Unit 3: Converter and

Inverter
T. Mukhopadhyay
 AC to DC Converter
• Single phase fully controlled half wave converter with R load.
 It is a rectifier circuit which converts AC input into DC output
only for positive half cycle of the AC input supply.
 The word “controlled” means that, we can change the
starting point of load current by controlling the firing angle of
SCR.
 During the positive half cycle of the AC supply SCR is in
forward bias but do not conduct current until triggering. After
triggering SCR starts.
 During negative half cycle the SCR is in reverse bias and no
current flows through load. Since the load is resistive so load
current and load voltage are in phase.
 Average output voltage=(Vm/2π) ∗ (1 + cos α), where Vm=
peak value of input voltage, α= firing angle of SCR.
𝑉𝑚 1
 RMS output voltage=( )* π − α + ( ) sin 2α.
2 π 2
 Load current=Load voltage/R.
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 1 1
 IPF = = 2π ∗ π−α + ∗ sin 2α .
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 2
 Circuit turnoff time=π/Ѡ.
 Single phase fully controlled half wave converter with RL load.

• During positive half cycle the SCR conducts current

when it is triggered.
• During negative half cycle though a reverse voltage
appears across device SCR still conducts for some
time due to the presence of inductance in the load.
Inductance oppose the sudden change in current
and it releases energy through SCR during negative
input cycle.
• So SCR conducts beyond Ѡt=π.
• Let assume SCR turn off at Ѡt=β (> π)
• Average output voltage=(𝑉𝑚 /2π)*(cos α − cos β),
where α= firing angle of SCR.
1
• 𝑉0 (𝑟𝑚𝑠)=(𝑉𝑚ൗ2 π )* β−α + ∗ (sin 2α − sin 2β) .
2

• Circuit turn off time=(2π-β)/Ѡ.

 Single phase fully controlled full wave converter
• with R load:
• Here four no of SCR are connected in a bridge configuration to
convert the AC input into DC. Here two SCR (diagonally
opposite) conducts at a time. In this case output voltage can be
controlled in full cycle (positive & negative) of input AC supply.
So it is called as full controlled rectifier.
• Here two diagonally opposite thyristors (T1 & T2) which are in
forward bias during positive half are triggered at Ѡt=α. And
other two thyristors (T3 & T4) are triggered at
Ѡt=π+α(negative half).
𝑉
• Average output voltage= π𝑚 (1 + cos α).

1 sin 2α
• 𝑉0 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚 π−α +
2π 2

• PIV of each thyristor=𝑉𝑚 .

• Circuit turn off time=π/Ѡ.
π−α
• Average thyristor current=𝐼0 ∗ .
2π
(π−α)
• RMS thyristor current=𝐼0 ∗
2π

• It is one quadrant converter. It operates in first quadrant

because the voltage polarity can not be negative in this case
and current can not be negative due to the unidirectional SCR.
 Single phase fully controlled full wave
converter with RL load
• Here load is inductive so sudden change in current is
opposed by the inductor. So each pair of thyristor
conducts for 180 degree.
2𝑉𝑚
• 𝑉0 𝐴𝑣𝑔. = cos α. where α= firing angle of SCR.
π
𝑉
• 𝑉0 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑚=RMS value of supply voltage.
2
π
• Form factor=𝑉0 𝑟𝑚𝑠 /𝑉0 𝐴𝑣𝑔. = .
2 2∗cos α
2 2
• IPF= cos α.
π
• Average thyristor current=𝐼0 /2. where 𝐼0 =DC output
current.
• RMS thyristor current=𝐼0 / 2.
2 2 𝑃
• Transformer utilization factor= cos α.= 𝐷𝐶
π 𝑉𝑠 ∗𝐼𝑠
• It is two quadrant converter. The polarity of the output
voltage can be reversed when α>900 but the direction of
current can not be reversed because SCR is unidirectional
device.
 Three phase fully controlled bridge converter
with R load
• Here six thyristors are used to convert
three phase AC to DC. At a time two
thyristor are turned on. One from the
positive group and one from the negative
group. SCR from both group are triggered
at an interval of 60 degree.
• When α<60.
3𝑉
𝑉0 𝐴𝑣𝑔. = π𝑚𝑙 cos α.
3 π 3
𝑉0 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉 ∗ + cos 2α
2π 𝑚𝑙 3 2
𝐼𝑇(𝑎𝑣𝑔.) = 𝐼0 /3 , 𝐼𝑇(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝐼0 / 3.
• When α>60
3𝑉 π
𝑉0 𝐴𝑣𝑔. = 𝑚𝑙 1 + cos(α + )
π 3
 Three phase fully controlled bridge converter
with RL load
• In this case each thyristor conducts for
120 degree. At a time two thyristor is
triggered one from positive group and
other from negative group. Each pair of
thyristor conducts for 60 degree.
• Average output voltage 𝑉0 𝐴𝑣𝑔. = 3𝑉π𝑚𝑙 cos α.
• 𝑉0 𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
3
2π
𝑉𝑚𝑙 ∗
π
3
+
3
2
cos 2α

• 𝐼𝑇(𝑎𝑣𝑔.) = 𝐼0 /3 , 𝐼𝑇(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝐼0 / 3.
3
• IPF=π cos α .
2
• rms value of source current=𝐼0 ∗ .
3
• PIV=𝑉𝑚𝑙 .
 Inverter
• An inverter is a power electronics device which used to
convert DC voltage into AC voltage.
• According to the Source of Inverter it can be classified as:
1. Current source inverter, 2. Voltage source inverter.
• According to the Type of Load inverter can be classified
as :
1. Single phase inverter which can be further classified as
half bridge and full bridge inverter.
2. Three phase inverter which can also be classified as
120 degree mode & 180 degree mode inverter.
• According to the connection of commutating component
inverter can be classified as :
1. Series inverter , 2. Parallel inverter.
• According to the type of commutation the inverter can be
classified as :
1. line commutated inverter, 2. forced commutated
inverter.
• According to PWM technic used in inverter
1. SPWM inverter, 2. MPWM inverter, 3. Sinusoidal PWM
inverter, 4. MSPWM inverter.
• Line commutated inverter: This type of inverter is basically
AC to DC rectifier but power flows from DC to AC. This is
possible only when firing angle of the SCR is more than 90
degree. In this case the polarity of output voltage is negative
and direction of current is positive since the SCR is
unidirectional. Since the source of this inverter is supplied
with AC then natural or line commutation is possible because
natural zero crossing of current is possible. Solar inverter is
an example of line commutated inverter.
• Forced commutated inverter: In this type of inverter the
supply is DC and it is converted into AC. Since the input is DC
then commutating elements (L,C) are required to turn off the
SCR. Best example of forced commutated inverter is modified
mcmurray half bridge or full bridge inverter. This type of
inverter uses current commutation.
 Modified mcmurray half bridge inverter
• Here capacitor is precharged with proper
polarity i.e. right plate is positive.
• S1 is ON. At the same time forward bias
voltage appears across S1A but it does not
conduct until it is triggered.
• S1A is triggered so it starts conducting and
form the LC oscillating circuit. The current in
𝐶
through capacitor is 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ sin(Ѡ0 𝑡). =
𝑖𝑐𝑝 sin(𝑡 Ѡ0 ).
• Say current through S1 is 𝑖𝑆1 and load current
𝑖0 so, applying KCL at point y then 𝑖𝑆1 = 𝑖0 -𝑖𝑐 .
• When the 𝑖𝑐 is equal to 𝑖0 then 𝑖𝑆1 is zero and
voltage across S1 is also reverse
𝑖0
bias so S1 is
−1
turned off at 𝑡1 = sin ( ).
𝑖𝑐𝑝
• S1 keeps in reverse bias until D1 conducts.
1 𝑖0
• Circuit turn off time= (π − 2 sin−1 ( )).
Ѡ0 𝑖𝑐𝑝
 Series inverter
• A series inverter is a type of inverter in
which the commutating components
are connected in series with the load.
A series inverter employs class-A
commutation or resonant
commutation.
• Here L,C are the commutating
elements which are connected in
series with load 𝑅𝐿 . T1 and T2 are two
thyristors that conduct for positive
and negative half-cycles of load
current. In a series inverter, values of
the inductor (L) and capacitor (C) are
chosen in such a way that the series
RLC circuit should be underdamped.
 Working of series inverter
• Mode I : Mode I starts when thyristor T1 is triggered at instant t = t0 by
applying gate pulses to it. As T1 is triggered, it starts conducting and the load
current flows through the path Vdc+ → T1 → L → C → R → Vdc– . once T1 is
triggered capacitor starts charging to positive voltage with upper plate
positive and lower plate negative. As the current increases and reaches its
positive maximum value, the voltage across the capacitor becomes equal to
supply voltage Vdc. the current starts decreasing after reaching its positive
maximum value but the voltage across the capacitor does not decrease. At t
= t2, thyristor T1 is turned OFF when the current reaches zero but the
capacitor holds the voltage (VC + Vdc) in it.

• Mode II : Hence, in this mode, both the thyristors T1 and T2 are in OFF-state
and the capacitor voltage is maintained at a constant value of (VC + Vdc), and
the load current IL remains zero in this mode.

• Mode III : In this mode of operation, thyristor T2 is triggered at instant

t3 since the positive polarity of the capacitor appears across the anode of
T2 and it starts conducting. As thyristor T2 conducts, the load current starts
flowing in the negative direction through the path C+ → L → T2 → R → C– .
Now, the capacitor starts discharging and the load current IL flows in the
reverse direction and reaches its negative maximum value. Then, load
current starts decreasing and becomes zero at t3, T2 gets turned OFF at t3.
 Parallel inverter
• In parallel inverters, the commutating components
are connected in parallel with the load. Parallel
inverters are well suited for low-frequency
applications up to 100kHz. This type of inverter
uses load commutation or self-commutation in
which a capacitor is connected across the load so
that the overall load circuit is underdamped. This
inverter produces square wave output voltage
from a dc power input.
• The circuit consists of two thyristors (T1 and T2), a
center-tapped transformer, a commutating
capacitor (C), and an inductor (L). The load is
connected to the secondary of the transformer.
The dc power input is given between center tap
primary and common cathode through thyristors.
The capacitor appears to be in parallel with the
load through the transformer due to which the
inductor is connected in series with the dc source.
Hence, during the commutation of the thyristor,
the instant discharging of the capacitor through
the source is prevented.
 Working of parallel inverter
• Mode-I : In this mode, thyristor T1 is triggered by giving a gate signal, and the load current

starts flowing through inductor L, thyristor T1 and upper half of the primary winding of

transformer. So, voltage Vdc is appeared across the upper half of primary winding. It induces

voltage in the lower half of the primary winding. A total voltage equal to 2Vdc appears across

the primary winding of the transformer. Due to this, the capacitor also charges to a voltage

equal to 2Vdc with lower plate positive. This mode ends when the thyristor T2 is triggered.

• Mode-II : once the thyristor T2 is triggered, T1 is reversed biased with respect to the voltage

across the capacitor C, i.e., a voltage equal to -2Vdc appears across thyristor T1. So, T1 gets

commutated when this reverse voltage is applied for a sufficient time. Now, thyristor T2 alone

will be in conduction and the load current flows through inductor L, thyristor T2 and lower

half of primary winding. During this, a voltage equal to 2Vdc appears across the primary of the

transformer and across the capacitor with upper plate positive.

• Mode-III : This mode begins when the thyristor T1 is triggered again. Now, due to the

conduction of T1, the thyristor T2 is reversed biased with respect to the voltage of the

commutating capacitor. When this voltage is applied for a sufficient time thyristor T2 gets

commutated and the whole process will be repeated.

• When the triggering pulses are periodically applied to the thyristors alternately, the voltage

waveform obtained across the output terminal of the transformer will be approximately

rectangular.
 Single phase bridge inverter
• Single phase half bridge inverter
Single Phase Half Bridge Inverter is a type of
Single-Phase Bridge Inverter. It is a voltage
source inverter. Voltage source inverter means
that the input power of the inverter is a DC
voltage Source. The working principle of half
bridge inverter is based on the fact that, for half
of time period of output wave, one IGBT
(Q1) conducts whereas for another half of time
period, another IGBT (Q2) conducts. The output
frequency of this type of inverter may be
controlled by controlling the switch ON and
switching OFF time of switching device. Single
Phase Half Bridge Inverter comprises of two
IGBT Q1 & Q2, two diodes D1 & D2 and three
wire DC source.
𝑉
• 𝑉0(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = .
2
 Working of single phase half bridge inverter
• While analysing the circuit, it is assumed that each IGBT conducts for the
duration its gate pulse is present and is commutated as soon as this pulse is
removed.

• When ig1 is applied for a period of 0<t≤(T/2), this means IGBT Q1 will conduct
for this time period. During the time Q1 conducts, load is directly connected
to source (Vs/2) on the upper arm. Thus, the load voltage / output voltage
will be equal to the input source voltage (Vs/2) for 0<t≤(T/2). As soon as ig1 is
removed at t= T/2, thyristor T1 gets turned OFF.

• At t=T/2, ig2 is applied and hence, IGBT Q2 gets turned ON. Thus, load gets
directly connected to the source (Vs/2) on the lower arm. Therefore, during
the time (T/2)<t≤T, T2 is ON, the output voltage is -(Vs/2).

• It may also be seen form the output voltage waveform that load voltage is
an alternating square voltage waveform of amplitude (Vs/2) and frequency
(1/T) Hz. Thus, output frequency can be controlled by controlling T.
 Single phase full bridge inverter
• Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter is basically a
voltage source inverter. Unlike Single Phase
Half Bridge Inverter, this inverter does not
require three wire DC input supply. Rather,
two wire DC input power source is required.
The output frequency can be controlled by
controlling the turn ON and turn OFF time of
the thyristors.
• The power circuit of a single phase full bridge
inverter comprises of four IGBT Q1 to Q4, four
diodes D1 to D1 and a two wire DC input
power source Vs. Each diode is connected in
antiparallel to the IGBT. Further, it is cleared
that each of the IGBT only conducts for the
period its gate signal is present and as soon as
the gate signal is removed, the IGBT gets
turned OFF.
• 𝑉0(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝑉𝑠 .
 Working of full bridge inverter
• The working principle of single phase full bridge inverter is based on
the sequential triggering of IGBT placed diagonally opposite. This
means, for half of time period, IGBT Q3 & Q4 will be triggered while
for the remaining half of time period, Q1 & Q2 will be triggered. Only
two IGBT are turned ON in half of the time period.

• Q1 & Q2 are triggered simultaneously for a time T/2. Therefore, load

is connected to source through Q1 & Q2 and hence, the load voltage is
equal to the source voltage with positive polarity.

• As soon as the gate signal (ig1 & ig2) are removed, Q1 and Q2 get
turned OFF. However, at the same instant gate signal (ig3 & ig4) are
applied and hence, Q3 & Q4 are turned ON. When Q3 & Q4 are
conducting, load gets connected to the source. The load voltage
magnitude is again Vs but with reverse polarity.
 Pulse width modulated inverter
• AC loads may require constant or adjustable voltage at their input terminals.
When such load are fed through inverter it is essential that output voltage of
the inverter must be controllable. The controllable output voltage can be
achieved by using either AC voltage controller at the output of the inverter or
controlled DC input voltage. But another way is the internal control of inverter
or pulse width modulation technic
• By using pulse width modulation technic the controllable AC output is
available from fixed DC input by adjusting on off time period of switching
component of inverter. In this case the amplitude of the triggering pulse is
unchanged but the width of the pulse can be adjusted.
• In this case MOSFET is used for switching application. MOSFET is on until pulse
is available at gate terminal of MOSFET. When the pulse is removed then
MOSFET is off. So, by controlling the width of pulse controllable output
voltage can be achieved. By using PWM technic the harmonic content in the
output voltage can be reduced.
• Different PWM technic are available:
1. Single pulse width modulation (SPWM)
2. Multiple pulse width modulation(MPWM)
3. Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
4. Modified sinusoidal pulse width modulation.
• Single pulse width modulation (SPWM): In this case only one
pulse is available for every half cycle of output waveform. In this
technique, the comparator circuit first compares the carrier and
reference signal and outputs the signal for switching of IGBT or
power transistor. The frequency of the reference/modulating
signal is the deciding factor for the frequency of output voltage.
There are two types of single pulse width modulation
techniques depending upon the type of carrier signal:
1. Type-I: In this type of SPWM(Single Pulse width modulation),
the maximum magnitude of the carrier signal coincides with the
starting point of the modulating signal. And, the switches get on
for the period when Am>Ac.
2. Type-II: In this type of SPWM starting point of the carrier
signal coincides with the starting point of the modulating signal.
and, the switches get on for the period when Am<Ac.
• Width of each pulse can be varied by varying the magnitude of
carrier signal without changing its frequency. The output
voltage is controlled by varying the width of each pulse.
 Single pulse width modulation inverter
• In this case the lets assume the
width of each pulse is d and
magnitude of DC supply voltage
is 𝑉𝑠 . For full bridge inverter
π 𝑑
1 + 𝑑
• 𝑉0(𝐴𝑣𝑔.) = ‫׬‬ 2 2
π 𝑑 𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝑑𝑡=𝑉𝑠 ∗ .
π − π
2 2
𝑑
• 𝑉0(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝑉𝑠 ∗ .
π
• To eliminate nth order
harmonics from output voltage
2π
the pulse width will be .
𝑛
 Multiple pulse width modulation
• In multiple pulse width modulation, there is
more than one pulse present in each half-
cycle. The width of each pulse is the same and
can be varied by varying amplitude of carrier
signal. The frequency of reference signal
decides the frequency of the output signal. In
this method, harmonics distortion is less in
comparison to the SPWM. The carrier
frequency decides the number of pulses per
half cycle.
• The𝑓 no of pulses (𝑛𝑝 ) per half cycle is equal
to 𝑐 , where 𝑓𝑐 = carrier frequency, 𝑓𝑚 =
2𝑓𝑚
reference signal frequency.
• Total pulse width per half cycle(d)= 𝑛𝑝 *α,
where α= width of each pulse.
𝑑
• 𝑉0(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝑉𝑠 ∗ .
π
 Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
• In this type of technique, the sinusoidal signal is the
reference signal, and the triangular signal is the carrier
signal. The number of pulses increases in each half cycle
which improves the quality of output. Therefore, the
lower order harmonics decreases. The higher-order
harmonics increase, however, we can easily filter out
these harmonic orders. There are three types of
Sinusoidal PWM techniques.

1. Type-I: The zero of the carrier coincides with the zero

of a reference signal. The number of pulses in each half
𝑓
cycle is ( 𝑐 -1).
2𝑓𝑚

2. Type-II: The peak of the carrier coincides with the zero

of the reference signal. The number of pulses per half cycle
𝑓
is 𝑐 .
2𝑓𝑚

• The output voltage is directly proportional to the

modulation index(m=Am/Ac). Both Type I and II the
modulation index is less than 1.
3. Type-III: In this type of PWM technique, we maintain
the modulation index greater than one, for which AC output
voltage remains almost constant. The output waveform
looks like a simple square wave. This is also called a case
of Over modulation (m > 1).
 Single phase cycloconverter
• This converter consists of back-to-back connection
of two single phase full-wave rectifier circuits.
• One full wave rectifier is termed as positive
converter and other rectifier is termed as negative
rectifier.
• To get the output frequency one forth of the input
supply frequency Positive rectifier operates for first
two cycle of input supply and negative converter
operates for next two
1
cycle. In this case output
frequency will be of input frequency. It is called
4
as step down cycloconverter. In this case natural
commutation happen.
• To get the output frequency more than input
frequency during positive half of the input supply
one pair of thyristor from positive converter is
triggered and after some time one pair from the
negative converter is triggered. Here forced
commutation is used to commute the thyristor.
Single phase step down
cycloconverter(contd…)
Three phase cycloconverter