizing help in determining how many panels we should put into
the input of the inverter for optimal efficiency.

Figure 9. 1: Stringing of modules in series and parallel.

Inverters operate within a certain input voltage range, known as the operating range.
102
 The panel should be string in such a way that the panel strings output a voltage that
must falls within the operating range. (The operating range is the range in which
inverter will function properly. In the operating range, inverter will turn on and deliver
power to the appliances.) However, falling within the operating range simply means that
the inverter is working and it doesn‟t guarantee that we are getting the most power as
we possibly can out of it.

If the panel‟s dose not supply enough voltage, the inverter won‟t get enough power to
turn on. If too much voltage is supplied, inverter will damage and void the warranty.
To optimize output, voltage range should lie within MPP (maximum power point) range. At
MPP inverter runs at the peak efficiency listed on its spec sheet. Panel strings should size in
such a way that the voltage falls within this maximum power point range.

Calculation of string sizing

String sizing calculations depend on the specific voltage of the panels and inverter, as
well temperature.

Open circuit voltage (Voc): The voltage supplied when the circuit is open i.e. voltage is
not connected to any load, current is not passing through the circuit. This state occurs
when the inverter isn‟t powered on.

Max Power voltage (Vmp): The voltage of the panel after it is turned on and
operating normally under loaded condition i.e. Current is flowing through the circuit.

Note:-

Max DC input voltage should not exceed the max operating voltage because it will
overload the inverter and potentially damage the equipment. If we exceed the max
operating voltage the warranty on the inverter will void.

There is also a minimum DC voltage and a start-up voltage requirement that is

needed to turn on the inverter.

In order to calculate the string sizing we need the following two thing mention
below:

a) Inverter datasheet
b) Module datasheet

103
For example:-

I have chosen DHOOP 315 kwpmodule datasheet and good we 50 KW inverter data sheet

Figure 9. 2 : Dhoop solar Module datasheet

Figure 9. 3 : Delta (50 kW) inverter data sheet.

104
Step 1:- To find minimum string size

In order to calculate the minimum number of panels to be put in a string.

Take the low value of the MPP voltage range (in this case 520V) and divide by the Vmp of
the panel (37.9)

520/37.9 = 13.72
The result is 13.72, which is needs to be round off up to the next whole number so the minimum
string size is 14 panels before temperature compensation.

Step 2:- To find maximum string size

In order to calculate the maximum number of panels to be put in a string.

Take the maximum DC input (in this case 1000V) and divide by the VOC of the panel i.e. 45.

1000/45 =22.22

We need to round off the result i.e. 22.22, in order to stay below a maximum threshold. So
we chose to 22 panels.

Step 3: To check whether max string size falls within MPP range

We have calculated the maximum string size to keep the inverter operational. We have to cross
check that this falls within our peak efficiency range as well.

For this, take the max string size calculated in step 2 (22 panels) and multiply by the Vmp of
the panel (37.9).

22 * 37.9 = 833.8

Since (833.8) come under the top end of the MPP range (i.e.800 V).As our MPP voltage lavel
exceed above the rated MPP voltage of selected inverter so to overcome this we reduce string
sizing by 1 and again calculate string size.

21 * 37.9=795.9

105
 Types of stringing:

For Ground Mount Type 1:

Figure 9. 4 : 20 MMS structure with type 1 stringing having 20 modules in each strings

Type 2:

Figure 9. 5 : 20 MMS structure with type 2 stringing

In ground Mount project we use only two type of stringing depending on the inverter
location. Type 2 stringing will reduce the DC cable length as compare to type 1 stringing.

106
 For RCC and Sheet Roof 3 types of stringing:
Type 1:

Figure 4. 6 : Auto Cad drawing showing type 1 stringing of 20 modules connected in series.

Type 2:-

Figure 4. 7 : Auto Cad drawing showing type 2 stringing of 20 modules connected in series

107
Type 3:

Figure 4. 8 : Auto Cad drawing showing type 3 stringing of 20 modules connected in series

Generally we use type 3 stringing in order to reduce the DC cable length.

Note: The type of stringing depend on the inverter location

For ex: In the two image shown below are similar only difference is stringing way , what we
observe that in left side image we see that the DC cable length (shown in yellow color) is less
as compare to right side image. So we have to place the (+) and (-) side of string toward
inverter location. In order to optimize the cable length calculation. Left side image is the
correct way of stringing as compare to right side image.

Figure 4. 9 : Auto cad image showing the correct way of stringing the 20 module which is
connected in series.

108
 CHAPTER NINE : Design Of The PV System Using Software SAM
9.1 Energy Losses & Performance Model Estimation Using SAM Software:

109
110
111
9.2 Site Details With All Parameters:

Total Capacity 46.2 kWp

Module Rating 315Wp (TPS)

Module dimension 2284 x 1134 x 35 mm

Total No‟s Of Modules 146

Tilt Angle 18°

Latitude N 18.50

Longitude S 73.84

1 x 10 sq.mm cable For inverter earthing

1 x 4 sq.mm cable For DC earthing

No. of Earthpits 03

No of inverter ( 50 kw) 1

No. of modules in series 21

No. of modules in parallel 7

Mounting Structure type ROOF MOUNTED

112
 9.2.1 Manufacturing Plant Visit of Solar Module
(Agarwal Renewables Private Ltd., Ponda, Goa)

Manufacturing Process Details:

1) EVA sheets taken with help of Robotic system

2) From conveyor belt it comes to Stringer Machine (ETS 4000) in which contactless soldering process
takes place

3) With the help of robotic machinery cells get placed on the glass

4) Further from conveyor belt it goes to lamination but before lamination to avoid short circuit auto
melted tape is used.

5) After the process of lamination, it is placed for cooling purpose

6) After the cooling of panel, it goes further to a non-invasive high resolution EL tester (If the cell is
cracked or dead it will show black.

7) Further the panel goes to visual inspection in which various parameters like cell crack, cell chip,
figure interruption, colour variation, Gap between cell string to string is observed and actions will be
taken accordingly.

8) Further panel is taken to connect Junction pots for output purpose.

9) After various tests like HIPOT, Inline Insulation, Final EL test and LED sun simulator, panel is ready
to deliver.

10) In advance testing it contains Physical and reliability test, solid ball test in which it contains 42.5 kg
ball hits the solar panel and test of Ice ball hitting 23m/s on solar panel to check its strength and
withstand on particular situation.

11) Other important test in which panel kept in highest and lowest temperature to check their with
standability in worst weather condition.

113
AGRAWAL RENEWABLE ENERGY PVT LTD.
(Industrial Visit)

Cell Cutting (Stinger Machine)

114
High resolution EL Tester

Connect Junction pots

115
Final EL test and LED sun simulator

Panel Testing with Hammer Ball

116
Point Of 315KWp Panel 420KWp Panel WAAREE 555KWp Panel DHOOP
Comparison
Dimensions

2284×1134×35mm 2200x 1060x 28mm 2284×1134×35mm

Cell Type Poly-Crystalline MONO-PERC MONO-PERC (Bifacial)

Power 315 W 420 W 555 W

Output
Voltage at 37.9 V 42.55 V 42.17 V
Pmax
(Vmpp)
Currwnt at 8.32 Amp 9.86 Amp 13.17 Amp
Pmax
(Impp)
Open circuit 45 V 48.96 V 49.95 V
Voltage
(Voc)

Short 8.85 Amp 10.5 Amp 14.05 Amp

Circuit
current (Isc)

Module 16.23 % 21.1 % 22.5 %

Efficiency
Temp. 0.064 % -0.1968 -0.168
Diffference (
▲t)
Vmax 51.4 V 51.4 V 52.14 V

Vmin 29.97 V 33.7 V 35.42 V

Cost 5,355 (17rs per Watt) 23990 (Depends Upon Quantity) 33750 (Depends On
(In rupees) Quantity)

117
118
String calculation sheet

119
 Latitude 18°48'2.93"N
longitude 73°18'16.71"E
Mounting type Roof Mounted
Capacity 45.9 kWp
Azimuth 180°
Tilt angle 18°
No of PV Module 160 ( 315 Wp (TPS))
No of inverter 1 (50 kW good we )
Module in series 21
Module in parallel 7
Area 603.8 m2

Table no. 13: Site Analysis Table

9.3 Calculation
From the inverter and data sheet mention in 7.3 and 7.4 we note down the following things
as mention in the table shown below

Open circuit voltage Voc (V) 45

Short circuit current ISC (A) 8.85
Current at PMAX IMPP (A) 8.32 A
Maximum DC Voltage (V) 1000
Voltage at PMAX VMPP (V) 37.9

Technical specification

Input A B C
No of string 3 2 2
PV module per string 21 21 21
Peak power 19.8 kWp 13.2 kWp 13.2 kWp
Max DC current (A) 30 30 20
Max DC voltage 1000 1000 1000

9.4 DC Output Power Calculation:

120
 1. No of Inverters=1
2. No of strings containing 21 Solar panels each=7
3. Total number of strings = 7
(i) Output Voltage of each string having 21 solar panels
= No of solar panels in each string × Vmp

=21× 37.9

=795.9 VDC

(ii) Output Current of each string , Impp= 8.32 ADC

Since, the panels are connected in series with each other, the total output current
= (8.32 × 7)

= 58.24 ADC

(iii) DC Output power of the string containing 20 solar panels

= V x IMPP

= 795 x 8.32

= 6.6 kW

(iv) Total DC output power of the inverters

=(Output power of the string containing 21 solar panels ×No of String containing
21 Solar panels)
= 6.6 kW x 7
= 46.3 kW

9.5 Output AC power Calculation:

In case of inverter the output AC power would be 98 % of the input DC power of that
inverter.
= Input DC power of inverter × 98%

= 46.3 kW × 98.6%

= 45.6 kWp

9.6 Output Current Calculation:

The formula is P = √3 vi cos∅

Here Output AC power is p = 45.6 kWp

121
 Per phase voltage is v =230 V For
inductive load, Pf = cos∅ = 1

So, the output current of each line of the inverter is ,

I = p ÷ (v√3 cos∅)

=45.6 kWp ÷ (√3 ×230 V× 1)

≈ 125 A

9.7 Circuit Breaker Rating Calculation:

For the inverter, the output AC current of each line is

=125 A

For designing a circuit breaker, taking 20% overcurrent margin, the output AC current
becomes

= (125 × 1.2) A

=150 A

We take the circuit breaker rating = 125 A, we choose 150 A MCCB

9.8 Cable length calculation

Calculation is done in Auto cad software

Step 1: For DC cable length draw the wire from (+) and (-) end of the string to
inverter as shown in heading (7.6) figure with brown line.

Step 2: Select the cable (AC, DC etc.) and type data extraction in AutoCAD it will
automatically calculate the length of wire in mm. And save them in excel format.

Step 3: in excel convert mm into m.

Note: the above three step is common for all types of cable length calculation.[40]

122
 CHAPTER TEN
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Conclusion
For case 1:Thermal cooking system

The work presented here in this analysis, has been to adjust and enhance the elliptical dish (scheffler
reflector). The following conclusions are drawn from this case studys :
 After assessments, the incorrectly installed scheffler reflector has been partially adjusted.
Hence, temperature of 1520C is achieved which is good enough to cook or boil Rice and
Pulses.
 The performance of scheffler reflector is much better than parabolic solar dish. If scheffler
reflector is properly installed, its performance will be huge than parabolic solar concentrator
according to the data simulated for the two solar concentrators.
 In simulating the result, the nature of boundary condition plays an important role on amount
of heat lost.
 Providing surface heat flux, ambient temperature and the size of the mesh has also a
significant impact on results.
 The analysis which done by default setting will lead us to a wrong result, therefore every
parameters has be given to the Terms of temperature gradient method based on the data
gathered from the site.

For Case 2:Grid connected PV system:

Using SAM( System Advisor Model) simulation software, the energy yield analysis for 45KW PV
Solar power generation was performed for geographical site JP Trivedi Memorial Trust, Pune, Which is
located at latitude of 18.52 N and longitude 73.84 E.And it was found that, The available energy at the
inverter output which can be fed to the nearby grid is 45KW with a specific power production about 5
kWh/kWp/year. This much amount of energy, which can be generated by establishing 45KW SPV plant at
Pune. The impact of temperature variation on the performance of photovoltaic mono crystalline silicon was
studied both on daily and yearly basis. It is observed that the efficiency of modules is more sensitive to
temperature than the solar irradiation. The normal daily wise is that the efficiency of the plant is high during
morning time but low during middle of the day and starts increasing from late afternoon. The efficiency of
modules varies from 20.58% to 12.5% with variation in the averaged module temperature from 250C to
500C.Hence cooling of solar modules may be desirable to increase the efficiency. Design of On grid solar
System includes Check the electricity requirement,Choose the panel capacity and quantity,Decide the
position of panel ( tilt & azimuth),Prepare the most effective layout for series, parallel and mixed connection
,Choose the inverter,Select the layout based on inverter.

123
 Recommendation for Thermal System
Many corrective measures have taken to make the scheffler reflector concentrate the solar beam
coming from the sun. Certain activities that has to be considered when manufacturing and installing
scheffler reflector are recommended below:
 Using properly working telescopic clamps
 Using improved facets of glass mirror
 Replacing the receiver that has a better heat transfer and better surface reaction to apply heat
flux.
 North-south direction is another important point because the dish has to be rotated along the
north-south direction, to compensate the hourly changing of sun‟s position. During the day,
the dish has to be rotated 150 in every hour to get a better solar beam.
Generally, a single layered receiver has to be used for a better temperature distribution than a
multilayered one. Cook or boiling Rice and Pulses using such a technique does not seem better due
to the temperature fluctuation based on whether the sky is clear or not.
When the temperature is high in a receiver (up to 1520C), the heat distribution in the surface of the
Rice and Pulses bean is not similar. Its outer part will burned while there is no color change at the
core. This is not good to make a good taste Rice and Pulses. Hence, it will be good to use scheffler
reflector for other purposes like heating, boiling and small-scale power generations. Therefore,
there are other options that we can for see since the scheffler reflector was not designed for specific
purposes. Anyone who wants make this project better can simply work designing the receiver
according to the required application.

Recommendation for PV System

For the Designing purpose we used many softwares like SAM, PVSyst for finding Loss diagram and
overall generation estimation which is useful for user. But for system more than 1MW cannot be designed on
SAM software
Following recommendation given by us for the PV system installation
 Modules should be used as greater rating as no subsidy is available above the 10KW
 Inverter sizing should be more as oversized as this is recommended for the safety purpose
 Cleaning system should be installed for the cleaning purpose

124
 References

[1] Munir, O. Hensel, W. Scheffler, “Design Principal and Calculations of Scheffler fixed focus
Concentrator for Medium Temperature Applications.
[2] Jose Ruelas, Nicolas Velazquez, Jesus Cerezo, “A Mathematical Model to develop a Scheffler-
Type Solar Concentrator Coupled with Sterling Engine”
[3] Rupesh J. Patil, G. K. Awari, Mahendra Prasad Singh, “Performance Analysis of Scheffler
Reflector and Formulation of Mathematical Model”, VSRD-TNTJ, Vol.2 (8),2011, 390-400
[4] Vishal R. Dafle, Prof N. N. Shinde, “ Design, Development and Performance Evaluation of
Concentrating Monoaxial Scheffler Tehnology For Water heating and Low temperature Industrial
Steam Application”,IJERA, vol.2, Issue 6, 2012, pp. 848- 852
[5] Regin AF, Solanki SC, Saini JS. Heat transfer characteristics of thermal energy storage system
using PCM capsules: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2008;12 (9):2438–58
[6] Solar Energy Solar PV (for electricity) and Thermal (for hot water) Systems,
〈http://www.yesweb.org/docs/solarenergy.pdf〉 (Accessed on 12th December, 2015).

[7] Ummadisingu, Amita, S. Concentrating solar power- Technology, potential and policy in
India.
[8] International joural of advnaced technology and innovative research, IISN- 2348- 2370, Vol. 7,
August 2015, 〈http://www.ijatir.org/uploads/163452IJATIR6353- 305.pdf〉.

[9] Solar (PV and CSP). 〈http://www.iea.org/topics/solarpvandcsp〉. Accessed on (18th December,

2015)
[10] Dimroth F, Grave M, Beutel P, Fiedeler U, Karcher C, Tibbits TN, Oliva E, Siefer G,
Schachtner M, Wekkeli A, Bett AW. Wafer bonded four‐junction GaInP/GaAs// GaInAsP/GaInAs
concentrator solar cells with 44.7% efficiency. Progr Photovolt: ResAppl 2014; 22 (3):277–82
[11] Gregor Schapers, “Agave syrup production – a sweet tradition goes solar”, International
Solar Food Processing Conference 2009
[12] Christoph Müller, “Solar community bakeries on the Argentinean Altiplano”,
International Solar Food Processing Conference 2009

[13] Munir A, Hensel O. Biomass energy utilization in solar distillation system for essential oils
extraction from herbs. InConference of international research on food security, natural resource
management and rural development, University of Hamburg;2009 Oct
[14] Jayasimha BK, Akashwani O, Hadapsar P. Application of Scheffler reflectors for process
industry. In: Proceedings of international conference on solar cooker, Spain 2006 July (p. 15–6)

125
[15] Melkamu Yayesew; Integration of scheffler concentrator and thermal storage device for
indoor Injera baking, Addis Ababa Universty April 2013.
[16] John A. Duffie; William A. Beckman Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, Fourth
Edition, 2013.
[17] Kipp and Zonen; solar radiation measurements for solar energy applications,
since 1830 Davos Switzerland.

[18] Leland and Mansoori, Basic Principles of Classical and Statistical

Thermodynamics, University of Chicago, p. 1
[19] Songer and Associates Inc. A Thermodynamic Approach to Cook or boiling Parameters and
Stages of Cook or boil, 2012.

[20] Eggers and Pietsch, “Technology I: Cook or boiling”, Rice and Pulses: Recent
Developments,2001, Blackwell Science Limited, London, p. 90.
[21] Schenker, et al. “Impact of Cook or boiling Conditions on the Formation of Aroma
Compounds in Rice and Pulses Beans,” Journal of Food Science, Vol. 67, No. 1, 2002, Institute of
Food Technologists, p.
[22] Eggers, R. “Heat and Mass Transfer during Cook or boiling –New Process Developments,”
19th International Scientific Colloquium on Rice and Pulses, 2001, Association Scientifique du Café,
Paris, p.7
[23] Hobbie and Eggers, “The Influence of Endothermic and Exothermic Energies on the
Temperature Field of Rice and Pulses Beans during the Cook or boiling Process,” 19th
International Scientific Colloquium on Rice and Pulses, 2001, Association Scientifique du
Café, Paris,
[24] Anil Kumar, “A comprehensive review of Scheffler solar collector” Prince of Songkla
University 2017, Hat Yai, Thailand.

[25] Desireddy Shashidhar Reddy “Design and ray tracing of multifaceted Scheffler reflector with
novel crossbars” 2019, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India.

[26] Terms of temperature gradient method Reference Manual version 5.3 2019

[27] Tarekegne, Melaku, “Designing and Experimental Investigation of Scheffler reflector based
solar distiller for Sesame Seed Oil Extraction” Bahir dar institute of technology school of research
and postgraduate studies November 14, 2018 Bahir dar,Ethiopia.
[28] S. Kumar, V. Yadav, U. Sahoo⁎, S.K. Singh “Experimental investigation of 16 square meter
Schefer concentrator system and its performance assessments for various regions of India” National
Institute of Solar Energy, Gurgaon, Haryana 122003, India 2019.
[29] Rupesh, J. et al., 2011. “Prasad Singh Performance Analysis of Scheffler Reflector and
Formulation of Mathematical Model”; http://wwww.solare-bruecke.org

126
[30] Scheffler, W., 2006. “Introduction to the revolutionary design of Scheffler”; In:
SCIs International Solar Cooker Conference, Granada, Spain

[31] www.wlv.com/products/databook,2011. “Wolverine tube Heat Transfer”; Tata Book

[32] Medwell mg Journals, 2009; “Comparison of Thermal Energy Storage Techniques”;
http://www.medwelljournals.com
[33] John A. Duffie and William A. Beckman “Solar Engineering of Thermal
Processes” 2013
[34] SP lite silicon pyranometer instruction manual revision 2004

[35] Scheffler, W., 2006. “Introduction to the revolutionary design of Scheffler”; In: SCIs
International Solar Cooker Conference, Granada, Spain

[36] https://www.enfsolar.com/pv/panel-datasheet/crystalline/35321

[37] https://www.goodwe.com/Products/allproduct.html

[38] https://www.solarpathfinder.com/

[39] Tata Power Solar System Limited Manual

[40] “SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS FUNDAMENTALS, TECHNOLOGIES AND

APPLICATION” by Chetan Singh Solanki, 2nd Edition 2012.

[41] Fahim Hasan, Zakir Hossain, Maria Rahman, Sazzad Ar Rahman, “Design and Development
of a Cost-Effective Urban Residential Solar PV System,” December2010.

[42] http://www.iea-shc.org/Data/Sites/1/publications/task16 photovoltaics_in_buildings-full.pdf

[43] Photovoltaics in Buildings, A Design Handbook for Architects and Engineers. Editors
Friedrich Sick and Thomas Erge, Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE ,Freiburg,
Germany

127
Project Compitition Participation at AISSMS College Of Engineering, Pune :

128
129
Project Compitition at SKN Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pandharpur:

130
131