BEHM107 (1)

Bachelor of Education in
Educational Management
Staff Development Theories

and Practices in Education
Module BEDM 107

Authors: Justin Gwembire
MEd Educational Administration (UZ)
BEd. EAPPS (ZOU-UZ)
Certificate in Education (Gweru Teachers’ College-UZ)
Certificate in Customer Care (PSC)
Shupikai Zebron
MSc Counselling (ZOU)
BSc Counselling (ZOU)
Diploma in Education (Mkoba Teachers’ College-UZ)
Cert. in Life Skills and Gender (ZIMPATH)
Cert. in Customer Care (PSC)
Cert. in Peer Education (NAC)
Gore Dzapasi
MEd. EAPPS (ZOU)
BEd. EAPPS (ZOU-UZ)
Certificate in Education (Mutare Teachers’ College-UZ)
Douglas Gasva
MEd. Educational Psychology (UZ)
BEd. Teacher Education (UZ)
Certificate in Education (Morgenster Trs’ College-UZ)
Cert. in Open and Distance Education (UNISA)
Cert. in Information Technology (AVU)
Cert. in Project Development (UNIFEM)
Cert. in Fundraising and Resource Mobilisation (FNSJ)
Content Reviewer: Barnabas Muyengwa

Master of Education (Teacher Education) (UZ)
Bachelor of Education (Mathematics) (UZ)
Certificate in Education (UZ)
Editor: Clemence Matembo

BSc (Physics and Maths-UZ)
HND (Computers-Harare Polytechnic)
Published by: Zimbabwe Open University
P.O. Box MP1119
Mount Pleasant
Harare, ZIMBABWE
The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

learning institution.
Year: March 2013
Cover design: T. Ndlovu
Layout : S. Mapfumo
Printed By: ZOU Press, Harare
ISBN No.: 978-1-77938-684-7
Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading
© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Zimbabwe Open
University.
Forewor d To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge and
the requirement to adjust and change with
comprise academics, technologists and
administrators of varied backgrounds,
changing technology, places on us a need training, skills, experiences and personal
to learn continually throughout life. As all interests. The combination of all these
people need an education of one form or qualities inevitably facilitates the
another, it has been found that production of learning materials that teach
conventional education institutions cannot successfully any student, anywhere and far
cope with the demand for education of removed from the tutor in space and time.
this magnitude. It has, however, been We emphasize that our learning materials
discovered that distance education and should enable you to solve both work-
open learning, now also exploiting e- related problems and other life challenges.
learning technology, itself an offshoot of
e-commerce, has become the most To avoid stereotyping and professional
effective way of transmitting these narrowness, our teams of learning materials
appropriate skills and knowledge producers come from different universities
required for national and international in and outside Zimbabwe, and from
development. Commerce and Industry. This openness
enables ZOU to produce materials that
Since attainment of independence in have a long shelf life and are sufficiently
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has comprehensive to cater for the needs of
spearheaded the development of distance all of you, our learners in different walks
education and open learning at tertiary of life. You, the learner, have a large
level, resulting in the establishment of the number of optional courses to choose from
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) on 1 so that the knowledge and skills
March, 1999. developed suit the career path that you
choose. Thus, we strive to tailor-make
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently the the learning materials so that they can suit
your personal and professional needs. In
only university in Zimbabwe entirely
developing the ZOU learning materials, we
dedicated to teaching by distance
are guided by the desire to provide you,
education and open learning. We are
the learner, with all the knowledge and skill
determined to maintain our leading
that will make you a better performer all
position by both satisfying our clients and
round, be this at certificate, diploma,
maintaining high academic standards. To undergraduate or postgraduate level. We
achieve the leading position, we have aim for products that will settle comfortably
adopted the course team approach to in the global village and competing
producing the varied learning materials that successfully with anyone. Our target is,
will holistically shape you, the learner to therefore, to satisfy your quest for
be an all-round performer in the field of knowledge and skills through distance
your own choice. Our course teams education and open learning
Any course or programme launched by ZOU is prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is my
conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas from hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you, will
consumers of the product, chief among whom are experience unimpeded success in your educational
you, the students and your employers. We consult endeavours. We, on our part, shall continually
you and listen to your critical analysis of the strive to improve the learning materials through
concepts and how they are presented. We also evaluation, transformation of delivery
consult other academics from universities the world methodologies, adjustments and sometimes
over and other international bodies whose complete overhauls of both the materials and
reputation in distance education and open learning organizational structures and culture that are
is of a very high calibre. We carry out pilot studies central to providing you with the high quality
of the course outlines, the content and the education that you deserve. Note that your needs,
programme component. We are only too glad to the learner ‘s needs, occupy a central position
subject our learning materials to academic and within ZOU’s core activities.
professional criticism with the hope of improving
them all the time. We are determined to continue Best wishes and success in your studies.
improving by changing the learning materials to suit
the idiosyncratic needs of our learners, their
employers, research, economic circumstances,
technological development, changing times and
geographic location, in order to maintain our
leading position. We aim at giving you an
education that will work for you at any time _____________________
anywhere and in varying circumstances and that Dr. Primrose Kurasha
your performance should be second to none. Vice Chancellor
As a progressive university that is forward looking

and determined to be a successful part of the
twenty-first century, ZOU has started to introduce
e-learning materials that will enable you, our
students, to access any source of information,
anywhere in the world through internet and to
communicate, converse, discuss and collaborate
synchronously and asynchronously, with peers and
tutors whom you may never meet in life. It is our
intention to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of our
learners, wherever they may be. For all these
developments and for the latest information on
what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU website
at www.zou.ac.co.zw
Having worked as best we can to prepare your

learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU) by open and distance
learning, we need to advise you so that you can make
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For it
to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor to
the best use of the learning materials, your time and
the tutors who are based at your regional office. lecture you
· Any ideas that you discuss in the tutorial,
The most important point that you need to note is originate from your experience as you
that in distance education and open learning, there work on the materials. All the issues
are no lectures like those found in conventional raised above are a good source of topics
universities. Instead, you have learning packages that (as they pertain to your learning) for
may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs, DVDs discussion during the tutorial
and other referral materials for extra reading. All these
· The answers come from you while the
including radio, television, telephone, fax and email
can be used to deliver learning to you. As such, at tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to lecture you discussion, clarify, explain, give
when you meet him/her. We believe that that task is additional information, guide the
accomplished by the learning package that you receive discussion and help you put together full
at registration. What then is the purpose of the six answers for each question that you bring
hour tutorial for each course on offer? · You must prepare for the tutorial by
bringing all the questions and answers
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open that you have found out on the topics to
learning university, you the student are at the centre the discussion
of learning. After you receive the learning package, · For the tutor to help you effectively, give
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding him/her the topics beforehand so that in
documents before using the learning materials. During cases where information has to be
the study, it is obvious that you will come across gathered, there is sufficient time to do
concepts/ideas that may not be that easy to understand so. If the questions can get to the tutor
or that are not so clearly explained. You may also at least two weeks before the tutorial,
come across issues that you do not agree with, that that will create enough time for thorough
actually conflict with the practice that you are familiar preparation.
with. In your discussion groups, your friends can bring
ideas that are totally different from yours and In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
arguments may begin. You may also find that an idea take part all the time through contributing in every
is not clearly explained and you remain with more way possible. You can give your views, even if
questions than answers. You need someone to help they are wrong, (many students may hold the same
you in such matters. wrong views and the discussion will help correct
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University
the errors), they still help you learn the correct thing as the tutor may dwell on matters irrelevant to the
as much as the correct ideas. You also need to be ZOU course.
open-minded, frank, inquisitive and should leave no
stone unturned as you analyze ideas and seek
clarification on any issues. It has been found that Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
those who take part in tutorials actively, do better in and student separate. By introducing the six hour
assignments and examinations because their ideas are tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch with
streamlined. Taking part properly means that you the physical being, who marks your assignments,
prepare for the tutorial beforehand by putting together assesses them, guides you on preparing for writing
relevant questions and their possible answers and examinations and assignments and who runs your
those areas that cause you confusion. general academic affairs. This helps you to settle
down in your course having been advised on how
Only in cases where the information being discussed to go about your learning. Personal human contact
is not found in the learning package can the tutor is, therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
provide extra learning materials, but this should not
be the dominant feature of the six hour tutorial. As
stated, it should be rare because the information
needed for the course is found in the learning package
together with the sources to which you are referred.
Fully-fledged lectures can, therefore, be misleading
The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.
Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The main aim
of this session is to guide you, the student, on how you are going to
approach the course. During the session, you will be given the overview
of the course, how to tackle the assignments, how to organize the logistics
of the course and formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is
also during this session that you will be advised on how to use your
learning materials effectively.
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University
Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond to the
challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and ideas that you are
facing as you go through the course. In this session, difficult areas in the
module are explained through the combined effort of the students and
the tutor. It should also give direction and feedback where you have not
done well in the first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.
Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the semester.
In this session, you polish up any areas that you still need clarification on.
Your tutor gives you feedback on the assignments so that you can use
the experience for preparation for the end of semester examination.
Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.
Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six can maximally benefit from it. We also urge you
hours is too little for lectures and it is not to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self-
contained learning materials in the package, to BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore,
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials ZOU
Contents
Overview ___________________________________________________________________ 1
Unit One: Conceptualising Staff Development in Education
1.0 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 5

1.1 _______ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 6
1.2 _______ Defining the Concept of “Staff Development” _______________________ 6
__________ Activity 1.1 ______________________________________________________ 9
1.3 _______ Importance of Staff Development ________________________________ 10
__________ 1.3.1 Develop future business owners _____________________________ 11
__________ 1.3.2 Train front-line workers ____________________________________ 12
__________ 1.3.3 Train new staff ____________________________________________ 12
__________ 1.3.4 Engage learning ____________________________________________ 13
__________ 1.3.5 Keep up-to-date ___________________________________________ 13
__________ Activity 1.2 _____________________________________________________ 14
1.4 _______ Aspects of Staff Development ____________________________________ 14
__________ 1.4.1 Addressing staff aspirations ________________________________ 15
__________ 1.4.2 Formalisation of roles ______________________________________ 15
__________ 1.4.3 Addressing training needs __________________________________ 15
__________ 1.4.4 Identifying management potential ____________________________ 15
1.5 _______ Broader Context of Staff Development ___________________________ 17
__________ Activity 1.3 _____________________________________________________ 17
1.6 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 18
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 19
Unit Two: Staff Development Needs and Analysis

2.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 21
2.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 22
2.2 _______ Defining ‘Staff Development Needs’ ______________________________ 22
2.3 _______ Identifying Staff Development Needs _____________________________ 22
__________ Activity 2.1 _____________________________________________________ 23
2.4 _______ Methods of Staff Development Needs Identification _______________ 24
__________ 2.4.1 Critical incident technique __________________________________ 24
__________ 2.4.2 Bubble charts _____________________________________________ 24
__________ 2.4.3 Card sorts ________________________________________________ 24
__________ 2.4.4 Forms/questionnaires ______________________________________ 25
__________ 2.4.5 Group discussion __________________________________________ 25
__________ 2.4.6 Analysis of complaints _____________________________________ 25
__________ 2.4.7 Personal SWOT analysis ___________________________________ 25
__________ 2.4.8 Learning logs ______________________________________________ 25
__________ 2.4.9 Attending training events ___________________________________ 26
__________ Activity 2.2 _____________________________________________________ 26
2.5 _______ Defining ‘Staff Development Analysis’ ____________________________ 26
__________ Activity 2.3 _____________________________________________________ 29
2.6 _______ Application of Staff Development Analysis in Educational Contexts __ 29
__________ Activity 2.4 _____________________________________________________ 32
2.7 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 32
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 33
Unit Three: Staff Development Models in Education
3.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 35

3.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 36
3.2 _______ Defining ‘Staff Development Models’ _____________________________ 36
__________ Activity 3.1 _____________________________________________________ 37
3.3 _______ Five Models of Staff Development ________________________________ 37
__________ 3.3.1 The individually-guided staff development ____________________ 37
__________ Activity 3.2 _____________________________________________________ 41
__________ 3.3.2 Observation/Assessment ___________________________________ 41
__________ Activity 3.3 _____________________________________________________ 45
__________ 3.3.3 Involvement in a development/improvement process __________ 45
__________ Activity 3.4 _____________________________________________________ 48
__________ 3.3.4 Training __________________________________________________ 48
__________ Activity 3.5 _____________________________________________________ 51
__________ 3.3.5 Inquiry model _____________________________________________ 51
__________ Activity 3.6 _____________________________________________________ 55
3.4 _______ Other Staff Development Models ________________________________ 55
__________ 3.4.1 The Traditional or Management Model ______________________ 55
__________ 3.4.2 The Shop-floor or Informal Model __________________________ 55
__________ 3.4.3 The partnership or intermediate model ______________________ 56
__________ Activity 3.7 _____________________________________________________ 56
3.5 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 56
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 57
Unit Four: Staff Development Delivery Techniques
4.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 59

4.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 60
4.2 _______ Defining Staff Development Delivery Techniques __________________ 60
__________ Activity 4.1 _____________________________________________________ 62
4.3 _______ Identifying Staff Development Delivery Techniques ________________ 62
__________ Activity 4.2 _____________________________________________________ 64
4.4 _______ Other Staff Development Delivery Approaches ____________________ 64
__________ Activity 4.3 _____________________________________________________ 65
4.5 _______ Application of Delivery Techniques in Educational Approaches _____ 65
__________ Activity 4.4 _____________________________________________________ 67
4.6 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 67
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 69
Unit Five: Staff Development Planning and Policy in Education
5.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 71

5.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 72
5.2 _______ Defining ‘Staff Development Planning’ ____________________________ 72
__________ Activity 5.1 _____________________________________________________ 74
5.3 _______ Staff Development Framework ___________________________________ 74
__________ Activity 5.2 _____________________________________________________ 75
5.4 _______ Educational Goals and Policies __________________________________ 76
__________ Activity 5.3 _____________________________________________________ 77
5.5 _______ Training Policies in Educational Sector ___________________________ 77
__________ Activity 5.4 _____________________________________________________ 80
5.6 _______ Training Needs Analysis ________________________________________ 81
__________ Activity 5.5 _____________________________________________________ 85
5.7 _______ School Staff Development Policy _________________________________ 85
__________ Activity 5.6 _____________________________________________________ 91
5.8 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 91
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 92
Unit Six: Management of Educational Staff Developemnt

Programmes
6.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 93

6.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 94
6.2 _______ Defining “Staff Development Programmes Management’ ____________ 94
__________ Activity 6.1 _____________________________________________________ 96
6.3 _______ Associated Concepts in Staff Development Programme Management _ 96
__________ 6.3.1 School development ________________________________________ 96
__________ 6.3.2 The human factor development model _______________________ 97
__________ Activity 6.2 _____________________________________________________ 98
__________ 6.3.3 Leader ___________________________________________________ 98
__________ 6.3.4 Leadership ________________________________________________ 98
__________ 6.3.5 Role play _________________________________________________ 99
__________ 6.3.6 Management agents ________________________________________ 99
__________ 6.3.7 Management functions ____________________________________ 100
__________ Activity 6.3 ____________________________________________________ 100
6.4 _______ Educational Staff Development Leaders and Results ______________ 101
__________ Activity 6.4 ____________________________________________________ 103
6.5 _______ Critical Management Processes _________________________________ 103
__________ 6.5.1 Co-ordinating ____________________________________________ 103
__________ 6.5.2 Planning _________________________________________________ 104
__________ 6.5.3 Directing _________________________________________________ 104
__________ 6.5.4 Controlling _______________________________________________ 104
__________ Activity 6.5 ____________________________________________________ 105
6.6 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 105
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 106
Unit Seven: Staff Development Programmes Management Systems
7.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 107

7.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 108
7.2 _______ Defining ‘Staff Development Management Systems’ _______________ 108
__________ Activity 7.1 ____________________________________________________ 109
7.3 _______ Scope of Staff Development Programme Management Systems _____ 109
7.4 _______ Supporting Staff Development __________________________________ 109
7.5 _______ Post in-Service Education Support _______________________________ 112
7.6 _______ Provision of Resources _________________________________________ 113
__________ Activity 7.2 ____________________________________________________ 114
7.7 _______ Broader Context of Staff Development Management Systems ______ 114
7.8 _______ The Better Schools Programme Zimbabwe (BSPZ) ________________ 115
__________ Activity 7.3 ____________________________________________________ 117
7.9 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 117
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 118
Unit Eight: Staff Development and Organisational Context
8.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 119

8.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 120
8.2 _______ The Concept of ‘Organisation’ __________________________________ 120
__________ 8.2.1 Defining an ‘organisation’ _________________________________ 120
__________ 8.2.2 Characteristics of organisations ____________________________ 121
__________ 8.2.3 Types of organisation _____________________________________ 122
__________ Activity 8.1 ____________________________________________________ 123
8.3 _______ Organisational Development in Perspective ______________________ 123
__________ 8.3.1 Contractual relationships __________________________________ 124
__________ 8.3.2 Change agent _____________________________________________ 124
__________ 8.3.3 Sponsoring organisation ___________________________________ 125
__________ 8.3.4 Applied behavioural science _______________________________ 125
__________ 8.3.5 Organisational context ____________________________________ 125
__________ Activity 8.2 ____________________________________________________ 126
8.4 _______ Staff Development as a Component of Organisational Development. 126
__________ 8.4.1 What is staff development? ________________________________ 126
__________ 8.4.2 Approaches used in staff development ______________________ 127
__________ Activity 8.3 ____________________________________________________ 127
__________ 8.4.3 Emerging staff development trends in organisational ____________
__________ development __________________________________________________ 128
__________ Activities 8.4 __________________________________________________ 130
8.5 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 131
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 132
Unit Nine: Evaluation of Staff Development Programmes in
Education
9.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 133

9.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 134
9.2 _______ Defining the concept of ‘Staff Development Programme Evaluation’ 134
9.3 _______ Three Paradigms in Programme Evaluation ______________________ 135
__________ 9.3.1 Positivist _________________________________________________ 135
__________ 9.3.2 Interpretive ______________________________________________ 135
__________ 9.3.3 Critical - Emancipatory ____________________________________ 135
9.4 _______ Issues and Challenges in the Evaluation of Staff Development ________
__________ Programmes __________________________________________________ 136
__________ 9.4.1 Purposes of evaluation ____________________________________ 136
__________ 9.4.2 Criteria of evaluation _____________________________________ 137
__________ 9.4.3 Validation _______________________________________________ 139
9.5 _______ Training and Evaluation Based on Hamblin’s Ideas _______________ 141
9.6 _______ Differentiating the Purposes of Staff Development Programmes ____ 142
9.7 _______ Methodological Constraints and Challenges ______________________ 143
__________ 9.7.1 The shoestring approach __________________________________ 143
__________ 9.7.2 Budget constraints ________________________________________ 144
__________ 9.7.3 Time constraints __________________________________________ 144
__________ 9.7.4 Data constraints __________________________________________ 144
9.8 _______ Pitfalls in Evaluation ___________________________________________ 145
9.9 _______ Avoiding Common Pitfalls in Programme Evaluation ______________ 146
9.10 ______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 147
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 148
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Module Overview
W elcome to one of your important modules in Educational Management

entitled ‘Staff Development Theories and Practices in Education’. This
course is basically meant to provide you with resource material for reference
in your study of the pertinent issues relating to staff development theories,
models, processes and practices with special reference to education. The
course has been broadly designed basically to assist you to conceptualise
and apply staff development concepts in your educational organisational
settings. Thus, the course is central to your educational management studies
as it seeks to highlight and develop theoretical and conceptual principles that
you will apply in planning, implementing and evaluating staff development
programmes in education.
Staff Development Theories and Practices in Education BEDM 107
Broadly, the course aims at:
Exposing you to the fundamental theories and principles of staff

development in the context of education
Aiding you to understand staff development processes from needs
identification and awareness through policy and strategy formulation,
programme design and implementation, installation of support and
management systems through assessment and evaluation of such
programmes
Enabling you to effectively use models of staff development in enhancing
your educational organisational management.
Having looked at the broad aims of the module, we now move on to present
a synopsis of the module by means of walking you through each of the units
that constitute the module. In the process, some important details of the
constituencies of each of the units are highlighted. This is meant to give you a
general impression of what the unit ahead of you is all about. Structurally, this
module is organised into nine distinct units. Each unit begins with an introduction
which is enhanced by the expected learning outcomes or objectives.
Unit 1 concerns the ‘Conceptualisation of Staff Development in Education’.

In the unit we begin by defining the concept of, and the broader context of,
staff development.
Unit 2 is on ‘Staff Development Needs and Analysis’. The unit kicks off by
defining and identifying staff development needs. Methods of staff development
needs identification as well as staff development analysis in the context of
education are also considered.
Unit 3 is on ‘Staff Development Models in Education’. Staff development

models are defined before the five major and other models of staff development
are explored with special reference to education.
Unit 4 is on ‘Staff Development Delivery Techniques’. It begins by defining

techniques and moving on to identify specific staff development delivery
techniques. The application of these delivery techniques in educational
approaches is also considered.
Unit 5 is on ‘Staff Development Planning and Policy in Education’. In the unit

we define staff development planning’ before moving on to look at staff
development framework, goals and policies in education. The unit also looks
at training policies and needs in the educational sector as well as the school
staff development policy.
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2 Zimbabwe Open University
Module Overview
Unit 6 is on ‘Management of Educational Staff Development Programmes’.

The unit begins by defining ‘Staff Development Programmes Management’
and associated concepts before moving on to look at educational staff
development processes and practices.
Unit 7 is on ‘Staff Development Programmes Management Systems’. The

unit begins by looking at the definition and scope of ‘Staff Development
Management Systems’. Supporting staff development systems, the context
of staff development management systems as well as structures and functions
of the Better Schools Programme Zimbabwe are also explored.
Unit 8 is on ‘Staff Development and Organisational Context’ and we begin by

looking at the concept of ‘organisation’ and its development. Staff development
as a component of organisational development as well as education and training
are also explored.
Unit 9 is on ‘Evaluation of Staff Development Programmes in Education’.

The concept of ‘staff development programme evaluation’ and its paradigms
are explored. The unit also looks at issues and challenges in the evaluation of
Staff Development Programmes.
Once again, you are reminded to take this module as your teacher and best
friend as it will enable you to pass your course should you read and understand
it accordingly.
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Zimbabwe Open University 3
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1
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Unit One
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Conceptualising Staff
Development in Education
1.0 Introduction
F or organisations to be effective and grow, they need to be manned by

personnel who are continuously renewed. Thus, the concept of staff
development is very critical to any organisation that is growth-oriented. In
this unit, we introduce the concept of staff development as it applies to the
education sector. We also outline the importance of staff development to the
educational personnel and to other sectors where staff development is a must.
In this unit, we again expose you to the aspects of staff development so that
you may use these in the organisation in which you are employed. This first
unit of the module is aimed at giving you the insight on what staff development
is all about, particularly as it refers to the education system. Enjoy reading this
introductory unit.
1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
define the concept of ‘staff development’
describe the importance of staff development in organisations
outline the aspects of staff development
examine the broader context of staff development
1.2 Defining the Concept of “Staff Development”

When higher level and long-term staff need to learn new processes, methods
or catch up on trends, they do not receive training, they undergo development.
Development widens the employees’ skills base and understanding of functions
within the organisation. Institutions and businesses use staff development to
keep employees full of fresh knowledge and innovation, which gives the
organisation a competitive edge. Staff development also helps employees
through organisational change by supplying them with new skills and
information vital to the organisation’s redesign.
Western (2010) points out that staff development encompasses all types of
facilitated learning opportunities ranging from formal to informal learning. In
essence, there are a variety of approaches to staff development which include
consultations, coaching, community practice, lesson study, mentoring, reflective
supervision, conference, seminars, case studies and technical assistance.
On the other hand, Nadler (2000) in Doll (2007) is of the view that, when we
train a person, we think of the immediate job for which the person is being
prepared. Thus, when we educate a person, we think of the person and the
important challenging work the person should be able to do within his or her
organisation over a long period of time.
Brooks (2008) contends that individuals participate in staff development

because of an interest in lifelong learning, a sense of moral obligation to maintain
and improve professional competence, enhance career progression, keep
abreast of new technology and practice, or to comply with professional
regulatory organisations. The implication of this definition is that one has to be
staff developed for him or her to catch up with the changes in his or her field
of work so that he or she remains relevant in that work. Thus, a wide variety
of people such as teachers, military officers, non-commissioned officers, health
care professionals, lawyers, accountants and engineers engage in staff
development.
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Unit 1 Conceptualising Staff Development in Education
The most cited definition of staff development is that by Warren and Glatter
(1977) in Chigumira (1999:2) which describes staff development as:
...a systematic attempt to harmonise individuals’ interests and wishes and their
carefully assessed requirements for furthering their careers with the forthcoming
requirements at the organisation within which they are expected to work.
This definition clearly shows us that, when we hold staff development sessions,
an attempt should be made to combine individual needs with those of the
organisation. Thus, individuals’ needs should be satisfied in the context of the
organisation for which they work. This is merely done as a precautionary
measure against impending conflict between the individuals and management.
From the above definition, it is also very important to note that staff
development has become an increasingly critical aspect for both the individual
in his or her own right and also in terms of the role of that individual in the
organisation.
Staff development therefore, refers to the processes, programmes and activities

through which every organisation develops, enhances and improves the skills,
competencies and overall performance of its employees and workers. Again,
staff development refers to skills and knowledge attained for both personal
and career advancement of the individual in an organisation. This is in agreement
with Chigumira (1999:2) who says that, “Staff development is a planned and
continuous educative process which is concerned with professional growth of
the school personnel”. Chigumira (1999) further acknowledges that as the
beneficiaries of staff development programme grow professionally, they
participate actively in the development of the school for which they work.
Furthermore, as we move into the 21st Century, the increase in complexity of

the nature of work has meant that there is an added need to be able to adopt
and to develop in an organisation. Hence, the need for staff development is
called for. McHugh (2007) states that there is a larger group of workers
known as ‘knowledge workers’ whose importance in the organisation lies
much in their skills and ability to develop, as in their adaptability to new
technology.
Staff development is synonymous with personal development. In that context,

personal development has been defined as, “... including activities that improve
awareness and identity, develop talents and potential, build human capital and
facilitates employability, enhance quality of life and contribute to realisation of
dreams and aspirations” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_development.
The concept is not limited to self-help but includes formal and informal activities
for developing others, in roles such as teacher, guide counsellor, manager,
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coach or mentor. As personal development takes place in the context of

institutions, it refers to methods, programmes, tools, techniques and assessment
systems that support human development at the individual level in organisations.
The Wikipedia free encyclopaedia suggests that, at the level of the individual,
personal development includes the following activities:
improving self-awareness
improving self-knowledge
building or renewing identity
developing strengths or talents
improving wealth
spiritual development
identifying or improving potential
building employability or human capital
enhancing lifestyle or the quality of life
improving health
fulfilling aspirations
initiating a life enterprise or personal autonomy
defining and executing personal development plans
improving social abilities
The concept of personal development covers a wider field than self-
development or self-help. Thus, personal development also includes
developing others. This may take place through roles such as those of a teacher
or mentor, either through a personal competency such as the skill of certain
managers in developing the potential of employees or a professional service
such as providing training, assessment or coaching.
Beyond improving oneself and developing others, personal development is a

field of practice and research. As a field of practice, it includes personal
development methods, learning programmes, assessment systems, tools and
techniques. As a field of research, personal development topics increasingly
appear in scientific journals, higher education reviews, management journals
and business books.
Any form of development, be it economic, political, biological, organisational

or personal requires a framework for one to know whether change has really
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occurred. In the case of staff development or personal development, an

individual often functions as the primary judge of improvement, but validation
of objective improvement requires assessment using standard criteria. Staff
or personal development frameworks may include goals or benchmarks that
define the end-points, strategies or plans for reaching goals, measurement of
progress, levels or stages that define milestones along a development path
and feedback system to provide information on changes.
Williams (1981) is of the view that staff development, particularly in schools,

should aim at relating the needs of teaching staff, ancillary staff and those of
the pupils, with those of the organisations within which they all function. Thus,
all the staff development efforts should be able to contribute meaningfully to
the effectiveness of the schools. The pupils, who are at the centre stage of
learning, should equally benefit from the development efforts of the teachers
by receiving quality education.
To summarise, staff development is directed at the:
maintenance of educational competence;

extension of pedagogical skills;
extension of professional knowledge;
encouragement of flexibility in teaching and judgement;
fostering of personal and interpersonal growth; and
stimulation of self-awareness and responsibility
Activity 1.1
1. Describe in your own words, the meaning of the term ‘staff
? 2.
development’.
Differentiate staff development from personal development.
3. Suggest ways in which staff development is brought about in
organisations.
4. What motivates management to initiate staff development programmes?
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1.3 Importance of Staff Development

In the early 1970s, a growing concern about the effectiveness of in-service
education resulted in a spate of studies to determine the attitudes of educators
about these programmes (Ainsworth, 1976; Brim and Tollett, 1974; Joyce
and Peck, 1977 and Zigarmi, Betz and Jensen, 1977). Before we go any
further, it is imperative that we define the term in-service education and
training (INSET). According to Oldroyd and Hall (1988), INSET is a widely
used term that refers to planned activities practised both within and outside
schools primarily to develop the professional knowledge, skills, attitudes and
performance of professional staff in schools.
The findings indicated nearly unanimous dissatisfaction with current efforts,

but a strong consensus that in-service education and training was critical if
school programmes and practices were to be improved (Wood and Kleine,
1987). During the late 1970s and early 1980s, several major studies and
reviews contributed to our understanding of the characteristics of effective
staff development, focusing not on attitudes, but on actual practices (Berman
and McLaughlin, 1978; Kells, 1980; Lawrence, 1974 and Yarger, Howey
and Joyce, 1980). According to Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989), the
resulting list of effective practices, well known by now, included:
programmes conducted in school settings and linked to ‘school-wide’

efforts;
teachers participating as helpers to each other and as planners, with
administrators, of in-service activities;
emphasis on self instruction, with differentiated training opportunities;
teachers in active roles, choosing goals and activities for themselves;
emphasis on demonstration, supervised trials and feedback;
training that is concrete and ongoing over time; and
on-going assistance and support available on request.
Staff development came of age in the 1980s. It was the focus of countless
conferences, workshops, articles, books and research reports. State legislators
and administrators of local school districts saw development as a key aspect
of school improvement efforts. Many school districts initiated extensive staff
development projects to improve student learning. Research on these projects
and craft knowledge generated by staff developers have substantially advanced
understanding of effective staff development practices beyond the overview
studies of the early 1980s referred to above (Sparks and Loucks-Horsley,
1989).
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Employee education and professional development belongs among the key

activities that increase the long-term competitiveness of any organisation, as
well as its effectiveness. Chovore (1995:29) is of the view that, “every
administrative, managerial or leadership position has staff development as
one of its most significant facets”. Chivore (1995:29 further contends that,
“curriculum matters are in the forefront since education is dynamic”. This is
done to improve upon the production or implementation of the curriculum.
In-service or staff development of teachers involves ways and means by which
the school head realises staff performance needs. Such programmes aim to
improve the qualitative and quantitative contributions of the staff to the overall
goals of the school. In-service programmes should aim at enabling individuals
within the school to be able to be effective in performing their work or preparing
individuals for greater and more challenging responsibilities.
As already alluded to, developing your staff improves job performance. Even
in the digital age, where computers are the order of the day, people are still
the driving force of every organisation. Hence, staff at any organisation needs
constant development not only to teach them to perform their assigned duties
to the best of their abilities, but also to educate them about new and changing
products and services and to help them to advance in their careers. Thus,
staff development carries with it a myriad of techniques and benefits. Discussed
below are some benefits of staff development.
1.3.1 Develop future business owners

Staff development teaches potential managers how to operate, build a budget,
facilitate workflow, negotiate contracts and hire employees. Even a family-
owned business can train a younger family member to eventually take the
place of an aging parent so that the family business continues to grow and
prosper.
At school level, staff development can develop future educators who have
the potential to change the curriculum to suit the environmental changes. Thus,
pupils are taught new skills and knowledge so that they continue to be relevant
in the work environment in which they shall be employed. This is in agreement
with Druker (1956) who says that, we cannot use yesterday’s tools in today’s
business and expect to be in business tomorrow. The implication of this
statement is that we should constantly change our teaching habits to suit the
prevailing or current trends of education, so that our educational products
remain relevant and well informed.
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1.3.2 Train front-line workers

Staff development can change the attitudes and motivate even the most
unfriendly workers to want to serve the customers or clients. Development
ideas can include fun and uplifting activities such as co-workers passing out
notes to congratulate each other on a job well done, particularly if one of your
employees sees another solving a difficult customer problem or workers
nominating one another for customer service rewards such as monetary
rewards, a watch or tickets to a concert or sports events. Such complementary
statements tend to motivate workers to want to constantly improve, hence
organisational improvement results.
At school level, the school head can congratulate teachers who will have
produced the best Grade seven results or who will have produced the highest
percentage pass rates in different subject areas at Ordinary and Advanced
levels. The rewards can be in the form of monetary rewards or certificates of
highest performance in the school or any other desirable reward. These rewards
will go a long way in motivating educational personnel so that they compete
for such rewards.
Again, the way we treat pupils as our clients has an impact on school’s growth.
Thus, the communication system prevailing in the school, the assistance we
offer pupils in their academic work and in their social life may enable the
pupils to have a different outlook towards the school and its employees.
Treatment of pupils as humans would promote cooperation between pupils
and the teaching staff. After all, the teachers are supposed to act in ‘loco
parentis’ as they give instructions and directions to pupils at school level.
The adoption of this positive attitude can lead the organisation to develop in a
long way. Clients or pupils would want to attend those schools where their
needs are satisfied and where they are treated as important beings.
1.3.3 Train new staff

It is always important that new employees, as well as those transferring from
another department or division, need to learn their new jobs. This calls for the
need to induct new employees so that they learn the new techniques of dealing
with particular job-related activities. Without this very important induction,
the new employees are compelled to use ‘trial-and-error’ tactics, where
blunders are likely to be made. Such a scenario would portray a very negative
image of the organisation. If the organisation is a business entity, then this
organisation would start to realise losses due to failure by management to
properly induct workers. This is simply because business organisations deal
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with and depend on people for their survival. Failure to use customer relations
is tantamount to giving customers passports to visit other competing shops for
the same service that could have been offered by this business.
Through no fault of theirs, the employees fail to perform to the expected level
due to lack of such vital induction exercises. Staff development programmes
can entail sending an employee to a skill-specific seminar or school or enrolling
the employee in an appropriate course that teaches the specific skills the worker
requires. Some companies even sponsor their own formal schools or education
programmes for new employees. In addition, a mentoring programme can
educate new employees on workplace culture issues specific to your office.
Even teachers require such induction seminars when they are starting work
from colleges. They need to be well versed with the conditions of service and
other job-related skills so that they can survive in the system. Without such
important induction workshops, the teachers are likely to be discharged from
service as a result of having committed acts of misconduct. Not only new
teachers require induction, but even deputy heads or heads when they are
promoted to new posts, need to be inducted. The induction in this case would
provide them with the new orientation on the new position of authority.
1.3.4 Engage learning

Teachers in particular are constantly interacting with other education
professionals to learn new ways of teaching and different ways pupils process
the information they disseminate in the classroom. Development activities for
such an industry might include teachers exchanging ideas in groups, planning
lessons together and discussing school policy as well as participating in seminars.
Such activities create unity and partnership among school staff.
1.3.5 Keep up-to-date

Hardware and software manufacturers and software developers release new
updates constantly. Retail establishments are always receiving new and
improved products and adding new departments and services. Car dealerships
have to contend with new technological features and added operating
capabilities of new automobiles. Consider offering regular on-site seminars
dedicated to one new product or service at a time or ask an on-site information
technology specialist to hold classes on specific new hardware and software
updates to save money on off-site courses.
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The above scenario can also apply to the education sector, where new
information constantly come from above, for instance, implementation of
Results Based Management (RBM) system as opposed to the Performance
Management System. In such cases, the teachers must be updated on how to
correctly complete the RBM forms and to implement the system. Thus, a
mini-workshop held at school level would be most appropriate for the teachers,
during the times when financial resources are scarce to hold bigger workshops.
Also, curriculum changes need the implementers to be given new doses of

knowledge as to the new expectations so that these teachers would not become
obsolete. Even the pupils who are the recipients of this knowledge need to be
give relevant knowledge that would enable them to remain relevant in different
work situations.
Activity 1.2
1. Discuss the importance of staff development to your organisation.
? 2. Suggest strategies you would adopt in conducting effective staff
development workshops for staff in your organisation. Why would
you adopt such strategies?
3. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of on-site seminars and off-
site seminars.
1.4 Aspects of Staff Development

Staff development should be an integral component of any organisation that is
growth-oriented, and not an add-on. This is in view of the fact that the greatest
resource of any organisation is its staff or human resources. In many cases,
staff development is sidelined or overlooked altogether as an organisation
faces challenges that appear more pressing. A rigorous staff development
programme takes into account the ambitions of personnel, while focusing on
the organisation’s methods and practices and looking to the future with a
renewed sense of purpose. We now consider some of the aspects or features
of an effective staff development programme that is well conceived. Basically,
some aspects of an effective staff development according to Luger in http://
www.ehow.com/info_8149711_staff-development-goals-objectives.html
are discussed in the section that follows.
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1.4.1 Addressing staff aspirations

It is important to note that, good staff development should take into account
the aspirations of staff. These aspirations help to define the starting point of
the staff development process. Thus, staff may desire to have more job
responsibilities, may seek ways in which their remuneration can be enhanced
or may wish to propose changes to established working practices. A goal of
any staff development process should be at least to consider such aspirations.
1.4.2 Formalisation of roles

People working together especially in small, tightly knit teams, sometimes
experience role slippage or responsibility blurring. This can lead to people not
being sure who should be doing what. While there are some advantages to
having a modus operandi encompassing a degree of task flexibility among
colleagues, it is imperative that the role theory should take a centre stage. The
role theory emphasises the importance of accountability and the consistency
of expectations. Hence, staff development processes can have as one of their
objectives, the formalising of roles.
1.4.3 Addressing training needs

It has already been noted that staff development should be an ongoing process.
It is understood that there might be some limitations to what can be achieved
within the working day because of pressures; ideally there will be an ongoing
commitment to training. This is especially important where jobs are changing
in response to new technology, reformed working practices and global
economic shifts. Making training opportunities available for staff should be an
objective of staff development. Thus, fulfilling the individual’s training needs
also hugely benefits the organisation, sometimes in ways not predicted.
1.4.4 Identifying management potential

Organisations need to be led in order to make progress. Staff development
processes should aim to identify individuals with leadership skills who have
the potential to become managers. In contrast to the ways it is often portrayed
in television dramas, as ruthless self promotion, in reality leadership is about
improving the performance of others, in tandem with improving personal
performance. Would be leaders will already be showing an awareness of the
needs of colleagues. Effective staff development processes will harness this
raw talent.
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Additionally, Billing (1982) in Chigumira (1999:7) outlines a number of aims

for individuals which, when closely examined, give an indication of what staff
development is all about. These aspects of staff development, according to
Billing (1982) are to:
maintain appropriate staff expertise and experience for current and

projected course;
ensure that each member of staff is or becomes and remains a fully
competent and responsive teacher of his or her subject, and that he or
she becomes capable of doing his/her job more effectively in his/her
present role;
encourage staff to contribute to innovation in their own subject teaching;
enable staff to broaden and update their knowledge and to advance
their personal development and their academic and professional
achievements;
permit staff to change their subject and/or level at which they teach in
order to prepare for changing patterns of courses;
equip staff to cater for the social welfare as well as the academic needs
of students and to develop an awareness of students’ needs and
educational experiences;
enable staff to understand the school structure, context and philosophy
and to play an effective role in the school administration and management,
including contributing to the clarification of the aims and the formulation
of educational policies and plans;
improve communication and personal relationships and encourage staff
to contribute to the maintenance an academic community;
enhance the personal satisfaction gained by each member of staff from
his/her work by making full use of staff capabilities throughout their
careers;
encourage in staff a positive response to change, broaden experience
and prepare for new challenging roles inside and outside the institution
involving different or increasing responsibilities and so, enhance their
career development; and
encourage staff to review periodically and to discuss their individual
progress, interest and opportunities and to ensure that abilities and wishes
of staff are known by those responsible for co-ordinating development
programmes.
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1.5 Broader Context of Staff Development

It should be borne in mind that, change in schools should be a process instead
of an event. Policy makes school heads and staff developers reflect on this
assumption. Policy announcements, occasional workshops and conferences
point to change as an event rather than a process. Where this happens, the
philosophy of staff development is compromised. In Zimbabwe the formulation
of the Better Schools Programme (BSPZ) provides a blue print for the way
forward regarding school-based staff development, cluster-based staff
development, district-based staff development, provincial initiated staff
development and nationally-based staff development (Chief Education Circular
Minute No. 9 of 1994). Thus, this circular broke the ground by clearly outlining
the purpose and objectives of Better Schools Programme in Zimbabwe (BSPZ)
at the Standards Control Unit, the Regional Office, the District Office, the
Professional Associations and the School Clusters.
To date, the BSPZ has enabled the districts to grow through termly
contributions of the parents and guardians, who are the largest stakeholders
of the programme. In some districts, BSPZ resource centres have been
established, where library books are kept and teachers, pupils as well as
community members who intend to enhance their qualifications and knowledge
can consult such reference books. The resource centres also play a crucial
role of enabling the community members to conduct meetings, workshops
and conferences through the use of the resource centre’s boardrooms and
such members have to pay a nominal fee. Furthermore, some districts have
gone as far as acquiring vehicles to be used for the supervision of teachers in
schools. Such a move is highly commended for it ensures quality is maintained
in schools if properly done.
Activity 1.3
1. Describe some aspects of staff development.
? 2. Suggest the advantages of involving the community in the management
of staff development programmes.
3. In Zimbabwe, the BSPZ was established to improve the quality of
educational provision in schools. What could be the benefits such of
nationwide programmes to the education sector of a country of your
choice?
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1.6 Summary
In this unit, the definition of staff development was established. Thus, staff
development has been described as a process of staff improvement, through
the use of a number of strategies such as workshops, seminars, conferences
and meetings. The unit has also looked at some aspects of staff development.
It has been noted that staff development aims at addressing staff needs and
aspirations. The broader context of staff development has also been
considered.
In the next unit, we look at “Staff Development Needs and Analysis”.
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References
Ainsworth, A. (1976). Teachers talk about in-service education. Journal of
Teacher Education, 27, 107-109.
Berman, P. and McLaughlin, M. (1978). Federal programs supporting
educational change: Vol. 8. Implementing and sustaining
innovation. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
Brim, J. and Tollett, D. (1974). How do teachers feel about in-service
education? Educational Leadership, 31, 21-25.
Brooks, I. (2008). Organisational Behaviour: Individuals, Groups and
Organisations. New York: Prentice Hall.
Chigumira, S. (1999). Staff Development in Education: Module
EA3AD202. Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Chivore, B. R. S. (1995). Educational Administration and Management:
A methodological handbook for primary school heads in
Zimbabwe. Harare: UNESCO.
Doll, R. C. (2007). Supervision for Staff Development: Ideas and
Application. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Joyce, B. and Peck, L. (1977). Inservice teacher education project report
II: Interviews. Syracuse. New York: Syracuse University.
Kells, P. (1981). Quality practices in inservice education. The Developer.
Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council.
Lawrence, G. (1974). Patterns of effective inservice education: A state
of the arts summary of research on materiala and procedures for
changing teacher behaviours in inservice education. Gainesville,
FL: University of Florida Collegfe of Education (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 176 424).
Sparks, D. and Loucks-Horsley, S. (1989). Journal of Staff Development.
Vol. 10 No. 4.
Western, S. (2010). Practising Organisation Development. London: Routledge.
Wood, F. and Kleine, P. (1987). Staff development research and rural
schools: A critical approach. Unpublished paper. University of
Oklahoma, Norman.
Yarger, S., Howey, K. and Joyce, B. (1980). Inservice teacher education.
Palo Alto, CA: Booksend Laboratory.
Zigarmi, P., Betz, L. and Jensen, D. (1977). Teacher preference in and
perceptions of inservice. Educational Leadership, 34, 345-551.
http://www.ehow.com/info_8149711_staff-development-goals-
objectives.html (Update April 01, 2011).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_development.
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2
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Unit Two
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Staff Development Needs and

Analysis
2.0 Introduction
I n the previous unit, we looked at what staff development entails, as well as

its importance to an organisation. Various reasons for engaging in staff
development such as:
the development of future business owners
train frontline workers
learning new ideas
keeping up-to-date and other aspects of staff development were fully
discussed
In this unit, we explore Staff Development needs and analysis. The terms:
Staff Development needs, staff development analysis will be defined, methods
of staff development explained and their application to the education system
will be elaborated.
2.1 Objectives
identify staff development needs
describe how administrators and their staff can analyse the staff
development needs of their school/institution
outline the methods that can be used to staff develop the staff
explain how staff development analysis can be applied in the educational
context
2.2 Defining ‘Staff Development Needs’

With the ever changing environment; the world is a global village and trans-
national entrepreneurship being the order of the day, the education systems of
the world need to keep abreast with the requirements of the world of work.
Individuals need to participate in professional development to maintain and
improve professional competence, hence the need for staff development which
is context specific. Staff development needs entail the perception that the
training is useful for a purpose that the community, staff and administration is
able to specify (Hansen, 1991). Sometimes this can be the perception of the
learner that there is a gap in the education offered.
Staff development as indicated by Malone (1984) is a programme designed

to strengthen competencies of employees while they are on the job. Staff
development may be referred to as professional development or in-service
training. It is a problem-centred, learner-oriented and time bound series of
activities which provide the opportunity to develop a sense of purpose, broaden
perception of the clientele and increase capacity to gain knowledge and
mastery of techniques.
2.3 Identifying Staff Development Needs

Staff development and teacher readiness is a critical factor for achieving
successful implementation and quality results. Teacher practice needs to change
to support a more student-centred learning environment. Teachers need tools
and training to adjust their pedagogic approaches to take advantage of a
transformed learning environment and available technology tools (especially
in this era of the world as a global village). Meeting the needs of the teaching
profession for ongoing professional development entails that staff development
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Unit 2 Staff Development Needs and Analysis
is an essential exercise in the education system. These days teachers work in

an environment characterised by rapid and sustained change and is inadequately
supported in terms of access to in-career development. To promote lifelong
learning at all levels of society and within the education system and considering
that the teacher has a great extended role and range of responsibilities both in
the classroom and the community, it is important to staff develop the labour
force.
Staff development needs can be identified by the various parties involved in

the education system, for instance, the administrators, teachers (the classroom
practitioner), the parent (the financer of the service given), the community
(the consumer of the end product), and the learner him/herself. Staff
development needs can be identified for different levels of staff, thus; the
established officers, probationers (fresh from college), staff transferring from
other stations or to a new role within the institution and those in different
subject areas. Rogers and Olmsted (1957) state that staff development begins
on the first day a new employee is on the job. This is done in the form of
induction which supplements whatever pre-service training the new personnel
might have had (Halim and Ali, 1988).
The administrators can discuss staff development needs with each member of
staff at least annually as part of the Performance Review process. This can be
the time when individual members of the institution can indicate their areas of
weaknesses or strengths that need beefing up or that can benefit the institution.
For those on probation, the institution can identify staff development needs in
accordance with the probation policy within one week of taking up their
appointment.
When an individual transfers from another station or to a new role within the
institution, their needs should be discussed within four weeks of taking up the
position. Departments can also realise training needs during their annual planning
and budgetary cycle.
Activity 2.1
1. When is staff development essential?
? 2.
3.
Who needs to be staff developed and why?
Explain why people at all levels at your school need to be staff
developed.
4. What do you think happens when no staff development is undertaken
at a workplace?
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2.4 Methods of Staff Development Needs

Identification
The following methods can be used in staff development: the critical incident
technique, the bubble charts, the card shorts, forms/questionnaires, group
discussions, analysis of complaints, observation at work, personal SWOT
analysis, learning logs and attending training events.
2.4.1 Critical incident technique

This method involves talking about specific and significant work incidents.
Individuals are asked to recount work-related incidents when they felt:
lacking confidence or
out of their depth or
when they thought they had let someone down or
when they had a problem they could not handle
Recounting the incident is used to help the individual to identify what would
have to happen to enable them to handle a similar incident more effectively
and confidently and what training needs, if any, are indicated.
2.4.2 Bubble charts

These are sheets of paper with a number of circles (‘bubbles’) drawn on
them. Each of the bubbles contains a suggested training need related to the
particular subject being investigated. For instance, an organisation working
with volunteers wishes to identify the training needs of its ‘volunteer
coordinators’. The trainer begins by asking those staff members to brainstorm
a list of possible training topics. The trainer then adds subjects that s/he thinks
are important. Each of the topics is written in its own bubble on the sheet. A
copy of the bubble sheet is given to each individual and they are personal
training needs. A number of empty ‘bubbles’ should be provided for individuals
to write in subjects which are not already listed.
2.4.3 Card sorts

This is a variation of the ‘bubble chart’ idea. Each potential training need is
written on a separate card. These are handed to the individual who is asked
to sort them into different piles. The piles are headed ‘Major training needs
for me’, ‘Training needs for me and ‘Not a training need for me’.
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2.4.4 Forms/questionnaires
A wide range of personal checklists can be found in texts on training. These
are particularly common in popular books on management development. Many
can be used or adapted for the purpose of identifying training needs.
2.4.5 Group discussion

Structured group discussions can be very helpful in identifying shared training
needs and ways of meeting them. Discussions can be particularly valuable in
identifying the training need which will arise from the implementation of new
policies or procedures.
2.4.6 Analysis of complaints

If an organisation has a worker complaints procedure, this can be used to
identify problems which may be amenable to training. Trainers should be aware
of reframing management or inter-personal problems as training needs when
using this method.
2.4.7 Personal SWOT analysis

SWOT is an acronym for ‘Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats’.
It is a technique that is much used for strategic planning but which can be
adapted for training needs identification. SWOT involves taking stock of an
individual’s personal strength and weaknesses (in areas of skills, knowledge,
attitudes, contacts and personal qualities) and listing these under appropriate
headings. The next stage is to think about the person’s work setting and identify
the opportunities for development or change that currently exist or could be
created. The work setting has to be re-looked and the individual identifies the
threats (unwanted changes over which they have little or no control) in their
job. The lists are used to assist the person to identify the strengths they would
like to enhance; weaknesses they would like to overcome; opportunities they
would like to take and threats they need to respond to. Analysis of these can
help to identify changes that would be amenable to training.
2.4.8 Learning logs

These can be diaries in which individuals are encouraged to make brief notes
about problems they have encountered in their day-to-day work and any
ideas they have for overcoming the problems. The learning logs can be
invaluable sources of information for supervision sessions, annual review/
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appraisal meetings and other discussions about identifying training needs. They
need not be time consuming, particularly if pro-formas are used.
2.4.9 Attending training events

Attending a training event helps people to identify ‘what they didn’t know’.
Well designed training course evaluations can help people to identify training
needs at a time when their self-awareness is enhanced.
Activity 2.2
1. State and explain seven methods of staff development.
? 2. Apply these methods to your own context by giving practical examples
that befit your own school.
3. Which is the best staff development method you can adopt and why?
4. Give any other methods that you know which can assist in identifying
staff development needs.
2.5 Defining ‘Staff Development Analysis’

Having identified methods of staff development needs, we now define staff
development analysis. Hansen (1991) in Chigumira (1999) states that staff
development needs analysis comprises the processing of information about
training and learning needs. Staff development needs analysis would help to
determine whether there is need for introducing in-service education and training
solutions or non-training solutions.
The training needs analyses provide many things to a trainer. The analyses
determine the training contents and how deficient the trainees are in these
contents, and the sequence of tasks provides the sequence of training activity.
Table 2.1 is an example of a needs analysis table that a trainer can use.
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Table 2.1: Needs Analysis
Job Analysis Worksheet

Job: Teacher/Head of school/Head of department
Tasks: Frequency Importance Learning Total Focus
performeda difficultyb score
1. Supervision 4 3 1 8 ...
2. Conducting 4 3 3 10 yes
training
3. Planning 2 3 2 7 ...
programmes
4. Research trial 2 2 1 5 ...
......... ... ... ... ... ...
......... ... ... ... ... ...
......... ... ... ... ... ...
a b c
1 = Seldom 1 = Marginally important 1 = Easy
2 = Occasionally 2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately difficult
3 = Weekly to monthly 3 = Extremely important 2 = Very difficult
5= Daily to weekly 4= Extremely difficult
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Table 2.2: Task analysis
Task Analysis Worksheet

Job: Teacher/Head of school/Head of department
Task: Conducting training
Components/steps Frequency Importanceb Learning Total Focus
Performeda Difficultyc Score
Establishing rapport 5 3 1 9 -
Introducing the topic - - - - -
Presenting the subject 5 3 1 9 -
Maintaining sequence - - - - -
Maintaining eye contact - - - - -
Using A/V aids in time 5 3 4 12 yes
- - - -
- - - -
Summarizing the 5 3 3 11 yes
lecture
a b c
1 = Seldom 1 = Marginally important 1 = Easy
2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately important 2 = Modera tely diffic ult
3 = Weekly to monthly 3 = Extremely important 3 = Very difficult
4 = Daily to weekly 4 = Extremely difficult 5. Daily
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Table 2.3: Task analysis

Skill-Gap Analysis Worksheet
Job: Teacher/Head of School/Head of department
Task: teaching
Steps-components Level of proficiency Is proficiency a Can problem be
problem? solved by training?
Establishing rapport 1 2 3 (4) 5 [] []
Introducing the topic 1 2 (3) 4 5 [Y] [Y]
Presenting the subject 1 2 3 (4) 5 [] []
Maintaining sequence 1 2 (3) 4 5 [] []
Maintaining eye contact 1 (2) 3 4 5 [Y] [Y]
Using A/V aids in time 1 (2) 3 4 5 [] []
Supplying handouts 1 2 (3) 4 5 [Y] [N]
......... 12345 [] []
Summarising the lesson (1) 2 3 4 5 [Y] [Y]
1 = Cannot do at all
2 = Can do less than half of the task
3 = Can do more than half but less than total
4 = Can do total but cannot maintain time schedule
5 = Can do within time schedule
Activity 2.3
1. What is the importance of staff development needs analysis in
? 2.
education?
With the knowledge gained, how do you think you can analyse the
staff development needs of the staff at your school?
3. In your group, discuss how useful the analysis sheet can be to you as a
staff development organiser.
2.6 Application of Staff Development Analysis in

Educational Contexts
Staff development can be essential in the education system. Considering the
Zimbabwean context where many drawbacks have occurred as concerns the
progression of the students, learning staff development can be used to cover
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the gap created. Many learning disabilities (LDs) have been created such that
students have lagged behind in the assumed grades they should be. For instance,
a student in Grade Seven may not be able to fluently read or spell words
properly when he/she is supposed to sit for the final primary exiting examination.
This was unheard of during the country’s good times when the economic
situation was stable.
As noted by Van Dersal (1962), refresher training (staff development) keeps

the specialists, administrators, subject-matter, supervisors, and frontline
workers updated and enables them to add to the knowledge and skills they
have already. Staff development or refresher training usually deals with new
information and new methods, as well as review of older materials. This type
of training is needed both to keep employees at the peak of their possible
production and to prevent them from getting into a rut. This supports the fact
that with the changes in currency used in Zimbabwe, for example, the multi-
currency system whereby the United States dollar is used in notes and the
South African Rand covers for coins, has distorted the teaching of primary
school mathematics whose books have the Zimbabwean dollar as the currency
used. The teaching staff can hold some staff development or attend short
courses organised by the district /provincial/head office or the Curriculum
Development Unit in order to come up with a book or books that are compliant
with the changing trends. This will eventually make the education system
meaningful both to the learner and the teacher.
Staff development that has as its goal high levels of learning for all students,
teachers, and administrators requires a form of professional learning that is
quite different from the workshop-driven approach. The most powerful forms
of staff development occur in ongoing teams that meet on a regular basis,
preferably several times a week, for the purposes of learning, joint lesson
planning, and problem solving. These teams, often called learning communities
or communities of practice (Calhoun (1994), operate with a commitment to
the norms of continuous improvement and experimentation and engage their
members in improving their daily work to advance the achievement of school
district and school goals for student learning. In the Zimbabwean context, this
can be done through the Better Schools Programme where schools are
organised into clusters to cater for staff development in all facets of holistic
education (academic and arts and sport).
Learning teams may be of various sizes and serve different purposes. For
instance, the departments of Science for the cluster or district (in secondary
school) as a whole may meet once or twice a month to reflect on its work,
engage in appropriate learning, and assess its progress. In addition, some
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members of the department may serve on school improvement teams or

committees that focus on the goals and methods of school-wide improvement.
While these teams make important contributions to school culture, learning
environment and other priority issues, they do not substitute for the day-to-
day professional conversations focused on instructional issues that are the
hallmark of effective learning communities. Learning teams meet almost every
day and concern themselves with practical ways to improve teaching and
learning. Members of learning communities take collective responsibility for
the learning of all students represented by team members. Teacher members
of teach teams, which consist of four to eight members, assist one another in
examining the standards students are required to master, planning more effective
lessons, critiquing student work, and solving the common problems of teaching.
The teams determine areas in which additional learning would be helpful and
read articles, attend workshops or courses, or invite consultants to assist
them in acquiring the necessary knowledge or skills. In addition to the regular
meetings, participants observe one another in the classroom and conduct other
job-related responsibilities. Learning communities are strengthened when other
support staff, administrators, and even school board members choose to
participate, and when communication is facilitated between teams. Because
of this common focus and clear direction, problems of fragmentation and
incoherence that typically thwart school improvement efforts are eliminated.
Administrator learning communities also meet on a regular basis to deepen

participants’ understanding of instructional leadership, identify practical ways
to assist teachers in improving the quality of student work, critique one another’s
school improvement efforts, and learn important skills such as data analysis
and providing helpful feedback to teachers.
Many educators also benefit from participation in regional or national subject-

matter networks or school reform consortia that connect schools with common
interests. While most such networks have face-to-face meetings, increasing
numbers of participants use electronic means such as e-mail, listservs, and
bulletin boards to communicate between meetings or as a substitute for
meetings. Such virtual networks can provide important sources of information
and knowledge as well as the interpersonal support required to persist over
time in changing complex school-wide or classroom practices.
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Activity 2.4
1. What structures are in place at your school that cater for staff
? 2.
development issues?
In which areas do you think the school staff needs some training?
3. Is the academic area the only one that should be considered for staff
development meetings?
4. Give reasons for your response to Question 3.
5. What is the duty of the National Office or Education Head Office in
promoting staff development?
2.7 Summary
In the unit we defined staff development needs for the school (teachers and
students), identified the needs as concerns the various participants in the
education system and analysed the needs for staff development. We also
looked at ways in which this knowledge can be applied to the education
context. It is your task as a student to find more ways in which this knowledge
can assist you to improve the field of work you have chosen in order to avoid
job frustration and make school days enjoyable for the learner.
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References
Calhoun, E. (1994). How to use action research in the self-renewing school.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Halim, A. and Ali, M.M. (1988). Administration and Management of Training
Programmes. Bangladesh Journal of Training and Development, 1
(2), 1-19
Hansen, (1991). Needs Analysis: University of Northern Rivers. In Chigumira
(1999) Staff Development in Education. Module EA3AD202.
Malone, V.M. (1984). Inservice Training and Staff Development. In B.E.
Swanson (Ed.), Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. Rome:
FAO.
Rogers, F.E. and Amsted, A.G. (1957). Supervision in the cooperative
Extension Service. Madison, WL: National Agricultural Extension
Centre for Advanced Study.
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3
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Unit Three
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Staff Development Models in

Education
3.0 Introduction
I n the previous unit we looked at ‘Staff Development Needs and Analysis’.

In this unit, we focus on ‘Staff Development Models in Education’. We
walk you through the definition of the term ‘staff development models’, the
five models of staff development and other staff development models used in
the education sector. The five models described in this unit are: individually-
guided staff development, observation assessment, involvement in a
development process, training and inquiry. The other models which shall be
described are the traditional/management model, informal/shop floor model
and intermediate/partnership model. The advantages and disadvantages of
these models shall also be considered.
3.1 Objectives
define the term ‘staff development models’ in simpler words
identify five models of staff development in education
describe the five models of staff development
compare the five models and the other three models suggested by
Piper (1975) and Yorke (1977)
apply the staff development models in the identification of staff
development programmes in education
3.2 Defining ‘Staff Development Models’

According to Dye (1987:20), a model is defined as, “a simplified representation
of the real world”. In agreement with Dye (1987), Robbins (1991:37) defines
model as “an abstraction of reality; a simplified representation of some real-
world phenomenon”. The free dictionary suggests that a model is, “a
hypothetical description of a complex entity or process”. A model is also
defined as a systematic description of an object or phenomenon that shares
important characteristics with the object or phenomenon (http://
www.thefreedictionary.com/model). Scientific models can be material, visual,
mathematical, or computational and are often used in the construction of
scientific theories. Thus, a model is a mental framework which is used to
describe the real world. For instance, a plan of a house or a building which is
drawn on a piece of paper is a simplified representation of that house or
building if it is actually constructed. This diagram drawn on paper gives the
mental image of how the designer visualises the building. As the builders
construct the building, they have to interpret it correctly so that it measures up
to the expected standard.
Specifically, the term staff development model is defined as follows, “A staff

development model is a pattern or plan which can be used to guide the design
of a staff development programme” (http://www.learningforward.org/news/
jsd/sparks104.cfm). Hence, a staff development model is defined as a plan
of action which is designed to enable members in organisations to follow
when conducting staff development programmes for the staff to grow
professionally. It is actually a spring board which gives direction and guidelines
to programme designers of staff development programmes, that are meant to
equip staff with new ideas, skills, knowledge and attitudes so that they can
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Unit 3 Staff Development Models in Education
improve the way these organisations operate as well as increasing their

competitiveness.
Activity 3.1
1. Define the concept of a‘model.
? 2.
3.
Describe the meaning of the term ‘staff development model’.
Explain how a model can be used in designing a programme.
3.3 Five Models of Staff Development

In the previous section, we defined the term ‘staff development model’. This
was meant to prepare you for the actual models of staff development. According
to the article by Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) in the Journal of Staff
Development Volume 10, Number 4, there are five models of staff
development. These models are:
The Individually-Guided Staff Development,

Observation Assessment,
Involvement in Development Process,
Training, and
Inquiry.
These models are discussed below, to find out how best they can aid the
designing of staff development programmes so that organisations can improve
through the renewed members who work in them. Sparks and Loucks-Horsley
(1989) contend that, “staff development is intended to improve student learning
through enhanced teacher performance”. Hence, it is imperative at this
particular point, to have a look at the models of staff development, and see
which one has the greatest effect of improving the teachers in their job-related
knowledge, skills or attitudes.
3.3.1 The individually-guided staff development

Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) are of the opinion that employees such
as teachers learn many things on their own. They read professional publications;
have discussions with colleagues and experiment with new instructional
strategies, among other activities. These may occur with or without the
existence of a formal staff development programme.
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It is very possible for staff development programmes to actively promote

individually-guided activities. While the actual activities may vary widely, the
key characteristic of the individually-guided staff development model is that
the learning is designed by the teacher or the employee himself or herself.
Thus, the teacher determines his or her own goals and selects the activities
that will result in the achievement of those goals. Sparks and Loucks-Horsley
(1989) suggest that a sense of this model is best represented in an
advertisement for the Great Books Foundation which reads: “At 30, 50 or
70, you are more self-educable than you were at 20”. The implication of this
statement is that at the age above 20 years, one is able to be involved in self-
learning of which most trained teachers are above this age group. As such, the
above authorities are of the view that teachers above the age of 20 can read
various educational and professional materials and understand them without
the aid of a presenter or facilitator.
Assumptions underlining the individually-guided staff development model
The model assumes that:
individuals can best judge their own learning needs;

individuals are capable of self direction and self-initiated learning;
adults learn most efficiently when they initiate and plan their learning
activities rather than spending their time in activities that are less relevant
than those they would design (when teachers as individuals design their
own learning there is much ‘reinventing of the wheel’ which may seem
inefficient to some observers); and
individuals will be most motivated when they select their own learning
goals on their personal assessment of their needs.
Theoretical and research underpinnings
Lawrence (1974) in Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989), in his review of 97

studies of in-service programmes found out that programmes with individualised
activities were more likely to achieve their objectives than those that provided
identical experiences for all participants. Theory supporting the individually-
guided model can be found in the work of a number of individuals. Rogers’
(1969) client-centred therapy and views on education are based on the premise
that human beings will seek growth given the appropriate conditions. Hence,
Rogers (1969:153) wrote that, “I have come to feel that the only learning
which significantly influences behaviour is self-discovered and self-appropriated
learning”.
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The difference in people and their needs are well represented in the literature
on adult learning theory, adult development, learning styles and the change
process. Adult learning theorists, Kidd (1973) and Knowles (1980) believe
that adults become increasingly self-directed and that their readiness to learn
is stimulated by real life tasks and problems. Levine (1989) a stage theorist,
holds that, individuals in different stages of development have different personal
and professional needs. Consequently, staff development that provides practical
classroom management assistance to a 22 year old beginning teacher may be
inappropriate for a veteran teacher approaching retirement.
Learning styles researchers, Dunn and Dunn (1978) and Gregorc (1979)
argue that individuals are different in the ways they perceive and process
information and in the manner in which they most effectively learn (i.e. alone
or with others, by doing as opposed to hearing about it). Thus, the model
adopted by the Zimbabwe Open University’s Teacher Development
Department, in which trainee teachers in the Diploma in Education (Primary
and Secondary) are engaged in teaching throughout their training period can
be equated to individual-guided type of staff development.
Taken together, these theorists and researchers recognise that the

circumstances most suitable for one person’s professional development may
be quite different from those that promote another individual’s growth.
Consequently, individually-guided staff development allows teachers to find
answers to self-selected professional problems using their preferred modes
of learning.
Phases of activity
Individually-guided staff development consists of several phases and the most

notable ones are:
the identification of a need or interest;

the development of a plan to meet the need or interest;
the learning activity(ies); and
assessment of whether the learning meets the identified need or interest.
The phases may be undertaken informally and almost unconsciously, or they
may be part of a formal, structured process.
When identifying the need or interest, the teacher considers what he or

she needs to learn. This assessment is done formally, for example, the
completion of a needs assessment process as a result of evaluation by a
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supervisor or occur spontaneously, for instance, a conversation with a colleague

or reflection upon an instructional problem. The need or interest may be
remedial or growth-oriented.
After the identification of the need or interest, the teacher now selects a
learning objective and chooses activities that will lead to accomplishing
this objective. Such activities may include workshops attendance, reading,
visits to another classroom or school or initiation of a seminar or similar learning
programme.
The learning activity may be single session, for example, attendance at a

workshop on new approaches to reading in the content area or occur over
time, for instance, examination of research on retaining students in grade.
Based on the individual’s preferred mode of learning, it may be done alone
(for example, reading or writing), with others (for example, a seminar that
considers ways of boosting the self-esteem of high school students) or a
combination of these activities.
When assessing formal individually-guided processes the teacher may

be asked to make a brief written report to the funding source or an oral report
to colleagues. In other instances, the teacher may simply be aware that he or
she now better understands something. It is not uncommon that as a result of
this assessment phase, the teacher may realise how much more there is to be
learned on the topic or be led to a newly emerging need or interest
Advantages of individually-guided staff development model
The model has quite a number of advantages, some of which are that:
1. it empowers teachers as they embark on own projects to solve their

own problems
2. it creates a sense of professionalism
3. it provides intellectual stimulation
4. it may lead to increases in student attendance, discipline and motivation
5. it promotes self-directed development which is goal-based, and leads
to professional improvement in which teachers have access to a variety
of resources for meeting their collaboratively identified needs
6. it instills in teachers some sense of accomplishment and satisfaction
7. this model can influence change and innovation in the classroom
8. individually guided staff development allows teachers to find answers
to self-selected professional problems using preferred modes of learning.
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Disadvantages of the model
The disadvantages of the individually-guided staff development model include

the following:
1. it is difficult to ascertain whether individual needs have been met
2. impact of this model on teachers is largely perceptual and self-report
Activity 3.2
1. What are the main characteristics of the individually-guided model of
? 2.
staff development?
Discuss how this model can be used in designing a staff development
programme for a member of staff of the organisation of your choice.
3. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of the individually-guided
model of staff development.
3.3.2 Observation/Assessment
The second staff development model is the observation or assessment model.
According to Blanchard and Johnson (1982) in their popular management
book, The One Minute Manager, “Feedback is the breakfast of champions”.
It is with much surprise that many teachers receive little or no feedback on
their classroom performance. In some cases, teachers are observed as little
as once every three years, and that observation or feedback cycle may be
perfunctory in nature. While observation/assessment model can be a powerful
staff development model, in the minds of many teachers it is associated with
evaluation. Because this process has not been perceived as helpful, teachers
frequently have difficulty understanding the value of this staff development
model (Wise and Darling-Hammond, 1985). However, once they have had
an opportunity to learn about the many forms this model can take, for instance,
peer coaching and clinical supervision, as well as teacher evaluation, it may
become widely practised.
Underlying assumptions
The assessment or observation model assumes that:

Observation and assessment of instruction provide the teacher with
data that can be reflected upon and analysed for the purpose of improving
student learning. According to Loucks-Horsley and associates
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(1987:61), “Reflection and analysis are central means to professional

growth”.
Reflection by an individual on his or her own practice can be enhanced
by another’s observations. Since teaching is an isolated profession,
typically taking place in the presence of no other adults, teachers are
not able to benefit from the observations of others. Having ‘another set
of eyes’ gives a teacher a different view of how he or she is performing
with students.
Observation and assessment of classroom teaching can benefit both
parties – the teacher being observed and the observer. The teacher
benefits by another’s view of his or her behaviour and by receiving
helpful feedback from a colleague. The observer benefits by watching
a colleague, preparing the feedback and discussing the common
experience.
Teachers see positive results from their efforts to change; they are more
apt to continue to engage in improvement. Because this model may
involve multiple observations and conferences spread over time, it can
help teachers to see that change is possible. As they apply new strategies,
they can see changes both in their own and their students’ behaviour. In
some instances, measurable improvements in student learning will also
be observed.
Theoretical and research support for the observation/assessment model can

be found in the literature on teacher evaluation, clinical supervision and peer
coaching. Each of these approaches is based on the premise that teaching can
be objectively observed and analysed and that improvement can result from
feedback on that performance.
McGreal’s (1982) work on teacher evaluation suggests a key role for

classroom observation, but expresses a major concern about reliability of
observations. The author points to two primary ways to increase reliability of
observations. The first is to narrow the range of what is looked for by having
a system that takes a narrowed focus on teaching or by using an observation
guide or focusing instrument. The second way is to use a pre-conference to
increase the kind and amount of information the observer has prior to the
observation. Glatthorn (1984) recommends that clinical supervisors (or
coaches) alternate unfocused observations with focused observations. In
unfocused observation, the observer usually takes verbatim notes on all
significant behaviour. These data are used to identify some strengths and
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potential problems that are discussed in a problem-solving feedback

conference. A focus is then determined for the next observation during which
the observer gathers data related to an identified problem.
According to Glickman (1986), the type of feedback provided to teachers

should be based on their cognitive levels. Thus, teachers with a ‘low abstract’
cognitive style should receive directive conferences (that is, problem
identification and solution come primarily from the coach or supervisor),
‘moderate abstract’ teachers should receive collaborative conferences (that
is an exchange of perceptions about problems and a negotiated solution) and
‘high abstract’ teachers should receive a non-directive approach (that is, the
coach or supervisor helps the teacher to clarify problems and choose a course
of action).
Peer coaching is a form of the observation/assessment model that promotes

transfer of learning to the classroom (Joyce and Showers, 1982). In peer
observation, teachers visit one another’s classroom, gather objective data
about student performance or teacher behaviour and give feedback in a follow-
up conference. Hence, Joyce and Showers (1983:4) contend that:
Relatively few persons, having mastered a new teaching skill, will then transfer
that skill into their active repertoire. In fact, few will use it at all. Continuous
practice, feedback, and the companionship of coaches is essential to enable
even highly motivated persons to bring additions to their repertoire under
effective control.
Phases of activity
The assessment/observation model, whether implemented through evaluation,

clinical supervision or peer coaching, usually includes a pre-observation
conference, analysis of data, post-observation conference and in some
instances an analysis of the observation/assessment process (Loucks-
Horsley et al., 1987). In the pre-observation conference, a focus for the
observation is determined, observation methods selected and any special
problems noted.
During the observation, data are collected using the processes agreed upon in
the pre-observation conference. The observation may be focused on the
students or on the teacher and can be global in nature or narrowly focused.
Patterns found during instruction may become evident. Hunter (1982)
recommends three points of analysis:
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(a) Behaviours that contribute to learning,
(b) Behaviours that interfere with learning, and

(c) Behaviours that neither contribute nor interfere with learning, but use
time and energy that could be better spent.
In the post-observation conference, both the teacher and the observer reflect
on the lesson and the observer shares the data collected. Strengths are typically
acknowledged and areas for improvement suggested by either the teacher or
observer, depending on the goals established in the pre-observation
conference. An analysis of the supervisory or coaching process itself, while
not necessarily a part of all forms of this model, provides participants with an
opportunity to reflect on the value of the observation/assessment process and
to discuss modifications that might be made in future cycles.
Advantages of the model
Advantages of the assessment or observation model include the

following:
1. The model is equated to clinical supervision and is accepted by teachers

when they and their supervisors are taught systematic observation
techniques
2. It is viewed by teachers as productive because trained supervisors help
teachers to make improvements in a number of instructional behaviours
3. Powerful improvements have been made to student learning when the
training of teachers in effective instructional practices is followed by
observations and coaching in their classrooms
4. Teacher behaviours can be positively influenced by the use of an
observation/assessment model of staff development
The disadvantages of the assessment/observation model include the
following:
1. The model does not effectively influence improvement in students’
learning
2. It appears to be time consuming.
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Activity 3.3
1. What are the main tenets of the observation/assessment model of staff
? development?
2. Suggest the value of this model to the members of the organisation of
your choice.
3. Describe the main assumptions of this model.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this model?
3.3.3 Involvement in a development/improvement process

Teachers are sometimes asked to develop or adapt curriculum, design
programmes or engage in systematic school improvement processes that have
as their goal, the improvement of classroom instruction and/or curriculum.
Typically, these projects are initiated to solve a problem. Their successful
completion may require specific knowledge or skills, for example, curriculum
planning, research on effective teaching, and group problem-solving strategies.
This learning could be acquired through reading, discussion, observation,
training and/or trial and error. In other instances, the process of developing a
product itself may cause significant learning, for instance, through experiential
learning, some of which may have been difficult or impossible to predict in
advance. This model focuses on the combination of learning that results from
involvement of teachers in such a development/improvement process.
The model assumes that:
adults learn most effectively when they have a need to know or when
they have a problem to solve
people working closest to the job best understand what is required to
improve their performance
teachers acquire important knowledge or skills through their involvement
in school improvement or curriculum development processes.
Curriculum development and school improvement have been chosen to

represent types of staff development. It is important to note that improvement
in these processes nurtures teachers’ growth. Staff development is seen as a
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key component of effective curriculum development and implementation. Joyce

and Showers (1988:44) note that:
It has been well established that curriculum implementation is demanding of

staff development – essentially, without strong staff development programmes
that are appropriately designed, a very low level of implementation occurs.
Whatever perspective one has, staff development and the improvement of

schools and curriculum go hand in hand. Glickman (1986) argues that the aim
of staff development should be to improve teachers’ ability to think, and view
the curriculum development as a key aspect of this process. He believes that
the intellectual engagement required in curriculum development demands that
teachers not only know their content, but that they must also acquire curriculum
planning skills. He recommends that curriculum development be conducted in
heterogeneous groups composed of teachers of low, medium and high abstract
reasoning abilities. The complexity of the curriculum development task should
be matched to the abstract reasoning ability of the majority of teachers in the
group (Glickman, 1986).
Glatthorn (1987) describes three ways in which teachers can modify a district’s
curriculum guide. The three ways are that:
(a) they may operationalise the district’s curriculum guide by taking its list
of objectives and recommended teaching methods and turning them
into a set of usable instructional guides;
(b) they may adapt the guide to students’ needs, for example, remediation,
learning style differences, etc, and
(c) finally, teachers may enhance the guide by developing optional
enrichment units.
Glatthorn recommends that these activities be done in groups, believing that,
in doing so, teachers will become more cohesive and will share ideas about
teaching and learning in general, as well as on the development task at hand.
As a result of involvement in such improvement efforts, schools and teachers
within them may develop new curriculum, change reporting procedures to
parents, enhance communication within the faculty, and improve instruction,
among many other topics.
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Phases of activity
The model has two phases. In the first phase, there is the identification of a
problem or a need by an individual, a group of teachers, a faculty or a district
administrator. The need may be identified informally through the discussion or
a growing sense of dissatisfaction, through a more formal process such as
brainstorming or the use of a standardised instrument such as a school
improvement survey or needs assessment or through examination of student
achievement or programme evaluation data.
The second phase entails that a response is formulated after a need has been
identified. The need may be determined informally or formally. In some cases,
the necessary action may become immediately evident, for example, the need
for new lunchroom rules. At other times the teachers may need to brainstorm
or search out alternatives, weigh them against a set of predetermined criteria,
develop an action plan and determine evaluation procedures. The process
may take several sessions to complete and require consultation with a larger
group, for example, the school-wide staff development committee may receive
feedback on the tentative plan from the entire faculty.
Typically, it becomes evident during this phase that specific knowledge or

skills may be required to implement the plan. For instance, the faculty may
decide that it wants to study several discipline systems before implementing
the new lunchroom management system. The improvement of students’ higher-
order thinking may involve the selection of new textbooks, requiring that
committee members better understand which features to look for in a textbook
to support this goal. The development or selection of a new elementary science
curriculum may require study of the latest research on science teaching and
the examination of other curricula.
At this point the plan is implemented or the product developed. This process
may take several days, several months or several years. As a final step, the
success of the programme is assessed. If teachers are not satisfied with the
results, they may return to an earlier phase (for example, acquisition of
knowledge or skills) and repeat the process.
Advantages of the model
The improvement process model has the following advantages:

the school improvement committees receive training in consensus
building, brainstorming, creative problem solving and group dynamics.
After this training, each committee develops a ‘vision of excellence’;
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teachers gain skills as curriculum planners and developers;

new strategies are developed such as cooperative learning and
individualised instruction;
teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes are improved;
the school climate and student achievement also improve;
some sense of commitment is instilled on the part of teachers and
administrators.
The improvement process has the following pitfalls:
consensus in organisations may be difficult to achieve in most cases
it is a time consuming model
Activity 3.4
1. What are the main characteristics of the improvement process model?
? 2. Differentiate the individually-guided model and the involvement in
development/improvement model of staff development.
3. Outline briefly the research evidence surrounding the involvement in a
development/improvement process model of staff development.
3.3.4 Training
The fourth model according to Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) is training.
In the minds of many educators, training is synonymous with staff development.
Most teachers are used to attending workshop-type sessions in which the
presenter is the expert who establishes the content and flow of activities.
Typically the training session is conducted with a clear set of objectives or
learner outcomes. These outcomes include:
awareness or knowledge (for example, participants will be able to

explain the five principles of cooperative learning)
skills development (e.g. participants will demonstrate the appropriate
use of open-ended questions in a class discussion)
changes in attitudes, transfer of training and ‘executive control’ (i.e. the
appropriate and consistent use of new strategies in the classroom) are
the additional outcomes of staff development suggested by Joyce and
Showers (1988).
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The trainer’s role is to select the activities (for example, lecture, demonstration,
role-playing, and simulation, micro-teaching) that will aid teachers in achieving
the desired outcomes. The improvement of teachers’ thinking is an important
goal, whatever the anticipated outcomes. According to Showers, Joyce and
Bennet (1987:85-86):
... the purpose of providing training in any practice is not simply to generate
visible teaching “moves” that bring that practice to bear in the instructional
setting but to generate the conditions that enable the practice to be selected and
used appropriately and integratively... a major, perhaps the major, dimension of
teaching skill is cognitive in nature.
From the above quotation, it is evident that workshop-type of staff development

are not the most important ones in bringing about individual and organisational
development or improvement. We now turn to the underlying assumptions of
the training model of staff development.
The training model of staff development assumes that:
there are behaviours and techniques that are worthy replicating by

teachers in the classroom;
teachers can change their behaviours and learn to replicate behaviours
in their classroom that were not previously in their repertoire;
training is usually a cost-efficient means for teachers to acquire
knowledge or skills because of a high participant-to-trainer ratio; and
training may be the most efficient means for large numbers of teachers
to view these demonstrations and to receive feedback as they practise.
The theoretical and research underpinnings for the training model come from
several sources, but the most recent and intensive research has been conducted
by Joyce and Showers (1988). They determine that, depending upon the
desired outcomes, training might include exploration of theory, demonstration
or modelling of a skill, practice of the skill under simulated conditions, feedback
about performance and coaching in the workplace. Their research indicates
that this combination of components is necessary if the outcome is skill
development.
In addition, Sparks (1983) cites the importance of discussion and peer

observation as training activities. She notes that discussion is useful both when
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new concepts or techniques are presented and as a problem-solving tool

after teachers have had an opportunity to try out new strategies in their
classrooms. Training sessions that are spaced one or more weeks apart so
that content can be ‘chunked’ for improved comprehension and so that teachers
have opportunities for classroom practice and peer coaching are shown to be
more effective than ‘one-shot’ training (Loucks-Horsley et al., 1987; Sparks,
1983).
Sparks (1983) points out the value of teachers as trainers, by indicating that
teachers may learn as much from their peers as from ‘expert’ trainers. She
recommends small-group training when peers are involved rather than more
expensive external consultants. Wu (1987) confirmed this view when he says
that teachers feel more comfortable in exchanging ideas, play a more active
role in workshops and receive more practical suggestions when their peers
are involved as trainers. However, the peer trainers should have critical qualities
teachers value most, so that the training model becomes highly effective.
Phases of activities
According to Joyce and Showers (1988:69), “Someone has to decide what

will be the substance of the training, who will provide training, when and
where the training will be held and for what duration”. While training content,
objectives and schedules are often determined by administrators or by the
trainer, Wood, McQuarrie and Thompson’s (1982) research-based model
advocates involving participants in planning training programmes. Participants
serve on planning teams which assess needs using appropriate sources of
data, explore various research-based approaches, select content, determine
goals and objectives, schedule training sessions and monitor implementation
of the programme.
Joyce and Showers (1988) point out that there are specific ‘learning-to-learn’
attitudes and skills that teachers possess, that aid the training process. They
cite persistence, acknowledgement of the transfer problem (that is, the need
for considerable practice of new skills in the classroom), teaching new
behaviours to students, meeting the cognitive demands of innovations
(developing a ‘deep understanding’ of new practices), the productive use of
peers and flexibility. The authors list several conditions of training sessions
that foster these aptitudes and behaviours: adequate training, opportunities
for collegial problem solving, norms that encourage experimentation and
organisational structures that support learning. Sparks’ (1983) review of staff
development research suggests that a diagnostic process such as detailed
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profiles of teaching behaviours based upon classroom observations may be

an important first step in the training process.
After training, in-classroom assistance in the form of peer observation and

coaching is critical to the transfer of more complex teaching skills (Joyce and
Showers, 1988). The process of data gathering and analysis that accompanies
most forms of peer observation is valuable to the observer as well as the
observed teacher (Brandt, 1987; Sparks, 1986).
Advantages of the training model of staff development
1. The power of training to alter the teachers’ knowledge, attitudes and

instructional skills is well established.
2. Teachers who have been taught cooperative learning strategies for their
classroom have students who have higher achievement, display higher
reasoning and greater critical thinking as well as more positive attitude
towards the subject area and fellow students.
3. Morale and collegiality of teachers increased drastically.
Disadvantages of the training model of staff development
1. It is time consuming.
2. Teachers may get irrelevant training because their specific needs may
not be met.
Activity 3.5
1. What are the characteristics of the training model of staff development?
? 2. Compare and contrast the training model and the individually-guided
3. What research evidence underpins the training model?
4. Suggest the assumptions of the training model.
5. For the training model to be effective, how would you conduct a needs
assessment for a staff development programme of your choice in your
organisation?
3.3.5 Inquiry model

Teacher inquiry can take different forms. It can be a solitary activity, be done
in small groups or conducted by a school faculty. Its process may be formal
or informal. It may occur in a classroom, at a teacher centre or result from a
university class. The inquiry-based approach as a staff development model,
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has one of its tenets being that research is an important activity in which teachers
should be engaged, although they rarely participate in it other than as ‘subjects’.
Inquiry reflects a basic belief in teachers’ ability to formulate valid questions

about their own practice and to pursue objective answers to those questions.
Louck-Horsley et al (1987) list three assumptions about a teacher inquiry
approach to staff development:
Teachers are intelligent, inquiring individuals with legitimate expertise

and important experience.
Teachers are inclined to search for data to answer pressing questions
and to reflect on the data to formulate solutions.
Teachers will develop new understandings as they formulate their own
questions and collect their own data to answer questions.
Ingvarson (1987:15) argues that, the overarching assumption of the model is
that:
the most effective avenue for professional development is cooperative study by

teachers themselves into problems and issues arising from their attempts to
make their practice consistent with their educational values... [The approach]
aims to give greater control over what is to count as valid educational knowledge
to teachers.
Thus, the value of cooperative learning cannot be overemphasised. As

professionals, teachers are expected to conduct action research within their
work places and come up with meaningful results, so that in the final analysis
we realise organisational development.
The call for inquiry-oriented teachers is not new. Dewey (1933) wrote of the
need for teachers to take “reflective action”. Zeichner (1983) cites more than
30 years of advocacy for “teachers as action researchers”, “teacher scholars”,
“teacher innovators”, “self-monitoring teachers” and “teachers as participant
observers”.
In more recent findings, various forms of inquiry have been advanced by a

number of theorists and researchers. For instance, Tikunoff and Ward’s (1983)
model of interactive research and development promotes teacher inquiry into
the questions they are asking through close work with researchers who help
with methodology and staff developers who help them create ways of sharing
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their results with others. Lieberman (1986) reports on a similar process in

which teachers serving on collaborative teams pursue answers to school wide
rather than classroom problems. Again, Watts (1985) discusses the role of
collaborative research, classroom action research, and teacher support groups
in encouraging teacher inquiry. Simmons and Sparks (1985) describe the use
of action research to help teachers to better relate research on teaching to
their unique classrooms.
Glickman (1986) advocates action research in the form of quality circles,

problem-solving groups and school improvement projects as means to develop
teacher thought. Cross (1987) proposes classroom research to help teachers
to evaluate the effectiveness of their own teaching. Glatthorn (1987) discusses
action research by teams of teachers as a peer-centred option for promoting
professional growth. Loucks-Horsley et al (1987) discuss teachers as
researchers, as a form of teacher development that helps to narrow the gap
between research and practice. Sparks and Simmons (1989) propose inquiry-
oriented staff development as a means to enhance teachers’ decision-making
abilities.
Gable and Rogers (1987:695) “take the terror out of research” by describing
ways in which it can be used as a staff development tool. They discuss both
qualitative and quantitative methodology, providing specific strategies that
teachers can use in their classrooms. They conclude by saying “... the desire
to and ability to do research is an essential attribute of professional teacher of
the `80s”.
Phases of activity
The inquiry-based model of staff development takes many forms. However,

these forms have a number of elements in common. Firstly, individuals or a
group of teachers identify a problem of interest. Secondly, they explore ways
of collecting data that may range from examining existing theoretical and research
literature to gathering original classroom or school data. These data are then
analysed and interpreted by an individual or the group. Finally, changes are
made and new data are gathered and analysed to determine the effects of the
intervention.
The above step-by-step process is similar to that suggested by Glatthorn

(1987). Glatthorn (1987) describes a four-step process for action research
in which collaborative research teams:
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identify the problem;

decide upon specific research questions to be investigated and
methodology to be used;
carry out the research design; and
use the research to design an intervention to be implemented in the
school.
Watts (1985) describes “reflective conversations” in which teachers carefully
observe and thoughtfully consider a particular child or practice. Thus, using a
standard procedure, the group shares observations, reviews previous records
and information, summarises their findings and makes recommendations. As
a final step, the group reviews the process to assess how well it went, looks
for gaps and identifies ideas to repeat in future conversations.
Most importantly, organisational support and technical assistance may be

required throughout the phases of an inquiry activity. Organisational support
may take the form of structures such as teacher centres or study groups or of
resources such as released time and materials. Technical assistance may involve
training in research methodologies, data-gathering techniques and other
processes that aid teachers in making sense of their experiences.
Advantages of the Inquiry-based model of staff development
1. The model assists teachers in following the research cycle in solving

classroom problems
2. It insists on systematic way of carrying out an action research
3. Teachers share ideas as they are involved in collaborative research
4. Teachers may make more informed decisions about when and how to
apply the research findings of others
5. Teachers experience more support and collegial relationships.
Disadvantages of the Inquiry-based model of staff development
1. There is substantial overlap between this kind of ‘school-based’ inquiry
and some of the school improvement processes discussed earlier in the
involvement in a development/improvement process model
2. The model takes limited forms of imagination.
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Activity 3.6
1. What are the major characteristics of the inquiry-based model of staff
? 2.
development?
List down the phases of the inquiry-based model and illustrate what
each step is all about, by considering a mini research in your work
situation.
3. Compare and contrast the inquiry-based model and the involvement in
a development/improvement process model of staff development.
3.4 Other Staff Development Models

As suggested by Piper (1975) and Yorke (1977) in Chigumira (1999:44),
there are three distinct models of staff development other than the five discussed
above. These three models are:
traditional/management model
informal/shopfloor model
intermediate/partnership model
The models shall be discussed briefly below.
3.4.1 The Traditional or Management Model

This model borrows much from Max Weber’s bureaucracy and Frederick
Taylor’s scientific management philosophies. Thus, this model advocates for
clear division of labour, centralisation of needs identification process and
management prioritisation of needs. Again, the model holds that the success
of any staff development programme depends on speed, precision, control
from above, continuity and optimum returns on inputs that management model
provides. This model is a top down approach to managing staff development
programmes in various sectors.
3.4.2 The Shop-floor or Informal Model

This model is sometimes referred to as the ‘grassroots model’. This is simply
because individual staff members or groups define their own growth objectives
and strive to achieve them. As teachers work together to rectify their
methodological deficiency or knowledge of subject matter, they do so with or
without the blessing of the administrators.
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3.4.3 The partnership or intermediate model

In some cases the model is also called the ‘collaborative model’. This model
is characterised by its attempt to combine and reconcile the staff and the
school needs to the satisfaction of both. Thus, the staff needs can be satisfied
without creating conflicts and contradictions in the resultant staff development
programmes.
Activity 3.7
1. Describe the characteristic features of the:
? (a) Traditional/management model
(b) Shopfloor/informal/grassroots model
(c) Partnership/collaborative model
2. Compare and contrast the partnership model and the inquiry-based
3. What are the similarities and differences of the shopfloor model and
the individually-guided model of staff development?
3.5 Summary
In this unit, we have looked at the five models of staff development suggested
by Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) and the other three models by Piper
(1975) and Yorke (1977). The five models discussed are the individually-
guided model, observation/assessment model, involvement in a development
process model, training model and inquiry-based model. The characteristics,
assumptions, research and theoretical underpinnings of the models as well as
the advantages and disadvantages of the five models have been considered.
The three other models have been treated briefly. However, these models are
supposed to be used in the designing of staff development programmes at
various work situations.
In the next unit, we look at ‘Staff Development Delivery Techniques’.
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Sparks, D. and Louck-Horsley, S. (1989). Five Models of Staff Development.
Journal of Staff Development. Vol. 10, No. 4.
Sparks, G. (1983). Synthesis of research on staff development for effective
teaching. Educational Leadership, 41(3), 65-72.
Sparks, G. (1986). The effectiveness of alternative training activities in changing
teaching practice. American Educational Research Journal, 23(2),
217-225.
Sparks, G. and Simmons, J. (1989). Inquiry-oriented staff development: Using
research as a source of tools, not rules. In S. Caldwell (Ed.), Staff
development: A handbook of effective practices (pp 126-139).
Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council.
Tikunoff, W. and Ward, B. (1983). Collaborative research on teaching. The
Elementary School Journal, 83(4), 453-468.
Watts, H. (1985). When teachers are researchers, teaching improves. Journal
of Staff Development, 6(2), 118-127.
Wise, A. and Darling-Hammond, L. (1985). Educational Leadership, 42(2),
28-33.
Wood, F., McQuarrie, F. and Thompson, S. (1982). Practitioners and
professors agree on effective staff development practices. Educational
Leadership, 43, 63-66.
Wu, P. (1987). Teachers as staff developers: Research, opinions and cautions.
Journal of Staff Development, 8(1), 4-6.
Zeichner, K. (1983). Alternative paradigms of teacher education. Journal of
Teacher Education, 34(3), 3-9.
http://www.learningforward.org/news/jsd/sparks104.cfm
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4
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Unit Four
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Staff Development Delivery

Techniques
4.0 Introduction
T his unit gives us the techniques that can be used to carry out a staff
development course. Delivery techniques, approaches and how these
can be applied to the education context will be discussed. In a broad sense,
as alluded to in unit one; professional development may include formal types
of vocational education, typically post-secondary or poly-technical training
leading to qualification or credential required to obtain or retain employment.
Professional development may also come in the form of pre-service or in-
service professional development programmes. These programmes may be
formal, or informal, group or individualised.
Individuals may pursue professional development independently, or programs

may be offered by human resource departments. Professional development
on the job may develop or enhance process skills, sometimes referred to as
leadership skills, as well as task skills. Some examples for process skills are
‘effectiveness skills’, ‘team functioning skills’, and ‘systems thinking skills’
4.1 Objectives
define staff development delivery techniques

discuss staff development delivery techniques
explain staff development delivery approaches
apply the techniques learnt in educational management
4.2 Defining Staff Development Delivery Techniques

A training programme has a better chance of success when its training techniques
are carefully selected. A training technique is a strategy or tactic that a trainer
uses to deliver the content so that the trainees achieve the objective (Wentling,
1992). Selecting an appropriate training technique is perhaps the most important
step in training activity once the training contents are identified. There are
many training techniques, but not all of these are equally suitable for all topics
and in all situations. To achieve the training objective, a trainer should select
the most appropriate training technique for the content to involve the trainees
in the learning process. Four major factors are considered when selecting a
training technique: the learning objective, the content, the trainees, and the
practical requirements (Wentling, 1992). According to Bass and Vaughan
(1966), training techniques should be selected on the basis of the degree to
which they do the following:
1. Allow active participation of the learners.

2. Help the learners to transfer learning experiences from training to the
job situation.
3. Provide the learners with knowledge of results about their attempts to
improve.
4. Provide some means for the learners to be reinforced for the appropriate
behaviour.
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Unit 4 Staff Development Delivery Techniques
5. Provide the learners with an opportunity to practise and to repeat when

needed.
6. Motivate the learners to improve their own performance.
7. Help learners to increase their willingness to change.
These criteria indicate that a single training technique will not satisfy the
objectives of a training programme.
A variety of training techniques are available to a trainer. The most commonly

used methods include:
1. Instructor presentation. The trainer orally presents new information

to the trainees, usually through lecture. Instructor presentation may
include classroom lecture, seminar, workshop, and the like.
2. Group discussion. The trainer leads the group of trainees in discussing
a topic.
3. Demonstration. The trainer shows the correct steps for completing a
task, or shows an example of a correctly completed task.
4. Assigned reading. The trainer gives the trainees reading assignments
that provide new information.
5. Exercise. The trainer assigns problems to be solved either on paper or
in real situations related to the topic of the training activity.
6. Case study. The trainer gives the trainees information about a situation
and directs them to come to a decision or solve a problem concerning
the situation.
7. Role play. Trainees act out a real-life situation in an instructional setting.
8. Field visit and study tour. Trainees are given the opportunity to
observe and interact with the problem being solved or skill being learned.
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Activity 4.1
1. Identify the staff development techniques that can be employed in staff
? 2.
development.
How would these methods fit into your own system of education?
3. Which techniques are best for newly qualified teachers?
4. Why do you think field visits can be more effective in training the staff
on a difficult concept? Which subjects do you think can require trainees
to have a field visit?
5. In your group, organise a staff development session in any subject of
your choice and discuss the outcomes.
4.3 Identifying Staff Development Delivery

Techniques
For a staff development workshop to be effective, a comprehensive
professional development plan should offer adult educators different techniques
and a series of activities for their professional development. Four techniques
which have been around for years, although not frequently used will be
discussed:
Workshop/Presentation
This technique fosters the acquisition of new skills and knowledge about a
topic through direct instruction and participatory activities. Joyce and Showers
(1988) carried out research and found out that instructors make gains in their
level of knowledge and skills, and transfer what they have learned to their
own classroom environment when theory, demonstration, practice, feedback
and coaching are incorporated into the workshop. In workshops, case studies
can be used to encourage instructors to think through a situation and to develop
alternative solutions to the problem posed in a case study.
Observation/feedback
The technique provides practitioners with data and feedback regarding their
performance. Actual observation can be done by video or class visits and
then collegially reflecting on ways either to improve the practice observed or
to select alternative instructional strategies.
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Inquiry/Research
Is a technique that requires practitioners to reflect upon their daily practices in

a systematic, intentional manner, over time. Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1990)
state that inquiry gives systematic nature of reflection. systematic according to
the authors, refers to (1) ordered ways of gathering and recording information,
documenting experiences, and producing a written record, (2) ordered ways
of recollecting, rethinking and analysing classroom events. Some of the ways
to accomplish systematic reflection involves instructor journals, essays, or
oral inquiry which include conversation, description and documentation.
Product/Programme development
The technique engages practitioners in such processes as curriculum

development, programme enhancement, and programme improvement.
A variety of techniques should be integrated with one another and address

complex and dynamic characteristics of specific programme contents and
learner needs. Practitioners may, for instance, want to practise a new skill
introduced in the workshop and choose to follow up with the observation/
feedback technique. Some practitioners may also wish to explore a new
concept introduced in the workshop through the inquiry/research technique.
Workshops or conferences can be held to discuss needs assessment and to
collaboratively plan a programme or product development activities.
Underlying each of the four staff development techniques is a goal of developing

the instructor as a reflective practitioner capable of monitoring and evaluating
techniques to his/her work. Activities include making observations, synthesizing
data, formulating preliminary hypothesis, analysing hypothesis and refining
techniques.
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Activity 4.2
1. Do you organise staff development workshops in your sect?
? 2. How do you go about them? Are the techniques used suitable for the
calibre of your staff?
3. If not, how do you think they can be improved?
4. Which techniques can be used in collaboration? Explain how you can
fuse them to come up with effective staff development training.
5. How many staff development workshops do you attend each year or
term? Is it health to have no staff development held in a term or year at
your station?
6. If you were in administration, how would you organise staff development
training?
4.4 Other Staff Development Delivery Approaches

Staff development opportunities can range from a single workshop to a
semester-long academic course, to services offered by a medley of different
professional development providers and varying widely with respect to the
philosophy, content, and format of the learning experiences. Some examples
of approaches to staff development that this section of the unit will introduce
include:
Case study method - The case study method is a teaching approach that
consists of presenting the students with a case, putting them in the role of a
decision maker facing a problem (Hammond, 1976).
Consultation - to assist an individual or group of individuals to clarify and

address immediate concerns by following a systematic problem-solving
process.
Coaching - to enhance a person’s competencies in a specific skill area by

providing a process of observation, reflection, and action.
Communities of practice - to improve professional practice by engaging in

shared inquiry and learning with people who have a common goal.
Lesson study - to solve practical dilemmas related to intervention or instruction

through participation with other professionals in systematically examining
practice.
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Mentoring - to promote an individual’s awareness and refinement of his or

her own professional development by providing and recommending structured
opportunities for reflection and observation.
Reflective supervision - to support, develop, and ultimately evaluate the

performance of employees through a process of inquiry that encourages their
understanding and articulation of the rationale for their own practices.
Technical assistance - to assist individuals and their organisation to improve

by offering resources and information, supporting networking and change
efforts.
It should be noted that in this unit, staff development can be interchangeably

used with professional development (which is a broad term, encompassing a
range of people, interests and approaches). Those who engage in professional
development share a common purpose of enhancing their ability to do their
work. At the heart of professional development is the individual’s interest in
lifelong learning and increasing their own skills and knowledge.
Activity 4.3
1. How best can the communities of practice be utilised in the education
? 2.
system?
Which subjects can best fit in such a technique?
3. Among the techniques, some are suitable for administrators. Which
ones are for the administrators?
4. Why is the individual’s interest the core for a successful staff
development training workshop?
5. Explain how each of the above techniques can be used and who can
utilise them.
4.5 Application of Delivery Techniques in

Educational Approaches
Rue and Byars (2003) state that staff development as a form of training means
employees acquire skills or learn concepts to increase their performance. The
training influences the employees’ job attitude and productivity. Thus, in the
context of the teacher, attitude counts in that the teacher’s interactions with
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the student, superiors and parents may negatively or positively affect the
students’ learning and success.
The techniques and skills employed in trying to achieve educational goals can
be influenced by the economic, social, technological and government changes.
These changes can make the techniques obsolete in a short period of time,
hence the need for an organisation to update and use techniques of training in
collaboration.
In the Zimbabwean context, the techniques discussed above can be applied

through the staff development activities engaged by the Better Schools
Programme (Zimbabwe). The schools have been clustered into sects, districts
and provinces taking into consideration the physical distance between schools.
It has been common practice for some time that newly qualified teachers have
lacked staff development when they have joined the stations where they have
been deployed due to lack of training resources. Hence many disciplinary
hearings and charges have been witnessed.
Unfortunately for the new staff, they have always been charged with acts of
misconduct whose code of conduct they have never been introduced to.
Techniques like the case study can be useful in making the trainees learn about
the environment they have joined and find ways they can best manoeuvre
without infringing the rules of the land as well as the education statutes. Through
the BEST programme, in conjunction with the Better Schools Programme,
demonstration lessons can be done to assist in acquiring various effective
techniques that can transform the students’ education.
Gallagher (2004) states that if a staff development session is to be led by

someone on your staff, be willing to give them extra time to prepare and make
sure they know the goals and objectives you want covered in the session and
how it fits into the school plan. The trainer should be given time to design
activities that lead teachers to think about what they are expected to learn and
how to utilise the knowledge.
All the techniques can be useful if there is enough funding by the government
and parents, and initiative by the teachers to be creative and students who
have developed a learning culture. Where examinable classes and the so called
‘difficult’ subjects are concerned, for instance Mathematics, Science (Physics,
Chemistry), schools can use the consultation technique whereby they can visit
other schools which have been producing better results and learn how they
do it. In most cases, teachers, as educators themselves will learn better where
they fully participate with less listening to a lecture.
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Activity 4.4
1. When there is no funding, how best can schools carry out the staff
? 2.
development workshops?
Outline subjects/topics/issues that are difficult/of concern for the
teachers at your school. Which issues can be prioritised?
3. Which structures have been put into place to cater for staff development
in your province/district/sect?
4. Are the structures functional? Explain how these structures operate if
any are in place.
5. If there is no structure in place, what are your suggestions to put in
place the structures?
4.6 Summary
The unit focused on the staff development delivery techniques and how the
education system can utilise them for the betterment of the students’ education.
Various techniques have been outlined and discussed. It is your duty the learner
to make use of those techniques that are best for your work environment. No
single technique can make staff development successful unless they are used
in collaboration. The trainers should make a survey of what would be best for
each subject that they need to staff develop their employees.
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References
Bass, B. M. and Vaughan, J. A. (1966). Training in Industry: The
Management of Learning. Belmont, CA: Washington Publishing.
Cochran-Smith, M. and Lytle, S.L. (1990). “Research on Teaching and
Teacher Research: the
Issues That Divide.” Educational Researcher 19(2), 2-11.
Gallagher, E. Ed.D. (2004) Strategies, Solutions and Innovations for
Technology Leaders. April 29, 2004 Itassa, IL.
Joyce, B. and Showers, B. (1988). Student Achievement Through Staff
Development. New York: Longman.
Rue, L. W. and Byars, L.L. (2003). Management Skills and Application.
10th Edition. Mcgraw- Hill Companies, Inc: Boston.
Wentling, T.L. (1992). Planning for Effective Training: A Guide to
Curriculum Development. Rome: FAO.
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5
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Unit Five
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Staff Development Planning and

Policy in Education
5.0 Introduction
S taff development is required in every school, every district, every province

and almost every state. It is essential to note that the quality of the sessions
provided varies. Sessions planned at the last minute in order to meet a target,
for instance fulfil the requirements of an end of term report, with no connection
to completing the staff development plan are useless. If there is no staff
development plan, schools end up selecting isolated classes at the last minute
that do little to affect the classroom learning. If staff development is important
to the school improvement plan, everyone should take part including the school
head and the administrators/bursars.
5.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
define staff development planning

describe the staff development planning framework
analyse the educational goals and policies of staff development
examine the training policies in the educational sector
discuss your own training needs
analyse the school staff development policy at your station if there is
any
draft a staff development policy for your school
5.2 Defining ‘Staff Development Planning’

The Staff Development Plan is a short planning document that examines
teachers’ current continuing professional development needs, looks at how
these might be met and lists objectives for the future. It helps to structure and
focus training needs and should address the following points:
Where are we?

Where are we going?
How are we going to get there?
On-going training has long been a vital part of the career development of
professionals in the progressive careers that take cognizance of the changing
business environments. Nowadays, with significant changes in government
policies and priorities affecting industry and profession, the need for training
to ensure that skills are up to date and ready to meet these challenges is even
more important.
Unplanned training is unlikely to bring the maximum return on the valuable

time and money spent on it and it is for this reason that organisations are
required to produce a Professional Development Plan (PDP) as part of the
process of Continuing Professional Development (CPD).
Liz Campbell - lizcampbell@lawscot.org.uk states that in producing a

Professional Development Plan, one should:
(i) Consider the current job and the skills needed to do it competently.
What changes are likely to occur in the next few years?
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Unit 5 Staff Development Planning and Policy in Education
(ii) List both short and long-term ambitions. Be realistic about ambitions
and the time needed to achieve them.
(iii) Think about the areas in which you will need to target the Continuing
Professional Development to achieve your ambitions – be realistic and
prioritise. A Professional Development Plan is not a request for unlimited
training. The employer will be interested in the business case for
employees’ Professional Development Plan.
(iv) Look to the future; do not restrict yourself to thinking about current
professional responsibilities. Should you strengthen existing skills or
develop new ones?
(v) List your priorities for the next two years. These will form the basis for
deciding what Continuing Professional Development opportunities to
undertake. It is important to remember that your priorities are not cast
in stone; you may wish to change them in the future.
Your PDP will need to be reviewed and updated regularly to respond to
changing needs, challenges and opportunities.
A training plan should prevent the confusion and ultimate inefficiency that tends
to result from these ad hoc approaches, because a training plan should cover
the whole organisation and should be consistent. That consistency starts with
agreement of what the organisation is trying to achieve and what the priorities
are at the moment.
Without this coherence training usually consists of individuals attending courses

without the realisation that it might be cheaper and more effective to engage a
trainer to provide training within the organisation; or that money is being spent
on training without any clear idea of what that training is trying to achieve.
Different people will often be attending courses on the same subject
unnecessarily, or going to courses in areas they are already competent at (but
enjoy) or are interested in, rather than in areas that are required in order for
the organisation to meet its current objectives.
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Activity 5.1
1. What do you understand by the term staff development planning?
? 2. Who requires to be staff developed in the education system?
3. Which aspects should be considered when planning a staff development
course?
4. State the disadvantages of ad hoc approaches to staff development.
5. In your group, draft a staff development plan for your station.
5.3 Staff Development Framework

Haddad and Demsky (1995) state that the notion of educational planning-
making the education sector grow and function more effectively -may implicitly
suggest a well structured field of unambiguous issues, clearly defined objectives,
mutually exclusive choices, undisputed casual relationships predictable
rationalities and rational decision-makers. Accordingly, the sector analysis
has predominantly focused on content – the ‘what’ of the educational
development: issues, policies, strategies, measures, outcomes, etc. In contrast
to this simplest vision, educational plan is actually a series of untidy and
overlapping episodes in which a variety of people and organisations with
diversified perspectives are actively involved - technically and politically. It
entails the processes through issues are analysed and policies are generated,
implemented, assessed and designed. Accordingly, an analysis of the education
sector implies an understanding of the education policy itself - the ‘how’ and
‘when’ of educational development.
Teachers’ professional preparation, along with their working conditions, has

been identified as fundamental to improving elementary and secondary education
for the 21st century (Darling-Hammond, 1997).
Staff development in this sense, should be responsive to the policies in the

curriculum, institutional and regional settings, but more importantly to the current
personnel policy. The Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture’s policy
of promoting only those officers that have attained a minimum academic
qualification of five ‘O’ levels (for those who entered the system in the 1980s)
and professional qualification of a university degree (in the 1990s to date)
meant that individual teachers had to attend vacation courses. For those who
had joined the service soon after independence, without ‘O’ levels regional
offices institutionalised the vacation school under their non-formal department
by organising regular school holiday time classes taught by high school teachers.
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The recent trend has been that teachers study through distance learning (with
Zimbabwe Open University, UNISA and other similar institutions) or join
local universities that offer block release so as to attain degrees of their career
choices. Unfortunately there are personnel policies on staff development that
are generally negative. The policies reach teachers and heads of schools in
the form of regulations which do not easily allow them to enter staff development
programmes currently on offer. Leave regulations, for instance, are a major
determinant of the staff development programmes that can be offered. Leave
regulations provide for a maximum period of twelve months (1 year) study
leave on full pay. The pay is reduced when the teachers go on longer duration
leave. Some members opt to resign in order to pursue studies of their choice.
The replacement policy also impacts on staff development programmes. Heads

of schools tend to hide information on staff development courses on offer
fearing to lose teacher experts who may not return to the service after attaining
an additional qualification. Another inhibitive regulation is the conditions of
departure from the workplace. Most teachers find it difficult to assume their
studies due to delays in approval of study leave. While the regulation is meant
to protect students from teacher absenteeism, it inhibits teachers’ participation
in professional development. This entails that policies can either be prohibitive
or render stability to staff development programmes.
There also seems to be no clear policy on the nature, content and practice of
in-service education in Zimbabwe. Given the effects of the exodus of teachers
to neighbouring countries and resignation of teachers due to unattractive
salaries, the recruitment of new teachers fresh from college and the attitude or
calibre of teachers who do not take the profession as a calling, the situation is
very unhealthy.
Activity 5.2
1. Is there a policy on staff development at your station that you know
? 2.
of? If yes, what does it say about continued professional development?
If your answer to (1) above is no, what do you think the policy should
include?
3. Why should staff development be responsive to the policies in the
curriculum?
4. If you were in administration, how would you treat issues of staff
development:
(a) in terms of study leave,
(b) conditions of departure from the workplace?
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5.4 Educational Goals and Policies

The educational goals and policies will be discussed in the context of
Zimbabwe. UNESCO (2001) report states that the Education Act of 1987
laid down three major goals of education, thus;
every child in Zimbabwe shall have a right to school education;

no child shall be refused admission to school on the grounds of ethnic
group, (race, tribe, colour), place of origin, religion or creed, political
opinion of parents, social status of parents and gender;
primary education be universal and the mother tongue be the medium
of instruction in the first three grades of schooling.
Zimbabwe’s goals and objectives of education are encompassed in the mission
statements of the two ministries of the education system, thus, the Ministry of
Education, Sport, Arts and Culture (MOESAC) and the Ministry of Higher
Education. The mission statements read as follows:
Mission Statement for the Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture
(MESAC):
The Ministry of Education is committed to the provision of good quality basic,

secondary and continuing education to all children and adults through schools,
other learning centres and multimedia approaches so as to produce individuals
with the potential to contribute towards development.
In the quest for efficiency and effectiveness, the Ministry cherishes in its clients
and employees the values of: critical thinking, innovativeness, self-discipline,
self-actualisation, consultation and involvement, team work, transparency,
professionalism and roles these play in development.
Mission Statement of the Ministry of Higher Education and Technology

(MHET):
The mission of the Ministry of Higher Education and Technology is to provide,

regulate and facilitate tertiary education and training through the planning,
development and implementation of effective policies, the provision of resources
and management of institutions in order to meet the human resources
requirements of the economy and equip individuals to realise their full potential.
There are other ministries that offer sector training. These are the Ministry of
Health and Child Welfare, Home Affairs and Agriculture, Lands and Rural
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Resettlement. In the advent of ESAP, the recession and other factors,

government faced major challenges of how to maintain and build upon past
successes, especially in the education sector, while at the same time reducing
the proportion of the budget devoted to education. The main issue was how
to improve the learning achievement of children, access, equity and the learning
environment - within the scope of the resolutions of the Jomtien conference of
1990 held in Thailand.
Activity 5.3
1. Which are the goals of education according to the Education Act of
? 2.
1987?
What are the values cherished by the Ministry of Education, Sport,
Arts and Culture?
3. How can these values be fulfilled?
4. To what extent do you think the ministry has managed to accomplish
its mission statement?
5. Discuss the challenges that the ministry has faced in trying to achieve
its goals and suggest ways in which the challenges can be overcome.
5.5 Training Policies in Educational Sector

As indicated in the mission statements of the two Ministries of Education,
providing education to the population becomes the mandate of the
Zimbabwean government hence the drafting of the Ministry of Education Draft
Training Policy (1992). Drafting of the mission statements resulted in the
generation of operational objectives which are as follows:
providing a wide range of appropriate educational, cultural and sporting

courses and services;
encouraging and enabling all users of the services to develop their
abilities;
providing appropriate resources and services in safe and suitable
premises;
presenting education as a lifelong process and promoting access
throughout life;
promoting education as an active partnership between users and
providers in which the views of clients and staff are valued;
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promoting equal opportunity and social justice;

delivering a service that supports economic growth and prosperity in
the context of available resources and government policy as articulated
from time to time;
taking affirmative action for women and other disadvantaged groups.
The Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture’s (MOESAC) training
policy aims at:
the development of specific competencies in its staff to enable them to

efficiently and effectively carry out their work so that quality education
is delivered in Zimbabwe;
the inculcation of a public services ethos based on service, integrity,
loyalty and commitment through induction training and subsequent in-
service training;
providing systematic and cost effective training in line with the Ministry
of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture’s goals and priorities and making
transparent the process and criteria of selecting candidates for training;
providing management and supervisory training at all levels of
administrative, executive, professional and specialist staff which
emphasises proactive decision making and problem solving;
ensuring that training needs of female employees and other disadvantaged
groups are met fully;
supporting Government in its effort to implement rural development by
making possible the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes
relevant to this aim;
ensuring that funds are distributed according to the priority ranking as
approved by Heads of Divisions.
The areas of training priority include: improvement of administration at head
office, regional, district and school levels through management development
programmes for educational managers and providing training management
information systems, policy research and evaluation and finance management.
These include; curriculum development and implementation and in-service
training.
The relevance of the curriculum, access to education, the HIV and AIDS
pandemic, pre-requisites of social development, financing of education, raising
the status of technical and vocational education and absorption of the products
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of education system into employment become the challenges facing the

fulfilment of the training policies.
Relevance of the education training - unemployment among the youth

leaves a lot to be desired in the curriculum especially in the technical colleges.
The curriculum development should involve stakeholders to enhance
entrepreneurship education throughout the education and trainings system
which will ensure the relevance of the curriculum.
Access to education: gaps in the provision of schools and colleges -

the primary and secondary sector is inadequate and poorly resourced schools,
especially in resettled farming areas and other remote rural areas. Tertiary
institutions are situated in urban areas, a disadvantage to rural areas. These
students have to look for their own accommodation. A practical example can
be of the Chinhoyi University of Technology or Midlands State University
where most of the students have to look for lodgings in the nearest suburbs.
HIV and AIDS pandemic – The country has high incidence of HIV and
AIDS with potentially devastating socio-economic outcomes. The challenges
to have a nearly adequate budget for training and the scenario that almost
three quarters of the student find their own accommodation may perpetuate
the rising of the pandemic among the students. The HIV and AIDS effects on
the education system have yet to clearly declare themselves. There is need for
effective programmes that capture the youth before they are infected. Education
has to be used to inject behaviour change in society but the effectiveness of an
academic approach to HIV and AIDS is questionable.
Social development – the Republic Government encourages establishment

and strengthening of school-based and community-based education
programmes which equip children, adolescents, adolescents and adults with
special attention, girls and women, with a whole range of knowledge, living
skills, and values required for success in life. Organs of government, private
sector and civil society, for instance NGOs have taken up the challenge to
educate local communities in improved general, mental and reproductive health,
environment management and on water and sanitation - some of the necessary
pre-requisites of social development.
Improving the Resource Base of Management of Education - financing
education is a major challenge and problem. The education system has been
highly consumptive in budget which would total to an average of Z$12 billion
per year for two ministries (UNESCO, 2001). Student financing has been a
major problem for some time - as a result of policy change, a finance policy
was put in place. Students now pay their tuition fees.
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ESAP and ZIMPREST and other economic programmes advocated for the
reduction of government expenditure and these policies heavily impacted on
the education system.
Improving the status of Technical and Vocational Education – technical

and vocational education tends to be viewed as an option for academically
weak and school dropouts. Attitudes of the 21st century have to change to
channel more resources towards this type of education. Technical and
vocational education has to absorb the majority of the education products so
as to lay the foundation of a wide formal economy and creation of a sound
and vibrant non-formal industrial sector.
Promoting development and advancement of Science and Technology

– globalisation is a reality and those economies that fail to adjust to the
phenomenon find themselves operating on the periphery of the global village.
There is need to enhance Science and Technology especially with regards to
research, development and implementation.
Absorbing Education Products into Employment – the education system

is churning out more graduates at all levels than the economy can absorb. The
challenge is the offering of relevant programmes that also offer skills and
opportunities for employment creation.
Activity 5.4
1. What do you think is the mandate of the Ministry of Education, Sport,
? 2.
Arts and Culture?
Analyse the operational objectives of the Ministry of Education Training
Policy of 1992.
3. Discuss the areas of training priority that were targeted and how these
were fulfilled.
4. With practical examples, examine each of the challenges faced in fulfilling
the training policy. If you were a policy maker, how would you assure
minimisation of the impact of the challenges?
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5.6 Training Needs Analysis

Training need is a condition where there is a gap between “what is” and “what
should be” in terms of incumbents’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviour
for a particular situation at one point in time. This gap is called “a problem,”
which usually occurs when a difference exists between “desired performance”
and “actual performance”. The needs identification process assists trainers in
making sure that they have matched a training programme to a training problem.
For example, a school has been giving classroom lessons to the students
following a laid down syllabus, but performance of the students is not improving.
The reasons may be:
1. The students lack subject-matter knowledge.

2. The teachers do not conduct lessons well.
3. The education system lacks job training facilities.
4. The teachers are not motivated to work properly until their various
demands are satisfied by the government.
The first two problems are related to knowledge and skills and can be solved
effectively by a training programme, but the third and fourth problems need
government attention to solve.
Training needs identification is possible through different analytical procedures.

The major procedures used in determining training needs are the following:
Organisational analysis determines where training emphasis should be placed

within the organization and is based on the objectives of an organisation.
Concerning what one should do in analysing an organisation, McGhee and
Thayer (1961) suggest four steps:
1. Stating the goals and objectives of an organisation

2. Analysing the human resources
3. Analysing efficiency indices
4. Analysing the organisational climate
The results of these analyses are then compared with the objectives of the
organisation. These comparisons point to specific areas in which training is
needed. This analysis of training needs can be done for individual teachers or
a group of teachers.
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Individual analysis - aims at identifying specific training needs for an

individual or group of teachers so that training can be tailored to their needs,
for example, in Zimbabwe, the Better Schools Programme has set up clusters
of schools in order to fulfill the analysis of needs for groups of schools. For
the individual, analysis of needs can be done in day to day assessment of the
teacher’s work indicated in the work plans and lesson delivery. This analysis
centres on individuals and their specific needs concerning the skills, knowledge,
or attitudes they must develop to perform their assigned tasks. The possible
methods or techniques for individual analysis include performance appraisal,
interviews, questionnaires, tests, analysis of behaviour, informal talks, checklist,
counselling, critical incidents, recording, surveys, and observations.
Group analysis- includes a number of techniques in which a group of well-

informed educationists discuss different aspects of the school, the teachers,
and the tasks to identify the major discrepancies in achieving predetermined
targets for each of them with a view to assessing training needs as distinguished
from other necessary changes for removing these discrepancies. The major
techniques which are used in this approach are brainstorming, buzzing, card
sorts, advisory committee, conferences, problem clinic, role playing, simulation,
task forces, workshops, and so forth.
Many problems exist in a school, but some problems cannot be solved by

training. After a preliminary needs analysis, which gives probable causes and
solutions, the results should be verified with the concerned personnel of the
school to determine whether training is an appropriate action to solve that
problem.
The needs analysis procedure involves breaking down the “training problem”
into its basic parts in different successive phases to identify and understand
the important components in each phase. Ultimately it leads to identifying and
understanding the training content. The training needs analysis process can be
divided into three distinct analytical phases: job analysis, task analysis, and
knowledge and skill-gap analysis.
Job analysis - Job analysis is a method of determining major areas of tasks

where training may be needed. It involves the dissecting of a job into its
component events or parts. This analysis allows a trainer to better understand
what an employee does in an organisation. Job analysis involves the “task
identification” of a particular job (Wentling, 1992). The techniques used in
task identification include job questionnaire, interview, participant observation,
work sampling, job audit, and small-group discussion. The following steps
may provide a guide for completion of job analysis:
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Identify the job that is to be the subject of the analysis. This involves
defining the focal point for the job analysis. It may include the entire job
of a group of teachers or only a specific segment of their job.
Prepare a list of tasks which can be done following different approaches
and methods. Four approaches can be used to identify job tasks: (1)
experts identify and list critical tasks, (2) observations and interviews
are conducted with teachers, (3) meetings are held with group
representatives, and (4) a tentative list of tasks is reviewed by the
teachers and their heads of departments.
Verify the tasks - The draft list of tasks should be verified by experts,
teachers, and heads of departments in the analysis process. This can
be done through expert review, small-group discussions, and interviews.
When the tasks are verified, a final list of job tasks is prepared.
Determine the frequency - The teachers and heads of departments
can fill in a form indicating how frequently each task in a job is performed.
Different scales such as “seldom”, “occasionally”, “weekly to monthly”,
“daily to weekly”, and “daily” can be used to quantify the intensity of a
task accomplished.
Determine the importance - Not all tasks are equally important to a
job. An occasionally performed task may be very important. Therefore,
a relative importance rating is useful along with frequency rating. A scale
such as “marginally important”, “moderately important”, and “extremely
important” may be used to determine the relative importance of the job
tasks.
Estimate the learning difficulty - An estimate of learning difficulty
is another dimension of the job-task analysis. It shows the trainer the
teachers’perception of difficulty, which may be different from the trainer’s
own perception. A scale such as “easy,” “moderately difficult”, “very
difficult”, and “extremely difficult” may be used to determine the difficulty
indices of job tasks.
Calculate the total score - This can be done by simply adding the
scores for frequency, importance, and learning difficulty for each task.
The column for total score in a worksheet indicates the priority tasks
for training if these are training problems.
Review the findings - The results of the job-task analysis should be
discussed with significant people in the training system, including
government leaders, programme directors, and others interested in
related training.
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Task analysis - The output of the job analysis is a list of broad job tasks,
based on importance, learning difficulty, and frequency of doing the task.
Each task is a complex set of procedures in itself, and therefore it needs
further analysis to find out which specific segment of the task is critical in
designing a training programme. To do this, it is necessary to follow a method
called task analysis, which is similar to job analysis.
Task analysis procedures include preparing a blank task analysis worksheet,

writing down the name of the job at the top of each sheet, and then making
copies. Each of these forms will be used for breaking down and analysing
each of the most important job tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to write one
important task identified for training on each of the task analysis worksheets
and to list all component parts of each task on its respective task analysis
worksheet. This is followed by the steps used for job analysis to find out the
frequency, importance, and learning difficulty for each step of the tasks. Then
the score for each component part is put in the “total score” column, and the
results are discussed with concerned personnel in the organisation. The job
analysis and task analysis processes are similar to each other, so the model
for both worksheets is the same.
The important difference between these two steps of analysis is that “the job
analysis helps us identify major blocks of content to include in training; the
task analysis helps us understand what comprises an individual block”
(Wentling, 1992). Both are very important to the curriculum development
process. What needs to be taught and what steps are involved in the process
are completed by these analyses and comprise the major steps in curriculum
development.
Knowledge and skill-gap analysis - The knowledge or skill-gap analysis

is a process of determining the training needs of individual teachers in relation
to the important tasks-steps or components of tasks identified for training.
The skill-gap analysis determines how skilled or proficient individual teachers
are on these tasks-steps or components, how much individuals differ from
desired performance, and whether or not they need training. It would be a
waste of resources and frustrating to the trainer and trainees to design and
deliver training on topics and skills where the trainees are already able and
proficient. A priority list of the tasks identified for training according to the
total score in the job analysis is made. Then, the steps or components that
were identified on each task analysis worksheet are listed on the skill-gap
analysis worksheet. This is followed by rating each step-component in terms
of the trainee’s current proficiency on a scale of 1 to 5. Identifying the steps-
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components that appear to have low proficiency is required because there is

a gap between what is desired and the current situation.
After this, a review is done to ponder whether the gap can be decreased or
removed through training or whether training is the most appropriate method.
There may be some steps-components for which measures other than training
are more appropriate. At this stage, key personnel such as subject-matter
specialists, heads of departments, and the training experts should discuss the
findings before finalising the curriculum. This helps to identify different
perspectives and to avoid unnoticed mistakes or biases in curriculum
development.
The training needs analyses provide many things to a trainer. The analyses
determine the training contents and how deficient the trainees are in these
contents, and the sequence of tasks provides the sequence of training activity.
Activity 5.5
1. State what you understand by a training need.
? 2. Analyse your work station and day-to-day work. Describe the gaps
that exist between the desired and actual performance.
3. Draft a plan showing what you think the training needs are for a work
station of your choice.
4. Giving practical examples, discuss each of the training needs analysis
you have learnt about.
5.7 School Staff Development Policy

The staff development policy for a school concerns the professional
development, continued training, guidance and support for teachers. It aims
to enhance the personal and professional resources of the teacher and at the
same time to increase the school’s capacity for successful working.
The policy can be based on:
the identification and evaluation of the school’s overall objectives which

serve as a guide to its activities; and, in relation to these,
the developmental needs of the individual teacher, the department (year
or subject) and the whole school.
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The enhancement and updating of skills and enrichment of personal satisfaction

must, ultimately, improve the educational provision for pupils in the school.
The processes involved in the policy should have been practised for many
years but mostly on an informal basis. It is desirable for all concerned to have
these processes made more open.
Good personnel management practice indicates that individuals, in order to

achieve high performance and satisfaction from their work, need:
to know what is expected from them;

strong professional support and encouragement for their successes,
honest but constructive analysis of weaknesses; and
the provision of opportunities for future improvement and, when
appropriate and possible, promotion.
It is to help achieve these aims that the policy is designed for. The school staff
development policy can adopt the structure explained below:
Responsibility - In the school, the role of a professional tutor is taken by the

deputy head in consultation with the head teacher and with assistance from
year coordinators.
Elements of the policy - The policy covers:
The professional tutor

Student teachers
Induction
INSET (In-service training)
Personal files.
The professional tutor - The professional tutor is responsible for the
implementation, coordination, organisation and evaluation of the school’s staff
development policy which covers students on teaching practice, probationary
teachers and experienced staff. The role includes the collation and dissemination
of INSET information, correspondence with outside agencies (colleges,
education advisers, and so on.), counselling and guidance, placement on
courses, arranging visits to other schools to observe good practice, opportunities
for further training, etc.
The head teacher is, of course, ultimately responsible for the working of the
policy as a whole, for staff selection and promotion (in consultation with school
inspectors), counselling, guidance and mutual review.
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The deputy head’s role involves:
liaison with colleges and education officers (Zimbabwean context) in

connection with the offering of places to students in the school and in
familiarising him/herself with the initial training programme;
placing of students in year groups;
overseeing the work of students;
discussing the performance of students with class teachers, year
coordinators, advisers, and college tutors;
assisting the class teacher/year coordinator in the formulation of reports
on students’ work;
overseeing the induction of new staff;
the collation and dissemination of information and guidance relating to
INSET;
guidance and counselling for colleagues;
arranging for experienced staff to share their expertise.
The sector inspector’s role involves
counselling and guidance of class teachers on an informal basis;
assisting class teachers in working with students;
discussing students’/probationary teachers’ performance with the Deputy
Head/college tutors and writing reports as required.
School/training institutions partnership - The school can seek to develop
mutually beneficial partnerships with local training institutions. Such partnerships
offer:
students the opportunity to benefit from the fund of expertise available

within the school and to gain practical experience;
the training institutions to be in touch with current school practice and
the opportunity to trial new approaches and resources in the classroom;
and
the school to take advantage of the fresh outlook and new ideas which
students bring with them and the opportunity to enhance the process of
overall school development.
This concept of partnership underpins the intention to adopt a more proactive
role in relation to the placement of students in the school. The aim is that such
placements should provide opportunities for advancing the implementation of
the school’s development plan.
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The school therefore can welcome students in appropriate numbers and

especially when extended periods of teaching practice are possible (for
instance, the ZOU diploma students, ZINTEC students).
Induction - The aims of the school’s induction policy are to:
assist the newly appointed teacher in settling into the life of the school;
and
facilitate the development of his/her professional skills.
The school recognises the importance of the education office contribution to
the induction process and will do all it can to integrate its own programme
with that of the Ministry of Education. In particular, arrangements will be
made to enable probationary teachers to attend appropriate courses and
meetings.
It is believed that all newly appointed staff (not just probationers) have special
needs and that those involved in professional tutoring have a special
responsibility to ease the newcomer into the life of the school as smoothly as
possible, though parts of it will obviously apply mainly to probationers and
some of it only to probationers.
The induction process - i) Before taking up post:

The school offers newly appointed teachers the opportunity to visit the school
before they commence work to discuss their job (and, where appropriate, to
update their job description) with the head, deputy, year coordinator and
subject area leaders as appropriate, and to be given a copy of the Staff
Handbook and their own timetable.
Where funds allow, the school should welcome the idea of employing a
probationary teacher for a short period in the term before s/he commences
permanent employment. Newly appointed staff can be invited to attend any
pre-term staff meetings which may be held.
(ii) During the first year - Newly appointed staff have half-termly meetings
with the professional tutor and their appraiser to review their progress.
An induction programme for the individual teacher is produced which
includes cluster-organised events where appropriate. The programme
may include the following opportunities (some apply mainly to
probationers):
to be able to seek help and guidance from senior colleagues, especially
their head of department. This should not be confined to strictly
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professional matters: staff moving into the area may be grateful for general
advice about housing and amenities, and so on.
to be able to observe the work of experienced colleagues;
to be able to work alongside experienced colleagues;
to visit other appropriate schools for clearly defined purposes (for
examples to study curriculum development, classroom organisation,
display and so on);
to have some of their own work observed by experienced colleagues
and district inspectors and to receive advice as a result;
to meet with other probationary teachers; and
to attend induction meetings organised by the cluster or district.
The professional tutor, with the help of the head of department, is responsible
for writing reports on the work of probationary teachers for the inspectors at
the end of each term during the probationary year. The probationary teacher
will see and sign a copy of the report before it is submitted and may, if s/he
wishes, discuss it with the head of the school.
INSET- The professional tutor is primarily responsible (in consultation with

the head teacher) for INSET planning and administration. This implies the
following duties:
identifying needs (both institutional and individual);
collating and disseminating information on national and district/cluster
courses, professional meetings and so on;
liaising with the local advisory service;
counselling and advising staff on INSET possibilities;
facilitating staff participation (timetabling, supply cover, and so on.);
reporting to the Head on staff needs, INSET provision and take-up
and evaluation.
The school should firmly believe in the value of school-focused INSET which
has been defined by HMCI Pauline Perry as ‘all the strategies employed by
trainers and teachers in partnership, to direct training programmes in such a
way as to meet the identified needs of a school and to raise standards of
teaching and learning in the classroom’.
School-focused INSET is based on these assumptions:
that the school is capable of on-going self-evaluation;

that it is capable of putting forward development plans;
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that it is capable of translating these into a viable INSET programme;

that INSET does not mean only traditional-type courses; and
that this style of working deals with the needs of this school, specific
teachers and pupils.
INSET must address:
the needs of the school as a whole;
the needs of a functional group (year group or curriculum area);
the needs of the individual teacher both professional (required for the
present job, for example, teaching reading skills) and career (to fulfil
career aspirations, for example, management training).
A variety of approaches is therefore necessary and it is the responsibility of
senior staff to determine what is appropriate in relation to perceived needs
and agreed objectives:
observing a senior colleague;

working alongside a senior colleague;
an invitation to an inspector to visit the school to assist an individual
teacher/group of teachers/whole staff;
an invitation to staff of other schools to share their expertise with the
school;
visits to other schools; and
in-school courses.
Personal files - A personal file is maintained for each member of staff. The
contents of the file are confidential and open only to the head (and, where
appropriate, the deputy head), the school inspectors and the member of staff
whose file it is.
In the file are kept:

copies of forms and documents relating to the teacher’s application for
his/her post in the school (if deployment is done by the SDC);
copies of references in connection with applications for other posts;
details of INSET undertaken;
agreed appraisal statements;
a copy of the current job description; and
any other appropriate documents.
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Activity 5.6
1. In your group, make a draft staff development policy for a work station
? 2.
of your choice.
Besides staff developing teachers on the academic and co-curricular
issues, what other issues can be included in the policy?
3. Do you think it is necessary to have staff development on staff social
issues such as budgeting, healthy living and so on? Give reasons for
your answer taking into consideration the business environment in which
the system operates.
5.8 Summary
The unit has laid down how a school staff development policy can be drafted.
It is up to each school administration and staff to decide what is appropriate
in their own context. Thus, taking into consideration the changes that are
taking place in their own education system and the requirements of the working
world that students will finally enter. It has been elaborated to make the learner
see that the school can also enhance the expertise of its teachers at the school
and help to improve the students’ performance.
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References
Haddad, W. D. and Demsky, T. (1995). Education Policy-planning process:
an applied framework. UNESCO: International Institute for
Educational Planning. Paris: United Nations.
MacGhee, W. and Thayer, P.W. (1961). Training in Business and Industry.
New York: JohnWiley and Sons.
Wentling, T. L. (1992). Planning for Effective training: A Guide to
Curriculum Development. Rome: FAO.
UNESCO International Bureau of Education- The Developments I
Education: The Education System at the End of the 20th Century-
1990-2000
National Education Statisticsal Information Systems Report 2001.
Ministry of higher Education and Technology Corporate Plan 2001-2003.
The Presidential Commission for Inquiry into Education and Training 1990.
lizcampbell@lawscot.org.uk
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6
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Unit Six
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Management of Educational
Staff Developemnt Programmes
6.0 Introduction
I n the previous unit, we looked at ‘Staff Development Planning and Policy

in Education’. In this unit, we take you through ‘Management of Educational
Staff Development Programmes’ so that you are fully equipped with the
management skills of conducting staff development programmes in your work
environment. The term “Staff Development Programmes Management” shall
be defined. Also, in this unit, associated concepts in staff development
programmes management shall be considered. Educational staff development
leaders and results shall be discussed. The unit ends with critical management
processes.
6.1 Objectives
define the concept of ‘Staff Development Programmes Management’

in your own words
describe the associated concepts in Staff Development Programmes
Management
explain the associated concepts in Staff Development Programmes
Management
discuss educational staff development leaders and results
analyse critical management processes in staff development
6.2 Defining Staff Development Programmes

Management’
It is imperative at this juncture that we refresh our memories by redefining the
concepts “Staff Development” and “Programme Management” in an attempt
to come up with a sound definition of “Staff Development Programme
Management”. The term staff development is sometimes used interchangeably
with professional development and sometimes teacher development. According
to Wood et al (1982) in Muzvidziwa (2003), staff development has been
defined as the totality of educational and personal experiences that contribute
towards an individual’s being more competent and satisfied in an assigned
professional role. Thus, staff development facilitates professional growth.
According to Muzvidziwa (2003:111),
Staff development is designed for individuals as part of a collectivity. It

encourages collective growth in a common direction and focuses on similarities.
It is guided by school objectives. Staff development can also lead to dynamic
school leadership that fosters collegiality, a commitment to risk taking and
willingness to implement new ideas and establish relationships with other
educators that provide teachers with support for change.
From the above point of view, it is clear that staff development can only be
pursued by teachers or professionals as a group, so that they can effectively
share ideas thereby enabling the entire organisation for which they work to
produce better results. Staff development can be regarded as the process,
which helps teachers to develop reflective problem-solving strategies and
increased understanding of the learner. It is a process which empowers teachers
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Unit 6 Management of Educational Staff Developemnt Programmes
and enables them to gain appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes that
enhance their teaching and learning skills.
As they come to share experiences and knowledge, the staff members grow
as individuals and also produce the intended results as required by management.
Thus, if this programme gets the full support of management, we can realise
job satisfaction through higher productivity brought about by the healthy
interaction among members of the organisation. In a nutshell, staff development
leads to school effectiveness and school improvement.
Programme management entails the involvement of the leaders of the

organisation in seeing to it that the staff development programme has achieved
its intended objectives. This management of a programme may imply that
there must be a close monitoring of the activities involved as well as evaluation,
so that continuous improvement is realised.
From the above definitions, it can be inferred that, staff development

programme management is the process of ensuring that activities that are related
to staff growth are well planned, implemented and evaluated. Thus, in staff
development programme management, leaders of an organisation are very
critical for they are the ones that provide the necessary resources for full
implementation of the programme. According to Chigumira (1999:119), “The
leader has a role to play in the management of staff development programmes”.
In addition to this, Chigumira (1999:119) points out that, “There is a need to
make an inventory to establish what is currently prevailing, before determining
future directions. It seems the gap exists between now and the future and it is
education and training which prepare staff to overcome the challenge”. What
Chigumira seems to be suggesting is that staff development needs identification
and needs analysis are very critical in organisations, to effectively prepare for
tomorrow.
Chigumira (1999:119) further argues that, “The staff development leader,

therefore, should stimulate the subordinate group to be actively involved in
the staff development activities because they believe in the usefulness of the
programmes and are committed to the attainment of the set goals”. Thus, the
discharge of the responsibility for staff development programme success is
termed management.
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Activity 6.1
1. Define the concept of “Staff Development”.
? 2. What do you understand by the term “Staff development programme
management”?
3. Suggest ways in which a leader of you organisation can effectively
manage staff development programmes at your work place.
6.3 Associated Concepts in Staff Development

Programme Management
In this regard, staff development is closely associated with the concepts: school
development, the human factor model, leader, leadership, role play,
management agents and management functions. These terms shall be defined
below and establish how they are linked to staff development programme
management.
6.3.1 School development

Essentially, school development can be viewed generally as a package of a
set of values and specific practices that are linked to school effectiveness.
Stewart and Prebble (1984:156) contend that:
School development is a planned, continuous effort to address how the

institution diagnoses and makes decisions within its influence. It relates change
with purpose, makes overt the prevailing beliefs, values, norms of its population
and begins with the assistance of a consultant who has the confidence of the
entire group.
Thus, school development involves growth and effectiveness between and

amongst the school participants as they interact as community members. This
community of school members, as they interact amongst and between
themselves, are involved in self-reflection of their activities as well as their
organisation leading to the effectiveness of learning and teaching. Stewart and
Prebble (1984:205) note that, “school development guarantees a form of
continuous self renewal and progressive adaptation”. This definition puts an
emphasis on the school’s capacity for self-reflective action, problem-solving
and a culture of collaboration. School development occurs when leaders begin
to work together with teachers and the community, having the same goals.
One of the major functions of school development programmes is that of
creating conducive climate for learning and increasing communication among
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staff. It is quite clear then that successful school development would contribute
to effective and improved teaching and learning situations.
6.3.2 The human factor development model

The centrepiece of any staff and school development programme is anchored
on a Human Factor development approach. Adjibolosoo (1995:33-34), a
leading proponent of the Human Factor (HF) approach, notes that:
The HF is the spectrum of personality characteristics and other dimensions of

human performance that enable social, economic and political institutions to
function and remain functional, over time. Such dimensions sustain the workings
and application of the rule of law, political harmony, a disciplined labour force,
just legal systems, respect for human dignity and the sanctity of life, social
welfare and so on. As is often the case, no social, economic or political institutions
can function effectively without being upheld by a network of committed persons
who stand firmly by them. Such persons must strongly believe in and continually
affirm the ideals of society.
From this definition, it can be deduced that success of an organisation depends

not just on people with appropriate skills and knowledge, but on people who
are committed, honesty, selfless, hardworking, reliable, disciplined, people
who desire to see an improvement in the welfare of others. The acquisition of
appropriate personality characteristics is considered a critical component of
the HF. This calls for new a set of values and principles that should act as a
driving force for teachers committed to lifelong education and enhances the
quality of life of individuals and society at large. According to Adjibolosoo
(2000:3) “the HF is essential to the effective performance of the whole
enterprise as the central nervous system is to the proper functioning of the
human body”. Thus, people’s attitudes, behaviours and actions are important
in as far as organisational performance is concerned.
Commenting on Adjibolosoo’s six HF components, Muzvidziwa (2000) notes

that, spiritual capital gives meaning to life, it furnishes the individual with the
desire to pursue the truth and act humanely. This is what staff development
should impart to teachers in order to have meaningful HF driven educational
outcomes. Moral capital is regarded as the voice of human conscience that
tells us about right and wrong. Education as such involves the imparting of
moral principles in addition to skills and knowledge acquisition. It becomes
imperative that teachers who are the vehicles through which much of HF
driven education depends need to imbibe moral principles. Some of the moral
principles identified byAdjibolosoo (1995:35) are “integrity, humility, sincerity,
charity, courtesy, patience, faithfulness, sensitivity, purity, honesty, kindness,
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justice, tolerance, forgiveness, flexibility, collegiality, truthfulness and fidelity”.

What this means is that teachers who hold the HF moral capital characteristics
are likely to encourage those values and practices that will reinforce the
acquisition of the same values amongst those they teach and the communities
they work in.
Activity 6.2
1. How related are the concepts ‘staff development’, ‘school development’
? 2.
and ‘human factor development’?
What do you understand by school development?
3. Illustrate the relevance of moral principles suggested by Adjibolosoo
(1995) to staff development in an organisation.
4. To what extent do you agree with the statement that says, “...success
of an organisation depends not just on people with appropriate skills
and knowledge, but also on people who are committed, honesty, selfless,
hardworking, reliable, disciplined, people who desire to see an
improvement in the welfare of others?”
6.3.3 Leader
Robbins (1991:4) suggests that leading “includes motivating subordinates,
directing others, selecting the most effective communication channels and
resolving conflicts”. Musaazi (1982:57) contends that, “A leader can be
described as one who knows the way, shows the way and goes the way.
Therefore to be a good leader one must learn to be a good follower.” A
leader is therefore someone who has the ability to influence behaviour change
among his or her followers. In the case of staff development programme
management, a leader is the one who is involved in the identification, analysis,
and implementation of staff development needs of members in the organisation
so that there is effectiveness and improvement within the individuals and the
entire organisation.
6.3.4 Leadership
Musaazi (1982:52) argues that “...leadership is concerned with the
implementation of those policies and decisions which assist in directing the
activities of an organisation towards its specified goals. Thus, leadership is the
process of influencing the activities and behaviour of an individual or a group
in efforts towards goal achievement in a given situation”. Leadership is a process
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and not an event. In this process an individual takes the initiative to be at the
forefront of an organisation in terms of new suggestions of staff development
content and approaches to be used to deliver the content, provision of
information about innovative approaches, identification of problems and
suggests solutions. Leadership in these modern days entails conducting action
researches about evaluative practices and procedures of staff development
programmes.
One cannot be a leader of himself or herself, the same applies to leadership.

Thus, leadership is relative to a situation and cannot be exercised in the absence
of other members of a team or group.
6.3.5 Role play

Role playing signifies that behaviour one exhibits which goes in line with the
expectations of others. In the context of staff development, the facilitator is
the role model whose behaviour should be emulated by the participants. It is
imperative that when organisations are choosing people to facilitate in a staff
development workshop, they need to look at the qualities of such people
which are worth emulating. Thus, the participants are modelled towards the
facilitator’s behaviour during the staff development session.
The traditional model assign the leadership role to the status or positional
leader, that is, the school head, the district education officer (DEO), the
education officer (EO), the schools inspector (SI), the provincial education
director (PED) and by implication expects the other participants to assume
the role of passive followers. However, the partnership model expects the
leadership role to be played by both the positional figures and the target group.
6.3.6 Management agents

Perhaps before going into detail about the functions of the leader, let us look
at the agents that can play the role of the leader. We shall call these ‘management
agents’. Management functions of staff development programmes can be
performed by a variety of agents. In a school environment, the head or
administrator by virtue of his position performs this role. Thus, the school
head is expected to influence the instructional outcomes by working through
other people and as such the head cannot escape the final responsibility for
the outcomes that the staff development programmes yield.
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It is not necessarily the duty of the head to implement the staff development
programmes alone, but can hire outside experts in the form of consultants.
However, this consultant has limited power to perform the leadership role. In
this case the leadership role is based on the expertise that the consultant has
to offer.
Another agent that can perform the leadership role in staff development
programmes is the co-ordinator or director. Such an agent would have a
designated role within the confines of a specific programme such as that in
which computer education is intended to be introduced to the entire school at
primary or secondary school sector.
The leadership function can be performed by a group that has been tasked
with the staff development co-ordination. These can be referred to as staff
development committees.
6.3.7 Management functions

We have seen that the business of staff development programme management
is not the monopoly of any individual. This function can be performed by the
school head, a consultant or a committee tasked with this responsibility.
In the management of staff development programmes, the leader performs

the function of leading, decision-making, directing and influencing. However,
high priority should also be given to tasks such as planning, co-ordinating,
organising and controlling.
Staff development leaders should have the capacity to comprehend the totality
of the entire staff development programme. The leader must visualise the
configuration of the elements and forces involved and how they relate and
interrelate. Thus, the design of a staff development programme must have
appropriate delivery modes and evaluation procedures built into it.
Activity 6.3
1. Define the terms (a) leader
? 2.
(b) leadership.
What is the role of a leader in the management of staff development
programmes at you work situation?
3. Why is it necessary to have management agents when managing staff
development programmes?
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6.4 Educational Staff Development Leaders and

Results
Educational leaders achieve staff development outcomes/management functions
by highlighting the need to:
help people to change;

improve constructively the instructional situation of the teachers, heads
or deputy heads; and
improve programmes and resources.
We must realise that change and improvement in instructional matters come
about as a result of several staff development activities. This is because each
staff development activity undertaken brings with it some changes to the target
group.
There is no better approach to staff development than the adoption of Human

Factor (HF) education development programmes. This comes after realising
that many studies undertaken so far did not address the need to adopt HF
approaches in matters involving change and school development as well as
school improvement programmes.
For instance, understanding school culture is the first step in the development
process. It involves the acquisition of knowledge about the school, perception
of all school actors and the ways in which the school operates. According to
Muzvidziwa (2003:116) “culture gives meaning to instructional activities and
provides a symbolic bridge between action and results”. She further laments
that, “school culture enables all school personnel to develop a common purpose
and shared vision”. Muzvidziwa (2003:116) gives a clear testimony of her
experience as a school teacher at one of the private schools in Zimbabwe
where “... because the school employs mostly trained teachers there is less
concern about improving the quality of teaching by staff as it is assumed most
are up-to-date with current techniques in the teaching field”.
However, the school is multi-cultural and draws its staff as well as pupils from
a wide sector that includes black and white Zimbabweans as well as a large
contingent of foreigners. This calls for a high level of understanding by teachers
and school leaders and the need to see this not as a problem but an opportunity
that can be dealt with in the context of teacher and school development
programmes. Muzvidziwa (2003:117) sees that there are serious issues that
require immediate attention, even though the school is made up of highly
qualified personnel and these are outlined as follows, “The special needs pupils
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comprise those with bodily impairments of different kinds, pupils with learning
difficulties and children for whom English is a second language”.
In a school like this, there is need to develop collaborative problem solving

strategies. A collaborative approach requires maximum participation of staff
in decision-making processes. It also means teachers must be able to value
the diversity of approaches by the different individual members. Staff
participation in school programmes can lead to improved relationships with
colleagues and a focus on commonly shared school objectives. When teachers
are involved in school programmes they take greater responsibility over their
work, thereby increasing a sense of mutual accountability.
Curriculum and programme changes are the key tasks of the school that
improves pupils’ learning. Quality teaching and increased pupils’ achievement
levels are dependent on the ability of staff to engage in collaborative teamwork
and an understanding of the school’s culture. Muzvidziwa (2003:117) notes
that:
In this particular school where I am currently working, the above processes are
well underway, and success in school programmes can be noted. Staff appear to
focus on real business of the school, that of helping pupils to learn. Teachers
regard themselves as life-long learners and discussion groups and seminars
have been put in place for this purpose. Teachers participate in peer–assisted
evaluations, focused classroom observations and practical learning and teaching
sessions. Outside experts are also invited to give input which has enhanced
teachers’ capacity to participate in effective and targeted teaching of special
needs pupils.
We must understand that HF development in education is not something that

can just happen in schools. The HF must be taught in schools. There is need
to socialise school stakeholders in terms of what constitutes a HF educational
programme. Hence, the HF characteristics, HF content, through HF
engineering need to be introduced. In the end this will give rise to possession
of positive HF in educational institutions. In order to strengthen HF educational
programmes, it is imperative that HF oriented incentives are introduced at
school, district and provincial levels. An incentive scheme rewarding and
publicising those who have excelled in HF development will spare others to
follow suit.
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Activity 6.4
1. What do you understand by the term school culture?
? 2. School culture is a critical component of Human Factor development.
Discuss.
3. List the benefits of Human Factor approach of staff development to
educational leaders.
4. How best can the educational leaders be involved in ensuring that staff
development programmes are conducted successfully?
6.5 Critical Management Processes

We are now discussing critical management processes so that we can explain
the contributions that these processes can make to the overall staff development
programme success. What are these critical management processes?
6.5.1 Co-ordinating
A co-ordinator of staff development, in the form of a leader or manager,
exercises skills of informing and communicating as well as identifying target
groups and their needs. The co-ordinator must possess skills of providing
and assisting learners, as well as facilitating and integrating tasks and
responsibilities. Thus, a co-ordinator should:
build relationships between and among groups and individual

participants;
negotiate to secure space, personnel and other resources. He or she
must secure agreement on the staff development goals and objectives;
clarify and extend ideas so that there are shared perceptions of what
needs to be done;
develop strategic planning aimed at focusing on most important staff
development needs;
motivate others;
resolve potential and actual conflicts;
provide information;
make decisions;
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acquire and allocate resources; and

monitor and evaluate the programmes (Chigumira, 1999:122-123).
6.5.2 Planning
Management of staff development programmes calls for the skills of envisioning
(i.e. foresight), ascertaining, validating and prioritising of goals and objectives
of an organisation. It is the duty of the leader to develop a database and
rationalise why action or staff development activities are necessary. In other
words, the leader must decide whether the identified need really exists and is
worth pursuing.
Planning also implies that the leader conceptualises and develops specific
plans and strategies for implementation. Work flows and structures essential
to implementing the plans have also to be developed. This involves developing
and testing strategies, systems and processes in readiness for the actual
execution of the programme.
6.5.3 Directing
The management agents (be it an individual or a team/committee) already
alluded to in the previous sections, have to assume leadership role, by
performing the function of directing. The activities involved in the directing
function of a leader are decision-making, leading and initiating programmes
or a series of activities. Again, the leader must assign duties and delegate
authority, formulate strategies and determine the timing of activities. The leader
is also tasked with the duty of allocating the resources after determining the
resources needed.
In other words, when one directs activities, he or she is playing a catalytic role
which is very crucial for a successful staff development programme. The leader
needs to ensure that all the operations are effective, the provision of all essential
mechanisms, strategies and opportunities are in place and are functioning.
6.5.4 Controlling
After initiating and installing the staff development programme successfully,
the leader shifts his or her role to that of controlling. Controlling entails regulating
and directing activities on the basis of instruments, data and observation.
Controlling involves the whole process of monitoring and intervening as and
when necessary.
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Activity 6.5
1. What do you understand by the terms:
? (a) coordinating
(b) planning
(c) directing
(d) controlling?
2. Briefly discuss the importance of each one of the above functions of
the leader in the successful implementation of a staff development
programme.
3. Outline some characteristics of the Human Factor development
approach of staff development.
6.6 Summary
In this unit we have looked at the management of educational staff development
programmes. We have defined ‘Staff Development Programme Management’
as the process of ensuring that the staff development programmes that are
meant to renew workers in an organisation are implemented successfully leading
to effective and improved institutions. The concepts school development,
human factor HF model, leader, leadership, management agents and
management functions have been defined. It has been noted that any teacher
development and school development programme devoid of the positive HF
content is bound to fail. The HF can be taught to teachers and in turn to
pupils in schools. It is something that needs to be developed and nurtured
over time. Thus, the kingpin to school development is the presence amongst
teachers, educators, communities and learners of positive HF characteristics,
HF content, HF competence and HF engineering. This is what Zimbabwe
needs instead of programmes devoid of the HF as is happening in most schools
at the moment. The results so far has been deepening of HF decay in many
schools in the country.
The unit has also tackled issues on educational management leaders and the
expected results. Thus, the HF approach has been seen as the most effective
in bringing about positive results in which the school realises its intended goals
and objectives through the use of teamwork approach to management of staff
development programmes. Finally, critical management processes such as
planning; directing, coordinating and controlling have been discussed.
In the next unit we consider ‘Staff Development Programmes Management

Systems’.
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References
Adjibolosoo, S-B. K. (1995). The Human Factor in Developing Africa.
London: Praeger.
Adjibolosoo, S-B. K. (2000). ‘The Human Factor approach in nation building’.
Review of the Human Factor Studies, 5(1&2): 1-15.
Chigumira, S. (1999). Staff Development in Education. Module EA3AD202
Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.
Musaazi, J.C.S. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Educational
Administration. Lagos: Macmillan.
Muzvidziwa, I. (2003). Staff and School Development: Implications for teacher
productivity, motivation and commitment. Management and the
Human Factor Lesson for Africa 2(1) 111-119.
Muzvidziwa, V. N. (2000). ‘Eco-tourism and the Human Factor in Zimbabwe’
Review of the Human Factor Studies, 6(2): 57-76.
Prebble, T. and Stewart, D. (1984). School Development: Strategies for
Effective Management. Dunmore: Palmerston North.
Robbins, S.P. (1991). Organisational Behaviour: Concepts, controversies
and application. (5th Edition). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
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7
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Unit Seven
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Staff Development Programmes

Management Systems
7.0 Introduction
T he success of any attempts by school authorities to develop, enhance

and improve the skills, competencies and overall performance of its
staff will depend on the staff development management systems they use.
This unit focuses on staff development systems, but first we come up with a
definition of staff development system. We further discuss the scope of staff
development programmes management systems before exploring post in-
service support in education. Finally we look at the broader context of staff
development management systems.
7.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:-
define staff development management systems
explain the scope of staff development management systems
outline the nature of any post inservice support in education
describe the broader context of staff development management systems
7.2 Defining ‘Staff Development Management

Systems’
Before we come up with a definition of staff development management systems,
we need to revisit the meaning of management and what a system is. This is in
light of the consideration that you are by now familiar with what ‘staff
development’ entails. Griffin (2002:7) says management simply means “a set
of activities (including planning and decision making, organising, leading and
controlling) directed at an organisation’s resources (human, financial, physical
and information) with the aim of achieving organisational goals in an efficient
and effective manner”. The term ‘systems’ is viewed by Buchanan and
Huczyuski (2004: 89) as “something that functions by virtue of the
interdependence of its component parts”. As Griffin (2002) puts it, a system
is an interrelated set of elements functioning as a whole.
Accordingly, a conceptual framework of the above terms gives us an interesting

challenge in coming up with a working definition of ‘staff development
management systems’. Whatever definition we draw, it must take into account
the functional elements of both management and system. May be at this stage
we want to craft such a definition.
Broadly, ‘Staff Development Management Systems’ is a management

perspective which emphasizes the interdependence of various components of
an organisation, people, technology, organisation structure and the environment
and also between the organization and its environment when dealing with
issues/matters of staff development. There are pertinent questions we now
need to ask ourselves such as ‘What could be the interrelated elements of the
staff development management systems?’ ‘Who are the players in a staff
development management system?’
It is important to note from the onset that a staff development management

system is charged to carry out important management functions. Definitely
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Unit 7 Staff Development Programmes Management Systems
this involves more than one person or department if meaningful results are to
be achieved.
Activity 7.1
1. What do you understand by ‘management’?
? 2. Define the concept of staff development management systems in your
own words
3. What do you envisage to be the importance of staff development
systems?
7.3 Scope of Staff Development Programme

Management Systems
Staff Development Programme Management systems is premised on synergy,
i.e. the situation in which the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This
means that as separate departments within the school cooperate and interact,
they become more productive than if each had acted in isolation (Stoner and
Freeman (1992:45). Owens (1981) posits that a school, as a complex socio-
technical system has programmes which must take into account the wholeness
of the system and the dynamic interrelatedness of its component subsystems,
human, structural, technical, and task. School components of grade levels,
informal groups, teams, work groups and heads of departments are in a constant
state of dynamic interrelationship. An effective staff development management
system should have all school sub-systems involved at all levels of the
management activities. This could involve subject committees, administration,
School Development Committee (SDC) member, School Resource Teacher
(SRT), technicians and other stakeholders.
7.4 Supporting Staff Development

Post in-service education training support is critical if the results of staff
development are to benefit the school/organisation. There should be back–
up to staff development efforts. Participants should not only be permitted but
encouraged to act further on both the knowledge and skills obtained. That
way, there is greater likelihood of the new skills and knowledge being put to
good use. The importance of administrative support for staff development
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was highlighted by the findings from the Rand Study of educational contexts
(Sergiovanni and Starrant, 1979). This research evidence pointed to the
support of principals (heads) as the main factor influencing staff development
outcomes in the programmes that were studied. The heads make important
decisions which affect the implementation of programmes and are accountable
for resource allocation and control. They give both material and moral support.
Similar studies cited by Liberman and Millar (1981) in sparks (1983) also
emphasise the importance of the principal’s role as an instructional leader in
bringing about improvements in teaching. In such situations, teachers commonly
share ideas about instruction and experiment with new ideas in the classroom.
Change, such as that inherent in staff development is not possible without a
supporting environment. The co-operation of fellow teachers and the support
of the leader are usually very necessary contextual variables, too. So their
support for staff development programmes is necessary for good delivery.
Providers of staff development should give staff development participants

guidelines so that the programme gets off to a good start. The basic kinds of
preparation for staff development that are likely to render support to the
programme are:
Clear statement of desired outcomes, adequate advance publicity

targeted at all participants; and
Effective dissemination of learning resources.
Clear statement of objectives and potential outcomes of staff development
have several spin–offs. They enable institutions and individuals to determine
what the proposed staff development programmes have to offer. This reduces
the mismatch between participants’ expectations and the staff development
programme. It helps the providers of staff development programmes to decide
on the appropriateness of the staff development content for both the individual
and groups of participants.
It enables the managers and producers to be clear and more open to all who
are pursuing their own professional development agendas. Clear statement of
objectives creates possibilities for linking staff development programmes and
individual study because it:
Makes it possible for the participants to become aware of the resources

that are available to support their work in specific areas (content and
methodology);
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Ensure that materials are usefully targeted, that is, needs are congruent
to staff development content; and
Gives early warning to participants in staff development programmes
who then make local materials available, if any information base exists
which they can consult, for example libraries, teachers, centres or
consultants.
Pre-staff development programme support is important but not enough. You
need to ensure that staff development support is also rendered during and
after the implementation.
Institutional (school/college) support to staff development programmes can

take a number of forms including:
Replacement cover, that is, the provision of relief staff for those teachers
attending workshops;
Timetable reorganisation to facilitate participation by all those who wish
to undertake staff development activities;
Provision of common time-table free periods to enable school based
staff development sessions to take place;
Mentorship (allocation of an experienced and sympathetic colleague)
to give advice and share problems. Such mentors should be given
training and time allowance.
Action research (carrying out projects and assignments) within the
institution to reinforce what was learned at the school-based and off-
site development sessions;
Financial help/provision for materials and travel and
Provision of facilities such as resource rooms.
Institutional development should take place alongside staff development (in-
service education and training). All efforts should be made to make the school
organisation responsive to the programmes that are being undertaken.
The objective of staff development, we have argued, is to enable the teacher

to function more efficiently. However, if their classes were to remain unattended
while the teachers are away on staff development, the teachers’ effectiveness
would diminish and pupils would suffer. Hence, whenever staff members are
released to participate in staff development activities, arrangements should be
made to ensure that their classes are looked after.
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We also believe that when necessary temporary changes on the timetable

should be permitted to allow for increased staff participation in staff
development activities.
One way of achieving this is to have timetabled periods during which all teachers
in a department, form or schools are freed from their usual commitments. In
larger schools where there are specialist teachers in home economics,
woodwork or metalwork, teachers could hold their workshops while their
classes are under the care of specialist subject teachers.
We have come out clearly in support of the partnership model which

emphasizes colleague-ship. Therefore, the establishment of staff development
committees at school, district and regional level support staff development
efforts by maintaining channels of communication for sharing experiences and
problems.
7.5 Post in-Service Education Support

Let us address the issue of post-service education and training support. We
advocate for the provision of back-up to staff development efforts. Participants
are not only permitted but encouraged to act further on both the knowledge
and skills obtained. That way, there is greater likelihood of the new skills and
knowledge being put to good use.
Support after in-service training session will include:
Provision of opportunities to participants to utilise the knowledge and

skills acquired during the training sessions;
Further skills practice in order to refine them;
Post-course or workshop refresher/updating meetings;
Further ‘cascading’ or training trainees facilitating the training of
colleagues and subordinates;
Proper use of staff development sessions evaluating results as feedback;
Where possible in-service course staff should provide follow up advisory
support; and
Evaluation by results in the classroom to assess the long-term staff
development programme impact.
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7.6 Provision of Resources

No programme of a long-term nature can succeed without resources. The
provision of resources in staff development management should therefore be
assured. Figure 7.1 illustrates this.
RESOURCESS
Staff development courses

Professional associations
Within school professional
Regional and state institutions Visiting speakers and
Neighbouring schools
Consultancy assistance/ CDU grants
Adapted from Bishop (1976:67)
Figure 7.1: Allocation of resources
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Activity 7.2
1. Discuss the scope of the staff development programme management
? 2.
systems.
Explain how staff development programme management systems can
be supported.
3. Analyse challenges in supporting staff development programme
management systems.
7.7 Broader Context of Staff Development

Management Systems
A strategic staff development management system is premised on the vision,
mission and goals of the organisation/school. While these may be school/
organisation based in the majority of cases they are handed down as policy
from government. This makes staff development management system a global
exercise involving not only elements from within the school but also those
from clusters, districts, regional and head office.
In Zimbabwe, staff development programmes are administered to a large

extent by two units of the Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture.
One of these, the Standards Control Unit, comes under the schools division
of the Ministry. One of its major responsibilities is to staff develop all
instructional personnel in management positions such as education officers,
heads of schools, deputy heads and heads of departments.
The Curriculum Development Unit, which is part of the education Development

Unit, is, in charge of all curricular-related staff development. Its target group
mainly comprises class teachers and all instructional personnel that have a
special interest in the implementation of the curriculum. Its major responsibility
is, therefore, the delivery of curriculum content, skills and methodology to the
teachers.
The types of staff development data collected by these two units emanates
from a variety of sources. Standard control serves as the Ministry’s quality
control department. It collects data on the performance of the entire education
system through reports on teachers from heads, district education officers,
education officers and deputy directors.
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Besides reports on teachers, the Standards Control Unit undertakes spot

checks throughout the country. Armed with the data on staff development
needs gleaned from reports, meetings and workshops, the unit undertakes
staff development initiatives for Education Officers, District Education Officers,
and school based supervisory personnel (heads, deputy heads and teachers
in charge). It undertakes these programmes in collaboration with regional
offices and schools.
The role of the Standards Control Unit includes such activities as funding,
provision of facilitators and materials. Standards Control also liaises with
donor agencies and training agencies such as the Commonwealth Secretariat,
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the British Council, among
others.
Regional offices draw their information on staff development needs and

activities from schools through reports, examination results, formal and informal
interviews and during supervisory visits to schools by education officers of all
grades. Schools assess their own needs from time to time and run their own
staff development programmes.
7.8 The Better Schools Programme Zimbabwe

(BSPZ)
The Better Schools Programme Zimbabwe (BSPZ, 1996) has been a popular
feature in the running of staff development programmes. Every district runs a
resource centre where resources are pooled together in support of staff
development programmes run in the district through a cluster system. A small
number of schools comprising both primary and secondary schools
geographically within the same location form a cluster. Six to eight schools are
a normal cluster. At every cluster, the school is represented by a School
Resource Teacher (SRT) (BSPZ: A Manual on Clusters, Module B., 2000: i-
ii). The SRT is accountable to the head for the effective running of staff
development programmes which she/he accomplishes through the creation of
subject committees at primary level or co-ordination of heads of departments
at secondary school level.
At cluster level, SRTs from every school form the cluster committee. A Cluster
Resource teacher (CRT) is elected to run the cluster activities, while the CRTs
form the District Resource Committee run by the District Resource Teacher
(DRT) who remains accountable to the District Education Officer (DEO).
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Several DEOs cluster into a Regional Cluster run by a Provincial Education

Director while at national level all directors would form the national BSPZ.
Figure 7.2 illustrates the structure and functions of the BSPZ.
NATIONAL PERMANENT SEC HODS
ADVISORY COMMITTEE NATIONAL

(Stakeholders) DIRECTOR SCHOOLS MANAGEMENT
NATIONAL
CO-ORDINATOR
REGIONAL
REGINAL ADVISORY REGIONAL REGIONAL
COMMITTEE DIRECTOR MANAGEMENT
(Stakeholders) COMMITTEE
REGIONAL
CO-ORDINATOR
DISTRICT
DEO DISTRICT
MANAGEMENT
DISTRICT RESOURCE
TEACHER
CUSTER
CLUSTER CO-
CLUSTER ORDINATING
CHAIRPERSON
CLUSTER RESOURCE
HEAD
SCHOOL SDA/SDC
SCHOOL
DEVELOPMENT
Fig. 7.2 BSPZ Organisational Structure

Activity 7.3
1. Analyse the broader context of staff development management systems.
? 2. Describe the structure and functions of the Better Schools Programme
in Zimbabwe or another country of your choice.
3. Discuss how you would make Better Schools Programmes effective
as staff development fora in your country.
7.9 Summary
Successful staff development implementation can no longer be viewed as a
one man task. Maximum participation by every school member is paramount
if all staff development programmes are to yield the intended results. While
the school authorities will maintain their leadership roles, certain functions will
have to be shared with the teachers so that they too own the programmes. A
proper system must be put in place to concern itself with the affairs of staff
development. The school committee will have to cluster with other school
committees to share ideas at the same time different levels of the entire
education system should be involved fully to ensure that control mechanisms
remain enshrined within the staff development management system.
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References
Better Schools Programme Zimbabwe (2000). A Manual on Clusters,
Module B. Harare: Ministry of Education Sport and Culture.
Bishop, L.G. (1976). Staff Development and Instructional Procedures
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Buchanan, D. and Huczyuski, A. (2004). Organisational Behaviour an
Introductory Text 5th Edition: London: Prentice Hall Inc.
Cole, G.A. (1993). Management Theory and Practice, 4th Edition, London:
DP Publications.
Griffin, R.W. (2002). Management. New York: Haughton, Mifflin Company.
Sax, G. (1989). Principles of Educational and Psychological Measurement
and Evaluation 3rd Edition, California: Wadworth Publishing
Company.
Sergiovanni and Starrat (1979): Supervision, Human Perspectives, New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Sparks, G.M. (1983). Synthesis of Research on Staff Development for
Effective Teaching Educational Leadership; Vol, 41 November
(pp65-72)
Stoner, J.A.F. and Freeman, R.E. (1992. Management, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
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8
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Unit Eight
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Staff Development and

Organisational Context
8.0 Introduction
I n Unit 7, we looked at staff development management systems in a broad

way and how it functions in education. The focus of Unit 8 will be on
understanding the concept of organisation, analysing staff development as a
component of organisational development as well as looking at emerging staff
development trends in organisational development. Since we live in a world
of organisations, their staff development is a necessary part of our society
and serves many important needs. Mullin (2005) believes that the decisions
and actions of management in organisations have an increasing impact on
individuals, other organisations and the community at large. It is, therefore,
important to understand what an organisation is, how organisations function
and the pervasive influences organisations exercise over the behaviour of
people.
Let us first look at the objectives of this unit.
8.1 Objectives
define the concept of ‘organisation
explain why staff development is necessary in any organisation
analyse emerging staff development trends in organisational
development
8.2 The Concept of ‘Organisation’

8.2.1 Defining an ‘organisation’
No trend has been more dynamic in psychology during the past decade than
the growth of interest in the term organisations. Sydney (2002) feels the
significant changes have occurred in areas of our work. First and perhaps
most basis, has been the emergence of a concern for the larger organisational
content within which the psychologist may study organisations. But basically
on organisation is a group of people intentionally organised to accomplish on
overall, common goal or set of goals. Brooks (2008) however says that we
should understand that there are several important aspects to consider about
the goal of the organisation which will be discussed later. But an organisation,
by its very nature is composed of individuals who are organised in some way
or form in order to achieve certain objectives. According to Sydney (2002),
these individuals are the basic building materials around which an organisation
functions and an understanding of individual behaviour is an essential
prerequisite to the exploration of how individuals work in organisations.
On another note, we might define an organisation as a system of coordinated

and controlled activities that arise when work is embedded in complex networks
of technical relations and boundary – spanning exchanges. Thus Brooks,
(2008) explains that organisations are driven to incorporate the practices and
procedures defined by prevailing renationalised concepts of organisational
work and institutionalised in society. These practices and procedures are highly
integrated in order to accomplish an overall goal. In order to achieve this
goal, Sullivan (2010) states that this system has various inputs which are
processed to produce certain outputs, which together accomplish the overall
goal desired by the organisation. There is ongoing feedback among these
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Unit 8 Staff Development and Organisational Context
various parts of the system to ensure that they remain aligned to accomplish
the overall goal of the organisation.
8.2.2 Characteristics of organisations

One can, however, cite two essential characteristics of organisations. Every
organisation must have a structure and a purpose. Sydney (2002) feels that
not only are there many different types of organisations, there is some suggestion
that cultural differences in countries can reflect different conceptions of what
actually is an organisation. However, despite these differences, there are at
least three common functions in any organisation: people, objectives and
structure. It is the interaction of people in order to achieve objectives which
form the basis of an organisation. Some form of structure is needed and,
Western (2010) feels that this is by which people’s interactions and efforts
are channelled and coordinated. Thus, we can add management as a fourth
factor. In any organisation some form of management is required by which the
activities of an organisation and the efforts of its members, are directed and
controlled towards the pursuit of the organisation’s objectives (See Figure
8.1).
Interactions and efforts

of people in order to
achieve the objectives
channelled and
coordinated through
structure directed and
controlled via
management
Figure 8.1: Common factors in organisations
While Sydney (2002) is of the opinion that organisations are characterised by

people, objectives, structure and management, we should realise that
organisations, as systems and processes that are aligned with achieving
organisational goals have major subsystems, such as departments, programmes,
divisions, teams, etc. Each of these subsystems has a way of doing things to,
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along with other sub-systems to achieve the overall goals of the organisation.
Often these systems and processes are defined by plans, policies and
procedures. Yerman (2008) believes that each organisation must have vision,
values, strategic goals, strategies and mission.
Vision: The members of an organisation have some image in their

minds about how the organisation should be working, how it should
appear when things are going well.
Mission: An organisation operates according to an overall purpose or
mission.
Values: All organisations operate according to overall values or
priorities in the nature of how they carry out their activities. These values
are the personality and culture of the organisation.
Strategic goals: Organisational members often have to work to achieve
several overall goals as they work towards their mission.
Strategies: Organisations usually follow several overall general
approaches to reach their goals.
8.2.3 Types of organisation

We should understand that there are many different types of organisations
which are set up to serve a number of different purposes and to meet a variety
of needs. Brooks (2008) states that organisations come in all forms, shapes
and sizes. Examples of organisations include firms of accountants, schools,
retail shops, local authorities, motor car manufacturers, hospitals, hotels, leisure
centres, Government departments, banks and pharmaceutical companies. The
structure, management and functioning of these organisations, according to
Thompson and McHugh (2007), will all vary because of differences in the
nature and type of organisation, their respective goals and objectives and the
behaviour of people who work in them.
We should bear in mind that organisation are traditionally distinguished in

terms of two generic groups:
private enterprises, and

public sector organisations.
The distinction, according to Daniels (2009), can be made on the basis of
ownership and finance, and the profit motive. Private enterprise organisations
are owned and financed by individuals; partners and shareholders in a joint
stock company and are accountable to their owners and members. We need
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to realise that private organisations vary widely in nature and size, and the
type and scope of goods and services provided. Ronald (2007) believes that
the main aim of a private organisation is of a commercial nature such as profit.
On the other hand public sector organisations are created by government and
include municipal undertakings such as local authorities owned by the council
tax payers and ratepayers and financed by the council taxes, rates, government
grants, loans and charges for certain services. Daniels (2009) defined central
government departments as ‘state owned’ and financed by funds gathered by
parliament. Public sector organisations have political purposes and do not
distribute profits. Any surplus of revenue over expenditure may be reallocated
to improve services. The main aim is a service to the well being of the
community.
Activity 8.1
1. Using practical examples, define the term organisation in your own
? words.
2. Identify and explain the four major characteristics of an organisation.
3. Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between a private
organisation and a public organisation.
8.3 Organisational Development in Perspective

Organisational development is a term which means a conception, organisation-
wide effort to increase an organisation’s effectiveness and viability. Brooks
(2008) feels that organisational development is a response to change, a
complex strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values and structures
of an organisation so that it can better adapt to new technologies, markets,
challenges and the dizzying rate of change itself. Organisation development is
thus neither ‘anything done to better an organisation’ nor ‘the training function
of the organisation’, but it is a particular kind of (change of process) designed
to bring about a particular kind of end result. Organisational development can
involve interventions in the organisation’s ‘processes’using behavioural science
knowledge, organisational reflection, system improvement, planning and self
analysis.
Thus, Carter (2004), feels that at the core of organisational development is

the programme of organisation, defined as two or more people working together
towards one or more shared goals. Organisational development is a long
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range effort to improve organisational problem solving and renewal process,

particularly through more effective and collaborative management of
organisational culture. Sydney (2002) outlines that this is achieved often with
the assistance of a change agent or catalyst and the use of the theory and
technology of applied behavioural sciences.
Organisational development, according to Western (2010), is thus, an ongoing,

systematic process to implement effective change in an organisation. It is a
field of both applied behavioural science focused on understanding and
managing organisational change and is a growing field that is responsive to
many new approaches including positive adult development.
8.3.1 Contractual relationships

Organisational development has always been about measurement and
identification of organisational factors, by management, that encourage an
organisation’s performance. Daniels (2009) thus believes that for this to be a
success, a contractual relationship has to be entered into. This is so because
neither the organisation nor the change agent can be sure at the outset of the
exact nature of the problem or problems to be dealt with or how long the
change agent’s help will be needed. Thus, Brooks (2008) states that some
tentative agreements on these matters be reached. The change agent must
assure himself that the organisations’ and particularly, the top executives’,
commitment to change is strong enough to support the kind of self-analysis
and personal involvement requisite to the success of the organisation.
8.3.2 Change agent

A change agent in the sense used in organisational development, is not a
technical expert skilled in such functional areas as accounting, production or
finance. Sydney (2002) and Carter (2004) both agree that the change agent
is a behavioural scientist who knows how to get people in an organisation
involved in solving their own problems. His/her main strength is a
comprehensive knowledge of human behaviour, supported by a number of
intervention techniques. A change agent is thus usually a staff person who has
expertise in the behavioural sciences and in the intervention technology of
organisational development. Sullivan (2010) believes that qualified change
agents can be found in some university faculties or they may be private
consultants associated with organisational development, theory and techniques.
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8.3.3 Sponsoring organisation

The initiative for organisational development programmes comes from an
organisation that has a problem. Mullins (2005) feels that the top management
or someone authorised by top management is aware that a problem exists
and has decided to seek help in solving it.
8.3.4 Applied behavioural science

One of the outstanding characteristics of organisational development that
distinguishes it from other programmes is that it is based on a ‘helping
relationship’. Mullis (2005), Brooks (2008) and Sydney (2002) are of the
opinion that using theory and methods drawn from such behavioural sciences
as industrial/organisational psychology, communication, administrative theory,
organisational behaviour and political sciences, the change agent’s main function
is to help an organisation to define and solve its own problems.
8.3.5 Organisational context

Organisational development deals with a total system – the organisation as a
whole, including its relevant environment – or with a subsystem or systems –
departments or work groups. Parts of systems, according to Western (2010),
for example, individuals, cliques, structures, norms, values and products are
not considered in isolation. Instead the principle of interdependency, affects
the other parts, is fully recognised. Thus, organisational development
interventions focus on the culture and cultural processes of the organisation.
The major objectives of organisational development are to improve the
organisation’s capacity to handle its internal and external functioning and
relationships.
Carter (2004) thus feels that this would include such things as improving
interpersonal and group processes, more effective communication, enhanced
ability to cope with organisational problems, more effective decision processes,
more appropriate leadership styles, improved skills in dealing with destructive
conflicts and higher level of trust and cooperation among organisational
members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic
view of the nature of man – that man in a supportive environment is capable of
achieving higher levels of organisational development and accomplishment.
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Activity 8.2
1. What do you understand by the term organisational development?
? 2. What are the five principles needed for effective organisational
development to occur?
3. Organisational development occurs in the total system. Discuss.
8.4 Staff Development as a Component of

Organisational Development.
8.4.1 What is staff development?
Staff development refers to skills and knowledge attained for both personal
development and career advancement. Western (2010) points out that staff
development encompasses all types of facilitated learning opportunities ranging
from formal to informal learning. There are a variety of approaches to staff
development including consultations, coaching, communities practice, lesson
study, mentoring, reflective supervision and technical assistance.
While trying to learn staff development, we should quickly understand that

we should make distinctions among training of staff, education of staff and
staff development. Leonard Nadler (2000) quoted by Doll (2007) states that
when we train a person, we think of the immediate job for which the person is
being prepared. When we educate a person, we think of the person, we think
of the important, challenging work the person should be able to do within his
or her organisation over a long period of time. Staff development opens the
individual to new jobs and performance patterns based on the possible future
directions of the organisation.
A wide variety of people, such as teachers, military officers, non-commissioned

officers, health care professionals, lawyers, accountants and engineers engage
in staff development. Brooks (2008) is of the view that individuals participate
in staff development because of an interest in lifelong learning, a sense of
moral obligation to maintain and improve professional competence, enhance
career progression, keep abreast of new technology and practice, or to comply
with professional regulatory organisations.
The issue of staff development has become an increasingly important aspect,

both for the individual in his/her own right and also in terms of the role of the
individual learning or working in an organisation. Western (2010) and Brooks
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(2008) both believe that organisations are restructuring into ‘flatter’

organisations with fewer levels between several managers and the staff
development, with decisions having to be made lower down the organisation.
Increased use of teamwork is required for individuals to learn (staff develop)
within an organisation.
Furthermore, as we move into the 21th Century, the increased complexity of

the nature of work has meant that there is an added need for people to be
able to adopt and to develop in an organisation. McHugh (2007) states that
there is a larger group of workers known as ‘knowledge workers’ whose
importance in the organisation lies as mush in their skills and ability to develop,
as in their adaptability to new technology.
8.4.2 Approaches used in staff development

In a broad sense, staff development may include formal types of vocational
education, typically post–secondary poly–technical training leading to
qualification or credential required to obtain or retain employment. Carter
(2004) also believes that staff development may also come in the form of pre-
service or in-service staff developments programmes. These programmes may
be formal, informal, group or individualised.
Individuals in an organisation may pursue staff development independently, or

programmes may be offered by the human resources department of an
organisation. Yerman (2008) also identified on the job staff development to
enhance skills which include leadership and task skills. Thus staff development
can range from a single workshop to a semester – long academic course to
services offered by a medley of different professional development providers.
These staff development courses, according to Mullins (2005), vary widely
with respect to the philosophy, content and format of the learning experience.
Activity 8.3
1. In your own words define the of staff development.
? 2. Explain what is meant by:
(a) Training of staff
(b) Education of staff
(c) Staff development
3. Analyse the different approaches used in staff development.
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8.4.3 Emerging staff development trends in organisational

development
The world is changing at an accelerating rate and along multiple dimensions.
Emerging trends and forces are challenging the content in which organisations
function and the requirements of their leaders to pursue correct staff
development techniques to fight these challenges. Ronald (2007) feels that
these challenges are placing considerable demands on employers and their
enterprises to develop and implement new staff development structures and
processes. There is an increasing need for new strategic roles for staff
development within organisations. Much of what has to be done involves
significant changes to traditional staff development practices in this area of
staff development. This new approach, according to Daniels (2009), is based
on a range of practices directed to improving the flexibility and skills of the
workplace within an environment which emphasizes communication,
cooperation and trust in the workplace. Ronald (2007) and Daniels (2009)
summarise these trends and forces and put them into these categories:
Business and economy

Science and technology
Government and politics
Education and training
The new environment
Culture and belief systems
Business and economy
The perceived pace of change in many aspects of business will continue to

increase and the pressure for profits will remain intense. Thus, Yerman (2008)
and Mullins (2005) both feel that because of the interdependence, there will
be need to create staff development activities to cater for a very fragile
workforce.
Science and technology
In today’s world, technology is evolving at a faster rate than at any other time
in history. Sullivan (2010) says that for example Intel, the world’s biggest
supplier of computer chips tries to double the speed of its chips every 18
months. Organisations constantly have to adapt to changes – changes in
technology as this is seen to be a force that is perceived to have the biggest
current and future impact on organisations in general and staff development in
particular.
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As opposed to the past, organisations can no longer depend on post staff

development techniques on what they do today, but as highlighted by Ronald
(2007) organisations are facing changes on many frontiers such as increased
science and technology, competition and more complex business models.
These emerging trends in organisational development challenge managers in
dealing with the uncertainty resulting because we cannot predict the future in
constantly changing organisations. This will call for new staff development
techniques because, as pointed by Sydney (2002), processes in an organisation
will be redesigned, new opportunities and strategies will emerge to meet the
demands of new technology.
Culture and belief systems
New and more efficient development strategies are necessary to move thinking
to new levels. Staff development issues, as pointed out by Sullivan (2010),
must build a capacity to think, make decisions and take action systematically
that is, see the big picture, build in effective feedback and recognise or anticipate
and adjust for unintended, delayed and counter intuitive long-term
consequences.
Staff development interventions need to include and value the priorities of all
organisational participants and support holistic, inclusive integration at the level
of core goals of people at all hierarchical levels.
More sophisticated staff development methods are needed that appreciate

work and leverage cultural differences. Ronald (2007) states that diversity,
conceptual frames and cultures need to assume more visible prominence in
staff development to reduce a tendency to operate from an ethnocentric model.
We need more advanced staff development interventions on mediating
relationships between groups and skills in managing diversity and conflict.
Because organisational culture needs to be understood as central to what
organisational development is about, staff development intervention proposals,
designs and strategies must explicitly integrate culture awareness and culture
work as a critical focus.
8.4.3.4. Government and politics

While employers will increasingly expect their organisations to participate and
provide services which would enhance the performance of their organisation,
Mullins (2005) feels that consequently, it is necessary to first identity the political
and socio-economic contexts in which employers will be operating. This
includes the political issues and Government policies which employees and
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employers are both likely to face and the directions in which staff development
methods should move the next century.
Education and training
The world today promises to herald a different environment for staff

development in all walks of life. McHugh (2002) feels that among the numerous
ingredients of the new trends, would be knowledge. Research, materials,
products on, and management of, staff are activities which will need new
knowledge and thus call for more challenges on how employees are staff
developed. Managers will be required to drive their organisations in the
challenging knowledge driven environment with all its implications.
The 21st Century has seen a significant growth in online staff development.
Mullins (2005) feels that content providers should incorporate collaborative
platforms such as discussion boards, thereby encouraging and facilitating
interaction and optimising effectiveness. In the education industry, for example,
the use of online sources of staff development represents a significant shift
which calls for a lifelong learning and staff development amongst employees
and employers.
The new environment
Companies are realising that it is not profitable or efficient to own all the
stages in their organisation. Thus, companies are forming new types of
relationships with other companies to obtain strategies of the value chain that
they do not own. Mullins (2002) and McHugh (2002) thus concur that a new
set of staff development ideas and competencies are needed to create
successful organisations because this new environment includes dealing with
ambiguities.
Activities 8.4
1. Identify and explain five factors that have led to new staff development
? 2.
trends.
Emerging staff development trends are a response to change. Justify
this statement.
3. What should employees and employers do to succeed in their
organisations in light of these emerging staff development trends?
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8.5 Summary
In this unit we looked at what organisations are and organisations have been
defined as social constructs created by groups in society to achieve specific
purposes. Organisational development was also discussed and this was defined
as a planned and systematic approach to enable sustainable organisational
performance. And finally, emerging staff development trends in all organisations
were also looked at. And we need to conclude that the changing world has
led to these forces thus challenging the content in which organisations exist
and how staff development activities should be done.
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References
Brooks, I. (2008). Organisational Behaviour: Individuals, Groups and
Organisations. New York: Prentice Hall.
Carter, L.L. (2004). Best Practices in leadership Development and
Organisation Change. New Delhi: Jossey Bass Publisher.
Daniels, D. (2009). Working Today and Tomorrow. New York: E.M.C
Publishers.
Doll, R.C. (2007). Supervision for Staff Development: Ideas and
Application. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
McHugh, D. (2007). World Organisations. New York: Palgrave.
Mullins, L.J. (2005). Management and Organisational Behaviour. New
York: Prentice Hall.
Ronald, S. (2007). Organisations. Cambridge University Press.
Sullivan, R. (2010). What Do you Mean by Organisational Development?
Boston: Krakawo Advision Publishers.
Sydney, E.S. (2002). Psychology and Work Today. New Delhi: Pearson
Publishers.
Western, S. (2010). Practising Organisation Development. London:
Routledge.
Yerman, R. (2008). Educational Administration. New Delhi: Armod
Publishers.
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9
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Unit Nine
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Evaluation of Staff Development

Programmes in Education
9.0 Introduction
S taff Development Programme Evaluation is a complex and yet critical

component of the staff development process. You probably have
attended staff development sessions or any other training programmes which
you vowed never to attend again due to some reason you shared with a
colleague or kept to yourself. What you did was unknowingly place value
judgment on the presenters or the entire programme endured. So, you
evaluated. This unit specifically deals with the concept of staff development
programme evaluation. Firstly we define the concept of staff development
programme evaluation, outline types of evaluation and finally we look at issues
and challenges in staff development programme evaluation.
9.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to;
define staff development programme evaluation
describe types of evaluation in staff development programmes
state the purposes of staff development programme evaluation
design a staff development programme evaluation instrument
9.2 Defining the concept of ‘Staff Development

Programme Evaluation’
By now, you should have a very clear picture of what a staff development
programme entails. Just to refresh your memory, Sax (1989-532) refers to a
programme as “those aspects of a curriculum that include the determination
of what is to be taught (objectives), how it is to be taught (teaching strategies)
and the materials (books, films, and so forth) that will be used”. A staff
development programme must also be viewed in the same manner as having
the same elements as stated in the assertion of Sax. In the context of staff
development, this might remain meaningless unless we look at the term
evaluation.
Evaluation is a process through which a value judgment or decision is made

from a variety of observations and from the background and training of the
evaluator (Sax, 1989-24). Staff development programme evaluation concerns
placing value on all the activities participants must endure in pursuit of a defined
set of objectives. Typical evaluation approaches include measuring one or
more relevant criteria (for example, attitudes or performance) before and
after staff development session/s to determine whether the criterion has changed.
Staff development programme evaluation should help you to determine the
extent to which your teaching methods and materials are effectively meeting
the objectives and those of the organisation you work for. It concerns the
judgments of value, worth or merit (Scriven, 1974: 4) and must therefore be
an inherent aspect of educational change and improvement.
In light of the above, we can now define staff development programme

evaluation as a process that involves collection of information which must be
analysed and synthesized to enable value judgment to be placed on the
programme. Programme evaluation is undertaken for a variety of reasons
Chehinsky, 1978, for example, for management and administrative purposes,
to assess appropriateness of programme changes, to identify ways to improve
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Unit 9 Evaluation of Staff Development Programmes in Education
the delivery interventions or to meet the accountability requirements of funding

groups.
9.3 Three Paradigms in Programme Evaluation

The three paradigms in programme evaluation include positivist, interpretive
and critical emancipator approaches. Potter (2006: 16) identifies and describes
three broad paradigms within programme evaluation
9.3.1 Positivist
The first and probably most common programme evaluation approach is the
positivist approach, in which evaluation can occur where there are “objective”,
observable and measurable aspects of a programme requiring predominantly
quantitative evidence. The positivist approach includes evaluation dimensions
such as needs assessment, assessment of programme theory assessment of
programme process, impact assessment and efficiency assessment (Rossi,
Lipsey and Freeman, 2004:17).
9.3.2 Interpretive
The second paradigm by Potter (2006) is that of interpretive approaches,
where it is argued that it is essential that the evaluator develops an understanding
of the perspective, experiences and expectations of all stakeholders. This
would lead to a better understanding of the various meanings and needs held
by stakeholders, which is crucial before one is able to make judgments about
the merit or value of a programme. The evaluator’s contact with the programme
is often over an extended period of time and, although there is no standardised
method, observation, interviews and focus groups are commonly used.
9.3.3 Critical - Emancipatory

Potter (2006) also identifies critical-emancipatory approaches to programme
evaluation, which are largely based on action research for the purposes of
social transformation. This type of approach is much more ideological and
often includes a greater degree of social activism on the part of the evaluator.
This approach would be appropriate for qualitative and participative
evaluations. Because of its critical focus on societal power structures and its
emphasis on participation and empowerment, Potter argues this type of
evaluation can be useful in developing countries.
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Despite the paradigm which is used in any programme evaluation, whether it

be positivist, interpretive or critical–emancipatory, it is essential to acknowledge
that evaluation takes place in specific socio-political contexts. Evaluation
does not exist in a vacuum and all evaluations, whether they are aware of it or
not are influenced by socio-political factors. It is important to recognise the
evaluations and the findings which result from this kind of evaluation process
can be used in favour of against particular ideological, social and political
agendas (Weiss, 1999:20). This is especially true when resources are limited
and there is competition between organisations for certain projects to be
prioritised over others (Louw, 1999:21).
9.4 Issues and Challenges in the Evaluation of Staff

Development Programmes
9.4.1 Purposes of evaluation
The most important stumbling block to effective evaluation is confusion about
the uses of an evaluation.
Bishop (1976) outlines five purposes of programme evaluation. These are to:
ascertain the gain, not only in selected segments, but also in regard to
balance between special efforts and the total ongoing programme;
provide diagnostic and interim data for feedback, reporting, programme
modification and decision making;
continuously assess strengths and weaknesses of leadership as well as
the performance of those for whom the objectives and programmes
have been designed;
assist in the development or growth in evaluative skills and in the
production of appropriate instruments at all levels; and
Acknowledge evaluation as an expected professional obligation.
Bishop’s purposes of evaluation are best suited for criterion-based evaluation,
but not summative evaluation. The evaluator should be clear right from the
outset why he/she is interested in an evaluation. Decisions on purposes have
a bearing on the nature and process of evaluation.
You will find that you have to carry out an evaluation of staff development
programme or any other programme for various reasons in addition to those
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we have already discussed. Consider the following purposes of conducting

an evaluation:
to convince the funding source that the money is well spent;

to show that the needs of the programmes are being met;
to indicate whether a particular resource person was effective;
to lead the development to other follow up activities;
to demonstrate that participants have acquired information, gained a
skill or perfected a skill, an attitude change, or benefited from
participation: and
to provide evidence that pupil achievement has increased.
Educational programme evaluation is to some extent a political and social
entity, (Weiss, 1975, 13-26). Parents, teachers, students, and various governing
bodies exert political pressure to establish, continue, and terminate programmes
(Sax, 1989-566). Programmes that are seen as being too expensive, inefficient,
ineffective, or undesirable provide motivation for their change, improvement,
or termination. For this reason programme evaluation is therefore also a legal
issue.
9.4.2 Criteria of evaluation

The criteria by which training programmes are evaluated should be determined
by the training objectives. Most training programmes attempt to accomplish
several objectives such as changing behaviour, providing new information and
making the organisation more effective. Consequently, most evaluations should
use multiple criteria. Catalanello and Kirkpatrick (1968) propose four criteria
for evaluating training programmes. These are reactions, learning, behaviour
and results.
Reactions: We want to find out how well the participants have liked the
programme. Since the participants are the consumers of the service, their
perceptions are an important and accurate indication of quality. These reactions
are usually obtained when participants complete a simple questionnaire at the
end of the workshop or a training programme. Perceptions are generally hard
to quantify. It is, however, necessary to put numbers on perceptions. When
you have asked anybody for their perceptions, there are several things that
you can do to evaluate the data. You may classify the comments into interest
categories. Participants readily give their perceptions. Are you aware that all
people are talented as critics?
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Learning: to what extent did the participants learn and retain the information
presented in the staff development programme? How well participants grasp
specific information should be evaluated just as pupils and students’ acquisition
of knowledge and skills. The traditional methods of evaluation, true-false items,
multiple choice questions, essays, etc., may be used to establish the amount
of learning.
Many trainers are apprehensive about giving an examination to colleagues.

There is, however, no other way of assessing whether learning has taken
place. Where participants are aware that they will be tested, their attention
and level of participation appreciably increases. How can you ensure your
findings are credible? Using more than one source of information and more
than one data collection method and being systematic and careful in your
evaluation will help to ensure that your findings are credible. It is important to
keep a record of what you do so that others can see how you arrived at your
conclusion.
What are the ground rules? In carrying out your evaluation, you will need
a strategy for obtaining clearance, maintaining confidentiality and for finding
out who has access to information. You will need to decide on what basis you
are operating and to make this clear to those whom you approach.
Behaviour: to what extent did the behaviour of the participants change as a

result of the staff development programme? Change in behaviour can be
confidently assessed by two major methods. Participants may be given a self-
report questionnaire where they assess their own changes in behaviour.
Observations are yet another method of evaluating objectively any changes in
behaviour. Behaviour is a legitimate area of focus in any evaluation of a staff
development programme. Staff development will in one way or another reflect
in the staff’s overt, as well as covert, behaviour.
Results: What final results were achieved from the staff development
programme? Does this result in more collegiality, reduced costs, improved
productivity, more students learning, etc? Staff development programmes are
important because they determine the performance of an organisation. We
then want to find out whether the organisation actually performs more effectively
or efficiently as a result of the training effort or other factors. The cost-benefit
analysis in education is rarely considered, but it is of great importance. The
cost of analysis formula is as follows: cost of performance deficiency minus
cost of improvement programme.
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9.4.3 Validation
Apart from the criteria of evaluation discussed above, questions of validation
may arise. Here we determine the aspects of the cause to be evaluated. Rae
(1986) identifies several aspects of a staff development programme which
may be evaluated. These are:
Content of training: is it relevant and in step with the training needs?

Is it up to date?
Method of training: were the methods used the most appropriate
ones for the subject and the learning styles of the participants?
Amount of learning: What was the material of the course? Was it
new to the learner or merely the mixture as before? Was it useful although
not new to the learner, confirmatory or revision material?
Trainer skill: Did the trainer have the necessary attitude and skill to
present the material in a way which encouraged learning?
Length and pace of the training: Given the material essential to
learning, was the learning event of the appropriate length and pace?
Were some aspects laboured and others skipped?
Objectives: Did the training satisfy its declared objectives? Was the
learner given any opportunity to satisfy any personal objectives? Was
this need welcomed? Were personal objectives actually satisfied?
Omissions: Were any essential aspects omitted from the learning event?
Was any unessential material included?
Learning transfer: How much of the learning is likely to be put into
action on return to work? If it is to be a limited amount only or none,
why is this so? What factors deter or assist the transfer of the learning?
Accommodation: If course accommodation is within the control of
the trainer, or is relevant to the type of training event, he may wish to
ask whether the hotel/conference centre or training centre is suitable.
Was accommodation acceptable? Were the meals satisfactory?
Relevance: The final question in a validation assessment may be
concerned with the relevance of the entire training approach. Was this
course/seminar/conference/ workshop/tutorial project, etc., the most
appropriate means of presenting a learning opportunity?
Application of learning: Which aspects of your work include elements
which are a direct result of the learning event? Which new aspects of
work have you introduced as a result of your learning? Which aspects
of your previous work have been modified or replaced as a result?
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Which aspects of your learning have you not applied? Why not?
Efficiency: How efficient and/or effective are you in your work as a
result of the training? Why/why not?
Relevant questions designed to answer these several aspects of the programme
go a long way in ensuring that valid and reliable judgments are made. New
professional evaluators are equally assured of coming up with acceptable
evaluative judgments.
Cole (1993) is of the opinion that evaluation of training is part of the control
process of training. According to Cole (1993-321), “Evaluation methods aim
to obtain feedback about the results or outputs of training, and to use this
feedback to assess the value of training, with a view to improving, where
necessary. Training evaluation is firstly concerned with setting appropriate
standards of training, as in policy objectives, adherence to external standards,
and standards of the trainer, e.g. training and qualifications. The more precise
the standards set, the easier it is to evaluate the success of the programme.
Humblin (1970) is of the view that evaluation can take place at a number of
different levels, ranging from immediate to long-term results. Each level requires
a different evaluation strategy, see Figure 9.1
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Results of training Evaluation strategy
Training …………………………………….Training centred.
Reactions …………………………………….Reactions centred.
Learning ……………………………………Learning centred.
Change in job behaviour…………………… .Job related
Changes in the organisation ………………Organisation development.
Impact on organisational goals…………… Cost-benefit.
Figure 9.1: Evaluation Strategies
9.5 Training and Evaluation Based on Hamblin’s

Ideas
The following were adopted from (Cole, 1993-321):
Training centred evaluation assesses the inputs to training; whether they

are the right tools for the training.
Reaction centred evaluation seeks to obtain and assess reactions of trainees

to the learning experience they were put through.
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Learning centred evaluation measures the degree to which learning has

been achieved. This is achievable through testing of participants.
Job-related evaluation aims at assessing the degree of behaviour change

which occurred on the job after training.
Impact centred evaluation focuses on organisational goals. What has training

done for profitability or company image?
Warr, Bird and Rackham propose four major dimensions and information to
be sought to enable evaluation to become an on going process:
1. Context evaluation – information required is about training needs

and objectives.
2. Input evaluation – information required is about training resources
(staff; training aids, and so forth).
3. Reaction evaluation – information required is about trainee’s reactions
to training.
4. Outcome evaluation – information required is about immediate,
intermediate and ultimate results of training.
Training validation occurs by measuring the percentage of trainees who behave
positively after training, which influences continuance or alteration of the training
strategies.
9.6 Differentiating the Purposes of Staff

Development Programmes
There are three major categories of staff development clientele which need to
be considered: curriculum implementation; instructional improvement;
professional development and school and organisational development.
Most staff development programmes serve more than one of these purposes.
Curriculum implementation: the focus in this category is on issues of new

curricula content. How well is the new content being used, integrated with old
content or matters of interpretation of new policy guidelines.
Instructional improvement: Activities in this category focus on matters that

impact on school pass rates. What is needed to make the school perform
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better in all school activities? What are the teachers lacking in order to deliver
the required results? What standards have we set for ourselves compared to
national requirements? What needs to be done to increase teacher
commitment? Activities tend to focus on the individual’s specific role or function
within the school system. Programme objectives include among other things,
improvement in instructional techniques, and development of management
skills or expansion of an individual’s knowledge base.
School improvements: The third and most complex category of staff

development includes programmes and activities which are explicitly related
to school improvement. The focus is to improve on organisational or system
development or change. Staff should work as a team to achieve predetermined
goals. Evaluation can be medium term or long term goals. The resulting data
may indicate the usefulness of any staff development programme.
A delineation of the purpose of staff development programmes along the above

lines provides an appropriate structure for clarifying the evaluation process.
9.7 Methodological Constraints and Challenges

9.7.1 The shoestring approach
The ‘shoestring approach’ is designed to assist evaluators operating under
limited budget, limited access and availability of data and limited turnaround
time, to conduct effective evaluations that are methodologically rigorous
(Bamberger, Rugh and Fort, 2004:10). This approach has responded to the
continued greater need for evaluation processes that are more rapid and
economical under difficult circumstances of budget, time constraints and limited
availability of data. However, it is not always possible to design an evaluation
to achieve the highest standards available. Many programmes do not build
an evaluation procedure into their design or budget. Hence, many evaluation
processes do not begin until the programme is already underway, which can
result in time, budget or data constraints for the evaluators, which in turn can
affect reliability, validity or sensitivity of the evaluation. The shoestring approach
helps to ensure that the maximum possible methodological rigour is achieved
under these constraints.
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9.7.2 Budget constraints

Frequently, programmes are faced with budget constraints because most
original projects do not include a budget to conduct an evaluation (Bamberger
et al., 2004). Therefore, this automatically results in evaluations being allocated
smaller budgets that are inadequate for rigorous evaluation. Due to the budget
constraints, it might be difficult to effectively apply the most appropriate
methodological instruments. These constraints may consequently affect the
time available in which to do the evaluation. Bamberger et al. (2004:10)
propose that budget constraints may be addressed by simplifying the evaluation
design, revising the sample size, exploring economical data collection methods
(such as using volunteers to collect data, shortening surveys, or using focus
groups and key informants) or looking for reliable secondary data.
9.7.3 Time constraints

The most time constraint that can be faced by an evaluator is when the evaluator
is summoned to conduct an evaluation when a project is already underway if
they are given limited time to do the evaluation compared to the life of study,
or they are not given enough time for adequate planning. Time constraints are
particularly problematic when the evaluator is not familiar with the area or
country in which the programme is situated (Bamberger et al., 2004:10).
Time constraints can be addressed by the methods listed under budget
constraints as above, and also by careful planning to ensure effective data
collection and analysis within the limited space.
9.7.4 Data constraints

If the evaluation is initiated late in the programme, there may be no baseline
data on the conditions of the target group before the intervention began
(Bamberger et al., 2004:10). Another possible cause of data constraints is if
the data have been collected by programme staff and contain systematic
reporting biases or poor record keeping standards and is subsequently of
little use (Bamberger et al. (2004: 10). Another source of data constraints
may result if the targets are difficult to reach to collect data from – for example,
homeless people, drug addicts, migrant workers, et cetera. Data constraints
can be addressed by reconstructing baseline data from secondary data or
through the use of multiple methods. Multiple methods, such as the combination
of qualitative and quantitative data can increase validity through triangulation
and save time and money. Additionally, these constraints may be dealt with
through careful planning and consultation with programme stakeholders. By
clearly identifying and understanding client needs ahead of the evaluation,
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costs and time of the evaluative process can be streamlined and reduced,
while still maintaining credibility.
All in all, time, monetary and data constraints can have negative implications
on the validity, reliability and transferability of the evaluation. The shoestring
approach has been created to assist evaluators to correct the limitations
identified above by identifying ways to reduce costs and time, reconstruct
baseline data and to ensure maximum quality under existing constraints
(Bamberger et al., 2004:10).
9.8 Pitfalls in Evaluation

Pitfalls are an inevitable circumstance in any evaluation process. Sax (1989)
and Aspinwall et al. (1992) identify what can happen when evaluation is not
planned or managed properly. The pitfalls may include:
Fragmented evaluation or pockets of enquiry about which little or nothing

is known in the wider institution.
Inappropriate evaluation often set up in a hurry in response to a request
from senior management for evidence of some kind.
Mis-timed evaluation, which occurs too early in the process for there
to be any chance of positive findings or too late to fulfill a formative
function.
Unanticipated outcomes of evaluation where, for example findings
indicate that changes are required in the wider system and not just the
area under review. It is comparatively rare for such findings to be acted
upon.
Evaluation which seems to grow experimentally, where the task gets
out of hand through the collection of unmanageable amounts of data or
the pursuit of an issue in more depth.
Evaluation overload, where staff feels bombarded with questionnaires
or other instruments which may be uncoordinated to the point of having
different people asking the same questions.
Irrelevant evaluation imposed by insensitive outsiders (or insiders) where
this is seen to be over-demanding and pursuing interests that are
perceived as contrary to those of the school or college.
Threatening evaluation, where the activity is imposed and suspected to
be part of an internal or external need for control.
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Unfocussed evaluation where, in the rush to know something about a

particular area, we neglect to establish more precisely the nature of the
information we require.
9.9 Avoiding Common Pitfalls in Programme

Evaluation
Sax (1989) is of the opinion that evaluations can be time consuming and
sometimes costly in nature and thus warns against attempting to evaluate
unimportant programmes or materials. Evaluators, according to Sax (1989),
ought to consider their own backgrounds and training before they are entangled
in evaluations they may not be able to interpret. Among Sax’s hints are to
avoid:
Evaluating unimportant programmes. Not all programmes are of equal

importance or require an evaluation.
Disregarding available information: evaluations should not be repeated
unnecessarily; instead a good review of the data collected and
consultations with knowledgeable persons saves time and money.
Failing to describe the treatment variables explicitly: a treatment variable
is that condition imposed on a student that is designed to bring out the
expected result.
Failing to describe the dependent variable explicitly. The dependent
variable is a measure of student’s response to the treatment or
independent variable.
Disregarding the importance of timing. Evaluation timing depends on
purpose of the exercise. If it is formative evaluation, it will be necessary
to monitor progress throughout the session.
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9.10 Summary
A lot of things can be said about evaluation of staff development programmes.
Exhausting such a topic is rather problematic. This unit presented evaluation
as mandatory for any staff development programme. Political realities and
social demands for accountability have been given as justification for the
evaluation of all serious staff development programmes. Evaluation has been
portrayed as concerning values, costs, effectiveness, and efficiency. The
purpose of programme evaluation remains to make most effective decisions
regarding the continuance, modification or some elimination of useless
procedures.
Evaluation of programmes cannot be haphazardly done. Certain procedures

must be followed for credible results to be obtained. Staff development
evaluation is systematic and there are models to be followed. Several pitfalls
have been raised which can render any efforts to evaluate staff development
programmes useless.
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References
Aspinwall, K. et al (1992). Managing Evaluation in Education, London:
Routledge
Bamberger, M. et al, (2004). Shoestring Evaluation: Designing impact
evaluations under budget, time and data constrains. American Journal
of Evaluation, 25,5-37.
Bishop, L.G. (1976). Staff Development and Institutional Procedures,
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Catalanello, R.C. and Kirkpatrick, D.L.(1968). “Evaluating Training
Programmes; The state of Art,” Training and Development Journal,
22 May, (1968) pp2-9.
Cole, G.A. (1993). Management Theory and Practice, 4th Edition, London:
DP Publications.
Hamblin, A.C. (1970). Evaluation and Control of Training, McGraw-Hill.
Louw, J. (1999). Improving practice through evaluation. In D. Donald, A.
Dawes & J. Louw (Eds.), Addressing childhood adversity (pp. 60-
73). Cape Town: David Philip.
Potter, C. (2006). Programme Evaluation. In M. Terre Blanche, K. Durrheim
and D. Painter (Eds), Research in practice: Applied methods for
the social sciences (2nd ed.) (pp. 410-428). Cape Town: UCT Press.
Rossi, P., Lipsey, M.W. and Freeman, H.E. (2004). Evaluation: A Systematic
Approach (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Sax, G. (1989). Principles of Education and Psychological Measurement
and Evaluation, 3rd Ed. California Wards-worth Publishing Company.
Suriven, M. (1974). “Prose and Cons about Goal-Free Evaluation” in
Evaluation in Education Current Application, Berkeley McCutchan.
Weiss, C.H. (1999). Research-policy linkages: How much influence does
social science research have? World Social Science Report, pp. 194-
205.
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Bachelor of Education in

Staff Development Theories

Module BEDM 107

Content Reviewer: Barnabas Muyengwa

Editor: Clemence Matembo

P.O. Box MP1119

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

Year: March 2013

Cover design: T. Ndlovu

Printed By: ZOU Press, Harare

ISBN No.: 978-1-77938-684-7

Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

As a progressive university that is forward looking

Having worked as best we can to prepare your

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

Session I (Two Hours)

Session II (Two Hours)

Session III (Two Hours)

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

Unit One: Conceptualising Staff Development in Education

1.0 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 5

Unit Two: Staff Development Needs and Analysis

Unit Three: Staff Development Models in Education

3.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 35

Unit Four: Staff Development Delivery Techniques

4.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 59

Unit Five: Staff Development Planning and Policy in Education

5.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 71

Unit Six: Management of Educational Staff Developemnt

6.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 93

7.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 107

Unit Eight: Staff Development and Organisational Context

8.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 119

9.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 133

W elcome to one of your important modules in Educational Management

Broadly, the course aims at:

 Exposing you to the fundamental theories and principles of staff

Unit 1 concerns the ‘Conceptualisation of Staff Development in Education’.

Unit 3 is on ‘Staff Development Models in Education’. Staff development

Unit 4 is on ‘Staff Development Delivery Techniques’. It begins by defining

Unit 5 is on ‘Staff Development Planning and Policy in Education’. In the unit

Unit 6 is on ‘Management of Educational Staff Development Programmes’.

Unit 7 is on ‘Staff Development Programmes Management Systems’. The

Unit 8 is on ‘Staff Development and Organisational Context’ and we begin by

Unit 9 is on ‘Evaluation of Staff Development Programmes in Education’.

F or organisations to be effective and grow, they need to be manned by

1.2 Defining the Concept of “Staff Development”

Brooks (2008) contends that individuals participate in staff development

Staff development therefore, refers to the processes, programmes and activities

Furthermore, as we move into the 21st Century, the increase in complexity of

Staff development is synonymous with personal development. In that context,

coach or mentor. As personal development takes place in the context of

Beyond improving oneself and developing others, personal development is a

Any form of development, be it economic, political, biological, organisational

occurred. In the case of staff development or personal development, an

Williams (1981) is of the view that staff development, particularly in schools,

To summarise, staff development is directed at the:

 maintenance of educational competence;

1.3 Importance of Staff Development

The findings indicated nearly unanimous dissatisfaction with current efforts,

 programmes conducted in school settings and linked to ‘school-wide’

Employee education and professional development belongs among the key

1.3.1 Develop future business owners

1.0 _ Introduction ______________________________________________ 5

3.0 _ Introduction _____________________________________________ 35

4.0 _ Introduction _____________________________________________ 59

5.0 _ Introduction _____________________________________________ 71

6.0 _ Introduction _____________________________________________ 93

7.0 _ Introduction ____________________________________________ 107

8.0 _ Introduction ____________________________________________ 119

9.0 _ Introduction ____________________________________________ 133

Exposing you to the fundamental theories and principles of staff

maintenance of educational competence;

programmes conducted in school settings and linked to ‘school-wide’

maintain appropriate staff expertise and experience for current and

The Individually-Guided Staff Development,

individuals can best judge their own learning needs;

the identification of a need or interest;