Unit 1 – How is life organized?

Characteristics of a living organism

Living organisms have certain life processes in common. There

are seven things that they need to do to count as being alive. The
phrase MRS GREN is one way to remember them:

 Movement - all living things move, even plants

 Respiration - getting energy from food
 Sensitivity - detecting changes in the surroundings
 Growth - all living things grow
 Reproduction - making more living things of the same type
 Excretion - getting rid of waste
 Nutrition - taking in and using food

Compound Microscope and its parts

Parts Of Compound Microscope

The parts of the compound microscope can be categorized into:
 Mechanical parts
 Optical parts
(A) Mechanical Parts of a Compound Microscope

1. Foot or base
It is a U-shaped structure and supports the entire weight of the compound
microscope.

2. Pillar
It is a vertical projection. This stands by resting on the base and supports the
stage.

3. Arm
The entire microscope is handled by a strong and curved structure known as
the arm.

4. Stage
The flat and rectangular plate that is connected to the arm’s lower end is
called the stage. The specimen is placed on the stage for studying and
examining the various features. The centre of the stage has a hole through
which light can pass.

5. Inclination joint
It is a joint, wherein the arm is fastened to the compound microscope’s pillar.
The microscope can be tilted using the inclination joint.

6. Clips
The upper part of the stage is connected to two clips. The slide can be held in
its position with the help of the clips.

7. Diaphragm
The diaphragm is fastened below the stage. It controls and adjusts the
intensity of light that passes into the microscope. The diaphragm can be of
two types:
 Disc diaphragm
 Iris diaphragm

8. Nose piece
The nose piece is circular and a rotating metal part that is connected to the
body tube’s lower end. The nose piece has three holes wherein the objective
lenses are embedded.

9. Body tube
The upper part of the arm of the microscope comprises a hollow and tubular
structure known as the body tube. The body tube can be shifted down and up
using the adjustment knobs.

10. Fine adjustment knob

It is the smaller knob, which is used for sharp and fine focusing of the object.
For accurate and sharp focusing, this knob can be used.
11. Coarse adjustment knob
It is a large knob that is used for moving the body tube down and up for
bringing the object to be examined under exact focus.

(B) Optical Parts of Compound Microscope

1. Eyepiece lens or Ocular

At the top of the body tube, a lens is planted which is known as the eyepiece.
On the rim of the eyepiece, there are certain markings such as 5X, 10X, 15X,
etc. These indicate the magnification power. The object’s magnified image
can be observed with the help of an eyepiece.

2. Mirror
A mirror is found attached wither to the pillar or the lower end of the arm. It
consists of a concave mirror on one side and a plain mirror on the other side.
It can be used for reflection of light rays into the microscope.

3. Objective lenses
At the bottom of the body tube, there are two objective lenses, which are
connected to the revolving nose piece. The three objective lenses are as
follows:
 Oil immersion objective – 100X
 High power objective – 45X
 Low power objective – 10X

Working Mechanism Of The Compound Microscope

 View into the eyepiece. Rearrange the mirror such that adequate light
passes into the microscope.
 The mirror, lenses, stage, and slides should be cleared of dust and be
clean.
 Place the slide in the middle of the stage.
 Firmly secure the slide with clips at two edges of the slide to ensure
that the slide cannot move.
 The nose piece is adjusted in such a way that the low power objective
is aligned with the object of focus placed on the slide.
 The coarse adjustment knob can be shifted upwards or downwards
such that the slide is well under focus.
 Turn the fine adjustment knob by moving upwards or downwards to get
a clear and sharp image of the object under focus.
 All minute details of the object are observed under low power objective.
Necessary diagrams are sketched.
 The nose piece is now turned to bring the high power objective aligning
with the object. The fine adjustment knob is tuned as much as possible
to get a bright and precise view of the object.
 In high power, the details of the object are observed. Draw the
necessary diagrams. The coarse adjustment knob should not be used
when the object is being examined in high power as it can crush the
slide.
Precautions

 The objective lenses and eyepiece should be cleaned with the help of
silk cloth and cleaning liquid before using.
 The microscope should not be tilted when working, using it.
 When an object needs to be studied, focus on low power objective first
and then move to high power.
 The lower power needs to be left in place after all observations are
completed.
 When focusing, care needs to be taken to ensure that the objective
lens never strikes the stage or the slide.
 Only the fine adjustment knob should be used when the high power
objective is employed.
 Cover slip should always be used to cover well-mount preparations
before observation under the microscope is made.
 Do not dismantle the microscope.
 When carrying the microscope, always use both hands.
 Try to place it in a box after using the microscope.
 The concave part of the mirror should be used under dim light.
 Oil immersion lens should never be used without the use of oil.

Calculating magnification
The magnification of a biological specimen is calculated using this equation:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
Magnification =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

KEEP THE UNITS SAME FOR BOTH THE MESUREMENTS

HIERARCHY OF LEVELS OF CELLULAR ORGANISATION
 PLANT CELL UNDER THE LIGHT
MICROSCOPE 40X

ANIMAL CELL UNDER THE LIGHT

MICROSCOPE 40X

A PLANT CELL UNDER LIGHT MICROSCOPE

PLANT CELL UNDER ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

ANIMAL CELL UNDER LIGHT MICROSCOPE

ANIMAL CELL UNDER ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
BACTERIAL CELL

In the late 1600s, Anton van Leeuwenhoek became the first to study bacteria
under the microscope. During the nineteenth century, the French scientist
Louis Pasteur and the German physician Robert Koch demonstrated the role
of bacteria as pathogens (causing disease).

1. Cell Envelope:
It is the outer covering of protoplasm of bacterial cell. Cell envelope consists
of 3 components— glycocalyx (Capsule), cell wall and cell membrane.

(i) Glycocalyx (Capsule):

It is the outermost mucilage layer of the cell envelope which consists of non-
cellulosic polysaccharides with or without proteins. Glycocalyx may occur in
the form of loose sheath when it is called slime layer. If thick and tough, the
mucilage covering is called capsule. Glycocalyx gives sticky character to the
cell. It is not absolutely essential for survival of bacteria.
However, it has several secondary functions:
(a) Prevention of desiccation,
(b) Protection from phagocytes,
(c) Protection from toxic chemicals and drugs,
(d) Protection from viruses,
(e) Attachment,
(f) Immunogenicity (ability to generate immunity)
(g) Virulence (ability to cause disease)
(ii) Cell Wall:

It is rigid solid covering which provides shape and structural support to the
cell. Cell wall lies between plasma membrane and glycocalyx. Cell wall
protects the bacterial cells against bursting in hypotonic solution. It is single
layered and smooth. It consists of lipopolysaccharides, lipids and proteins.
Peptidoglycan forms the structural network of the cell wall. It is also known as
murein or mucopeptide.

(iii) Plasma Membrane:

It is selectively permeable covering of the cytoplasm that forms the innermost
component of cell envelope. Bacterial plasma membrane has a structure
similar to that of a typical membrane. It is made of a phospholipid bilayer with
proteins of various types (extrinsic, integral, trans membrane).

2. Cytoplasm:
Cytoplasm is granular due to presence of a large number of ribosomes.
Membrane bound cell organelles as found in eukaryotes are absent.
However, all biochemical pathways are found in prokaryotic cells. Sap
vacuoles are absent. Instead gas vacuoles are present.

Various structures present in cytoplasm are as follows:

(i) Mesosome:
It is a characteristic circular to villi form specialization of cell membrane of
bacteria that develops as an ingrowth from the plasma membrane. It consists
of vesicles, tubules and lamellae. Mesosme is of two types, septal and
lateral. It contains respiratory enzymes and is, therefore, often called
chondroid. It is believed to be equal to mitochondrion of eukaryotes.

(ii) Ribosomes:
They are small membrane less, submicroscopic ribonucleoprotein entities
having a size of 20 nm x 14-15 nm. Ribosomes are of two types, fixed and
free. Fixed ribosomes are attached to the plasma membrane. Free ribosomes
occur free in the cytoplasmic matrix. The ribosomes are 70S in nature. (Here
S denotes sedimentation coefficient or Svedberg number).

Each ribosome has two subunits, larger 50S and smaller 30S. Ribosomes
take part in protein synthesis. Free or matrix ribosomes synthesize proteins
for intracellular use while fixed ribosomes synthesize proteins for transport to
outside.

Ribosomes generally occur in helical groups called polyribosomes or

polysomes. In each polysome 4—8 ribosomes are attached to a single strand
of messenger or mRNA.

3. Nucleoid:
It represents the genetic material of prokaryotes. Nucleoid consists of a single
circular strand of DNA duplex which is supercoiled to form a nearly oval or
spherical complex.
4. Plasmids:
They are self-replicating, extra chromosomal segments of double stranded,
circular, naked DNA. Plasmids provide unique characters to bacteria. They
are independent of main nucleoid. Plasmids are used as vectors in genetic
engineering.

5. Flagella
Bacterial flagella are single - stranded, equivalent to a single micro- tubular
fibre. It is about 20 nm (0.02 µm) in diameter and 1-7µm in length. Bacterial
flagellum is made up of 3 parts— basal body, hook and filament. Basal body
is like a rod. It is inserted in the cell envelope. The basal body bears ring-like
swellings in the region of plasma membrane and cell wall. It is made up of
protein called flagellin.

6. Pili or Fimbriae:
The two terms have been used interchangeably for bacterial structures, which
are not involved in locomotion. Actually, pili (singular-pilus) are longer, fewer
and thicker tubular outgrowths which develop in response to F+ or fertility
factor in Gram negative bacteria. They are made up of protein pilin. Fimbriae
are small bristle-like fibers sprouting from cell surface in large number. There
are 300-400 of them per cell. Diameter is 3-10 nm while length is 0.5-1.5 µm.
Fimbriae are involved in attaching bacteria to solid surfaces (e.g., rock in
water body) or host tissues (e.g., urinary tract in Neisseria gonorrhoeae).
Some fimbriae cause agglutination of RBC. They also help in mutual clinging
of bacteria.

Based on cellular structure, there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular

Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – Size ranges from 10 μm – 100
2.0 μm in diameter μm in diameter

Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically

complex in nature simple in nature

Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have Present

a nucleoid region in the cell

Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger

spherical in shape in size and linear in shape
DNA arrangement Circular Linear

Mitochondria Absent Present

Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles Present, cell organelles present

absent

Endoplasmic Absent Present

reticulum

Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes

Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes

Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes Lysosomes and centrosomes

are absent are present

Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis

Flagella The flagella are smaller in The flagella are larger in size
size

Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual

Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANE

Plasma membrane is a semi-permeable membrane and allows movement of

some substances across it. This movement occurs by two major processes:

ACTIVE TRANSPORT – requires energy in the form of ATP. Active transport

takes place against the concentration gradient.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT – doesn’t require energy in the form of ATP. Passive

transport of molecules takes place along the concentration gradient.

The two types of Passive transport covered in this unit are:

1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis

DIFFUSION

 Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration.
 Diffusion happens in liquids and gases because their particles move
randomly from place to place.
  Diffusion is an important process for living things; it is how substances
move in and out of cells.

You walk into a coffee shop and immediately smell coffee. Why?
In diffusion, coffee particles move from the coffee machine (an area of high
concentration) to the rest of the coffee shop (an area of low concentration).
Making a cup of coffee also involves the diffusion of coffee particles through
hot water:

What causes diffusion?

In gases and liquids, particles move randomly from place to place. The
particles collide with each other or with their container. This makes them
change direction. Eventually, the particles are spread through the whole
container.
Diffusion happens on its own, without stirring, shaking or wafting.

Why is diffusion useful?

In living things, substances move in and out of cells by diffusion. For example:
 Respiration produces waste carbon dioxide, causing the amount of
carbon dioxide to increase in the cell. Eventually, the carbon dioxide
concentration in the cell is higher than that in the surrounding blood.
The carbon dioxide then diffuses out through the cell membrane and
into the blood.
 Water diffuses into plants through their root hair cells. The water moves
from an area of high concentration (in the soil) to an area of lower
concentration (in the root hair cell). This is because root hair cells
are partially permeable. The diffusion of water like this, is
called osmosis.

OSMOSIS

Osmosis is a passive process and happens without any expenditure of

energy. It involves the movement of molecules from a region of higher
concentration to lower concentration until the concentrations become equal on
either side of the membrane. Any solvent can undergo the process of osmosis
including gases.
Osmotic Solutions
There are three different types of solutions:
 Isotonic Solution
 Hypertonic Solution
 Hypotonic Solution

An isotonic solution is one that has the same concentration of solutes both
inside and outside the cell.
A hypertonic solution is one that has a higher solute concentration outside
the cell than inside.
A hypotonic solution is the one that has a higher solute concentration inside
the cell than outside.
Effect of Osmosis on Cells

Osmosis affects the cells differently. An animal cell will lyse when placed in a
hypotonic solution compared to a plant cell. The plant cell has thick walls and
requires more water. The cells will not burst when placed in a hypotonic
solution. In fact, a hypotonic solution is ideal for a plant cell.

An animal cell survives only in an isotonic solution. In an isotonic solution, the

plant cells are no longer turgid and the leaves of the plant droop.
The osmotic flow can be stopped or reversed, also called reverse osmosis, by
exerting an external pressure to the sides of the solute. The minimum
pressure required to stop the solvent transfer is called the osmotic pressure.
Significance of Osmosis
 Osmosis influences the transport of nutrients and the release of
metabolic waste products.
 It is responsible for the absorption of water from the soil and
conducting it to the upper parts of the plant through the xylem.
 It stabilizes the internal environment of a living organism by maintaining
the balance between water and intercellular fluid levels.
 It maintains the turgidity of cells.
 It is a process by which plants maintain their water content despite the
constant water loss due to transpiration.
  This process controls the cell-to-cell diffusion of water.
 Osmosis induces cell turgor, which regulates the movement of plants
and plant parts.

Examples of Osmosis

Osmosis has a significant role to play in plants, animals and also in humans.
In an animal cell osmosis helps in absorbing water from the intestines to the
blood.
Listed below are more examples of Osmosis.
 The absorption of water from the soil is due to osmosis. The plant roots
have a higher concentration than the soil, therefore, the water flows
into the roots.
 The guard cells of the plants are also affected by osmosis. When the
plant cells are filled with water, the guard cells swell up and the
stomata open.
 If a freshwater or saltwater fish is placed in the water with different salt
concentrations, the fish dies due to entry or exit of water in the cells of
the fish.
 Humans suffering from cholera are also affected by osmosis. The
bacteria that overpopulate the intestines reverse the flow of absorption
and do not allow water to be absorbed by the intestines, which results
in dehydration.
 When the fingers are placed in water for a longer period of time, they
become prune due to the flow of water inside the cells.

How are Diffusion and Osmosis Alike

 Neither process can initiate unless there is a difference in the
concentration of particles between two regions.
 The processes are complete only when the concentration of the
particles becomes even in both regions (equilibrium).
 Both are spontaneous transport processes, which means they do not
require any input of extra energy to occur
 In both, particles move from an area of higher concentration to lower
concentration
 Internal factors like solute potential and water potential do not affect
either process.

Difference between Osmosis and Diffusion

Osmosis Diffusion

It is limited only to the liquid medium. Occurs in liquid, gas and even solids.

Requires a semipermeable Does not require a semipermeable

membrane. membrane.

Depends on the number of solute Depends on the presence of other

particles dissolved in the solvent. particles.
Requires water for the movement of Does not require water for the
particles. movement of particles.

Only the solvent molecules can Both the molecules of solute and
diffuse. solvent can diffuse.

The flow of particles occurs only in The flow of particles occurs in all the
one direction. directions.

The entire process can either be This process can neither be stopped
stopped or reversed by applying nor reversed.
additional pressure on the solution
side.

Occurs only between similar types of Occurs between the similar and
solutions. dissimilar types of solutions.

It involves the movement of only It involves the movement of all the

solvent molecules from one side to the particles from one region to the other.
other.

The concentration of the solvent does The concentration of the diffusion

not become equal on both sides of the substance equalizes to fill the available
membrane. space.

Depends on solute potential. Does not depend on solute potential,

pressure potential, or water potential.

Only water or another solvent moves Any type of substance moves from area
from a region of high energy or of highest energy or concentration to
concentration to a region of lower region of lowest energy or
energy or concentration. concentration.

Not associated with uptake of It helps in the uptake of minerals and

minerals and nutrients. nutrients.

VIRUSES

Virus, infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can
multiply only in living cells of animals, plants, or bacteria. The name is from
a Latin word meaning “slimy liquid” or “poison.”

They are not plants, animals, or prokaryotic bacteria (single-cell organisms

without defined nuclei), and they are generally placed in their own
kingdom. In fact, viruses should not even be considered organisms, in the
strictest sense, because they are not free-living—i.e., they cannot
reproduce and carry on metabolic processes without a host cell.
All true viruses contain nucleic acid—either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
or RNA (ribonucleic acid)—and protein. The nucleic acid encodes the
genetic information unique for each virus. The infective, extracellular
(outside the cell) form of a virus is called the virion.

Viruses are quintessential parasites; they depend on the host cell for
almost all of their life-sustaining functions. Unlike true organisms, viruses
cannot synthesize proteins, because they lack ribosomes (cell organelles)
for the translation of viral messenger RNA (mRNA; a complementary copy
of the nucleic acid of the nucleus that associates with ribosomes and
directs protein synthesis) into proteins. Viruses must use the ribosomes of
their host cells to translate viral mRNA into viral proteins.

Viruses are also energy parasites; unlike cells, they cannot generate or
store energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The virus
derives energy, as well as all other metabolic functions, from the host cell.
The true infectious part of any virus is its nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA
but never both.

The virion capsid has three functions: (1) to protect the viral nucleic acid
from digestion by certain enzymes (nucleases), (2) to furnish sites on its
surface that recognize and attach (adsorb) the virion to receptors on the
surface of the host cell, and, in some viruses, (3) to provide proteins that
form part of a specialized component that enables the virion to penetrate
through the cell surface membrane or, in special cases, to inject the
infectious nucleic acid into the interior of the host cell.

Most viruses vary in diameter from 20 nanometres (nm; 0.0000008 inch) to

250–400 nm; the largest, however, measure about 500 nm in diameter
and are about 700–1,000 nm in length. Only the largest and most complex
viruses can be seen under the light microscope at the highest resolution.
SPECIALIZED CELLS

Many cells are specialized. They have structures that are adapted for their
function. For example, muscle cells bring parts of the body closer together.
They contain protein fibres that can contract when energy is available, making
the cells shorter.

Animal cells
Nerve cell
Transmits nerve impulses
from the brain and spinal cord
to the muscles or from the
sensory organs back to the
brain
- A multi-branched cell body
- Has a nucleus in the cell body
- Long tail like axon, which is
insulated at places to increase
the speed of nerve impulse
- Large number of mitochondria
as compared to any animal cell

Plant cells

Phloem cell
provides - Have perforated end walls, called sieve tubes
channels for - Allows two way movement of contents
transport of - Have supporting cells called companion cells
food and
water in plants