MYP 5

Unit-2 Ecology: How do species interact?

Content Booklet

Key Concept: Definitions

Related Concept: Consequences, interaction
Global Context: Explorations to develop
Possible Explorations: Globalisation and sustainability
Statement of Inquiry: Organisms in an ecosystem interact, and this relationship has global
consequences on the environment and its sustainability.

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An ecosystem is defined as a community of living organisms interacting with each other, including
their non-living surrounding.

Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life along with the interactions
between different organisms and their natural environment. It is the branch of biology, and the name
Ecology was derived from the Greek word, which refers to the house or the environment.

Hierarchy of ecosystem

Ecological Level # 1. Organisms:

In this hierarchy, the form, physiology, behaviour, distribution and

adaptations in relation to the environmental conditions are studied.

The organisms of the similar type have the potential for

interbreeding, and produce fertile offspring, which are called species.

The organism performs all the life processes independently.

However, parts of organism cannot exist independently of one
another.

An organism is fully adapted to its environment. It has a definite life

span including definite series of stages like birth, hatching, growth,
maturity, senescence, aging and death.

Competition, mutualism and predation are various types of

interaction between organisms.

Ecological Level # 2. Population:

In ecology, a population is a group of individuals of the same species,

inhabiting the same area, and functioning as a unit of biotic
community.

For example, all individuals of the common grass, Cynodon, in a

given area constitute its population. Similarly, the individuals of
elephants or tigers in an area constitute their population.

The interaction between populations is generally studied. These

interactions may be a predator and its prey, or a parasite with its host.
Competition, mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, and predation
are various types of interactions.

Ecological Level # 3. Biological Community:

Biotic community organisation results from interdependence and

interactions amongst population of different species in a habitat. This
is an assemblage of populations of plants, animals, bacteria and fungi
that live in an area and interact with each other.

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A biotic community is a higher ecological category next to population.
These are three types of biotic community, they are: animals, plants and
decomposers (i.e., bacteria and fungi). A biotic community has a
distinct species composition and structure.

Ecological Level # 4. Ecosystem:

The ecosystems are parts of nature where living organisms interact

amongst themselves and with their physical environment. An
ecosystem in composed of a biotic community, integrated with its
physical environment through the exchange of energy and recycling of
the nutrients. The term ecosystem was coined by Sir Arthur Tansley in
1935.

Ecosystems can be recognised as self- regulating and self-sustaining units of landscape, e.g., a pond or
a forest.

An ecosystem has two basic components:

(i) Abiotic (non-living), and (ii) Biotic (living organisms).

Abiotic components comprise inorganic materials, such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, CO 2, water etc.,
while biotic components include producers, consumers and decomposers.

Ecological Level # 5. Landscape:

A landscape is a unit of land with a natural boundary having a mosaic of patches, which generally
represent different ecosystems.

Ecological Level # 6. Biome:

This is a large regional unit characterised by a major vegetation type and associated fauna found in a
specific climate zone. The biome includes all associated developing and modified communities
occurring within the same climatic region, e.g., forest biomes, grassland and savanna biomes, desert
biome, etc.

On a global scale, all the earth’s terrestrial biomes and aquatic systems constitute the biosphere.

Ecological Level # 7. Biosphere:

The entire inhabited part of the earth and its atmosphere including the living components is called the
biosphere.

The global environment consists of three main sub-divisions:

(i) The hydrosphere which includes all the water components,

(ii) The lithosphere comprises the solid components of the earth’s crust, and

(iii) The atmosphere formed of the gaseous envelope of the earth. The biosphere consists of the lower
atmosphere, the land and the oceans, rivers and lakes, where living beings are found.

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BIOMES: FLORA AND FAUNA

A biome is a large area of land that is classified based on the climate, plants and animals that make
their homes there. Biomes contain many ecosystems within the same area.

“Land-based biomes are called terrestrial biomes. Water-based biomes are called aquatic biomes.”
Temperatures, precipitation amounts and prevalent organisms characterize the biomes of the
world.

Terrestrial Biome Examples include tropical rainforests, temperate forests, grasslands, deserts,
tundra, taiga, savanna and chaparral.

1. Chaparral Biome: Scrubland and few trees characterize chaparral. Chaparral receives between 25
and 30 inches of rain annually, chiefly in winter. Dry summers mean dormancy for many plants.
Chaparral can be found throughout southern California and Baja, Mexico.

2. Desert Biome: Desert biomes receive less than 12 inches of precipitation annually and experience
very high temperatures. Desert subtypes include hot and dry, semiarid, coastal and cold (Arctic).

Plants are adapted for low rainfall. Animals use burrowing or have nocturnal activity to escape
scorching daytime temperatures. Some types of desert species include yuccas, cacti, reptiles, small
mammals and burrowing owls.

Example: the Mojave Desert of the American Southwest.

3. Tundra Biome: The coldest biome, the treeless Arctic tundra,

receives only about 60 growing days and low precipitation. Plants
consist mostly of shrubs, lichens, mosses, sedges and liverworts.
Tundra animals include lemmings, caribou, migratory birds,
mosquitos, flies and fish.

Example: The High Arctic Tundra in the islands of the Arctic

Ocean.

4. Taiga Biome: Taiga (boreal forest) extends south of the Arctic Circle. Taiga endures long, dry
winters, cool, wet summers and a 130-day growing season. Annual precipitation ranges from about 16
to 40 inches, typically as snow.

Taiga hosts coniferous trees and low plants. Animal species of the taiga include bears, moose, lynx,
deer, hares and woodpeckers, among others. Example: Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga.

5. Grassland Biome: Grasslands represent biomes dominated by grass.

The hot, tropical savanna takes up nearly half of Africa as well as parts of
India, South America and Australia.

Savannas receive concentrated rainfall for several months and then

drought. Few trees dot the grassy savanna.

Temperate grassland includes steppes, veldts and prairies. Moderate

precipitation, rich soils, hot summers and cold winters distinguish this
biome. The few trees grow along rivers. Some animals include deer,
gazelles, birds, insects and larger predators such as wolves and lions.

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6. Rainforest Biome: The tropical rainforest biome contains the world’s greatest biodiversity.
Located near the equator, this biome experiences equal day length, warm temperatures and up to 200
inches of rain annually.

These conditions lead to prolific plant growth in levels from the forest floor to the canopy. Epiphytic
plants grow on trees and other vegetation. The Amazon Rainforest is an excellent example of a
tropical rainforest biome.

Temperate rainforests are found in higher latitudes, with cooler temperatures but significant amounts
of precipitation. Evergreens, mosses and ferns thrive there. The Olympic National Park of
Washington State hosts temperate rainforests.

7. Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome: Temperate deciduous forests populate eastern North
America, central Europe and north-eastern Asia. Distinct seasons, consistent precipitation and varied
temperatures yield a diverse biome.

Deciduous broadleaf trees, evergreens and other plants flourish. This biome hosts many animal
species including deer, rabbits, bears, birds, insects and amphibians.

Example: Great Smoky Mountains National Park.

8. Alpine Biome

The mountainous alpine biome exists only at high altitudes. At those levels, trees do not grow. Alpine
regions receive about 180 days of growing season.

A number of shrubs, grasses and heaths thrive. Mammals such as sheep, elk, goats and pikas flourish.
Some bird species and several types of insects live there.

Example: the high Sierra Nevada Mountain range in California.

Aquatic Biome Examples

1. Freshwater Biomes: Freshwater biomes contain water with very low salt concentrations and
include wetlands, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.

Lakes and ponds undergo thermal mixing. These biomes host fish, waterfowl, algae, crustaceans and
microorganisms. Rivers and streams constantly move toward either lakes or oceans. Their current
speed affects the kinds of species that live in them, as well as water clarity.

Example: the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest.

2. Marine Biomes: Marine biomes include the oceans of the world, the largest aquatic biomes,
characterized by saltwater. Oceans possess various layers related to sunlight’s penetration.

 The intertidal zone hugs the shoreline and is greatly affected by tides and waves.
 The neritic zone extends to the continental shelf. Enough sunlight penetrates for
photosynthesis to take place. Seaweeds are often found here.
 The oceanic or pelagic zone extends farther and experiences a mix of temperatures due to
current. Large fish and sea mammals ply this zone.
 The benthic zone is a deep region beyond the continental shelf. Here sea stars, fish and
sponges line the ocean floor.

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  The abyssal zone represents the deepest ocean zone. High pressure, cold temperatures and
essentially no sunlight characterize this zone.

3. Wetlands Biome: Wetlands are shallow bodies of water such as bogs, marshes, swamps and
mudflats. They provide habitat for many plants and animals. Water flow is steady in freshwater
wetlands.

Example: The Bolsa Chica Ecological Reserve in Orange County, California.

4. Coral Reef Biome: Coral reefs exist in shallow parts of some tropical oceans. Made of calcified
remains from coral animals, these reefs build up over time and provide habitat for many underwater
species. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is a large example of a
coral reef biome.

5. Estuary Biome: Estuaries lie where ocean meets fresh water.

Plants tolerating the salinity changes are called halophytic. Estuaries
offer important breeding grounds for crustaceans and well as
waterfowl. An example of a large estuary biome is that of the Florida
Everglades.

Mode of nutrition in animals and plants

Autotrophic and Heterotrophic are the two

modes of nutrition in living organisms. Plants
and some bacteria are autotrophic as they make
their own food. Animals, fungi and some
bacteria are heterotrophic as they derive their
food from other organisms.

Saprophytes feed on dead and decaying

material, e.g., fungi and microorganisms. They
absorb nutrients from dead and decaying plants
and animal parts. Decomposers break down the
organic matter or waste material and release
nutrients into the soil. For example, bacteria, worms, slugs, and snails. They are considered extremely
important in soil biology. They break down the complex organic matter into simpler substances that
are taken up by the plants for various metabolic activities.

Trophic levels: It refers to the various levels in a food web as per the flow of energy. The different
trophic levels are –

 Producers (T1)
 Primary consumers (herbivores-T2)
 Secondary consumers (primary carnivores -T2)
 Tertiary consumers (Sec carnivores -T3)
 Quaternary consumers (Ter. carnivores T4)

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  Decomposers

Pyramid of trophic levels

 Is a graphical representation.
 Can be the pyramid of numbers, the
pyramid of biomass or the pyramid of
energy.
 All the pyramids start with producers.

a) Pyramid of numbers: gives the number of

organisms present at each trophic level.
It can be upright or inverted.
b) Pyramid of biomass: gives the biomass of
each trophic level and could be upright or
inverted.
c) Pyramid of energy: is always upright as it shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the
next trophic level.

Law of conservation of energy

 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it transforms from one form to another.
 In biological systems, it gets passed from one organism to another across trophic levels.

Energy flow

 Transfer of energy from one trophic level to another depicting its direction and amount.
 Can be represented by the pyramid of energy.
 In any food chain, only 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic level to another.

Food chain: A series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food.

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Food web

 Is formed by interconnections of different food

chains.
 Is a graphical representation of ‘Who eats
Whom’ in an ecosystem.

Ten percent law:

1. The flow of energy from one trophic level to the

other trophic level in a food chain is explained in
the pyramid of energy.
2. According to the 10 percent law, 90% of
captured energy is lost as heat in the previous
level and only 10% is available for the next
level.
3. At each trophic level, about 10% of the energy is
transferred to the next trophic level whereas the
rest is utilized for metabolic activities and lost as
heat in the environment.
4. The chemical energy gets decreased at each stage but the total energy in the system remains
the same.

Interactions between two or more species are called interspecific interactions—inter- means
"between."

Competition
In interspecific competition, members of two different species use the same limited resource and
therefore compete for it. Competition negatively affects both participants (-/- interaction), as either
species would have higher survival and reproduction if the other was absent.

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Species compete when they have overlapping niches, that is, overlapping ecological roles and
requirements for survival and reproduction. Competition can be minimized if two species with
overlapping niches evolve by natural selection to utilize less similar resources, resulting in resource
partitioning.
Predation
In predation, a member of one species—the predator—
eats part or all of the living, or recently living, body of
another organism—the prey. This interaction is beneficial
for the predator, but harmful for the prey (+/- interaction).
Predation may involve two animal species, but it can also
involve an animal or insect consuming part of a plant, a
special case of predation known as herbivory.
Predators and prey regulate each other's population
dynamics. Also, many species in predator-prey
relationships have evolved adaptations—beneficial features arising by natural selection—related to
their interaction. On the prey end, these include mechanical, chemical, and behavioural defences.
Some species also have warning coloration that alerts potential predators to their defences; other
harmless species may mimic this warning coloration.

Symbiosis

Symbiosis is a general term for interspecific interactions in which two species live together in a long-
term, intimate association. In everyday life, we sometimes use the term symbiosis to mean a
relationship that benefits both parties. However, in ecologist-speak, symbiosis is a broader concept
and can include close, lasting relationships with a variety of positive or negative effects on the
participants.

Mutualism
In a mutualism, two species have a long-term interaction
that is beneficial to both of them (+/+ interaction). For
example, some types of fungi form mutualistic associations
with plant roots. The plant can photosynthesize, and it
provides the fungus with fixed carbon in the form of sugars
and other organic molecules. The fungus has a network of
threadlike structures called hyphae, which allow it to
capture water and nutrients from the soil and provide them
to the plant.

Commensalism
In a commensalism, two species have a long-term interaction that is beneficial to one and has no
positive or negative effect on the other (+/0 interaction). For instance, many of the bacteria that
inhabit our bodies seem to have a commensal relationship with us. They benefit by getting shelter and
nutrients and have no obvious helpful or harmful effect on us.
It's worth noting that many apparent commensalisms actually turn out to be slightly mutualistic or
slightly parasitic (harmful to one party, see below) when we look at them more closely. For instance,
biologists are finding more and more evidence that our normal microbial inhabitants play a key role in
health.

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Parasitism
In a parasitism, two species have a close, lasting interaction that is beneficial to one, the parasite, and
harmful to the other, the host (+/- interaction).
Some parasites cause familiar human diseases. For instance, if there is a tapeworm living in your
intestine, you are the host and the tapeworm is the parasite—your presence enhances the tapeworm's
quality of life, but not vice versa!

Population ecology, study of the processes that affect the distribution and abundance of animal and
plant populations. A population is a subset of individuals of one species that occupies a particular
geographic area and, in sexually reproducing species, interbreeds.

Effects of mode of reproduction: sexual and asexual

In sexual populations, genes are recombined in each generation, and new genotypes may result.
Offspring in most sexual species inherit half their genes from their mother and half from their father,
and their genetic makeup is therefore different from either parent or any other individual in the
population. In both sexually and asexually reproducing species, mutations are the single most
important source of genetic variation. New favourable mutations that initially appear in separate
individuals can be recombined in many ways over time within a sexual population.

In contrast, the offspring of an asexual individual are genetically identical to their parent. The only
source of new gene combinations in asexual populations is mutation. Asexual populations accumulate
genetic variation only at the rate at which their genes mutate. Favourable mutations arising in
different asexual individuals have no way of recombining and eventually appearing together in any
one individual, as they do in sexual populations.

Effects of population size

Over long periods of time, genetic variation is more easily sustained in large populations than in small
populations. Through the effects of random genetic drift, a genetic trait can be lost from a small
population relatively quickly. For example, many populations have two or more forms of a gene,
which are called alleles. Depending on which allele an individual has inherited, a certain phenotype
will be produced. If populations remain small for many generations, they may lose all but one form of
each gene by chance alone.

This loss of alleles happens from sampling error. As individuals’ mate, they exchange genes. Imagine
that initially half of the population has one form of a particular gene, and the other half of the
population has another form of the gene. By chance, in a small population the exchange of genes
could result in all individuals of the next generation having the same allele. The only way for this
population to contain a variation of this gene again is through mutation of the gene or immigration of
individuals from another population (see evolution: Genetic variation in populations).

Classification

The arrangement of the organisms in groups on the basis of their similarities and differences is known
as classification.

Classification can be carried out based on many factors such as:

 Presence of nucleus
 Body design – make up of cells (Single-celled or Multicellular organisms)
 Production of food

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  Level of the organization in bodies of organisms carrying out photosynthesis
 In animals – an organization of one’s body parts, development of body, specialized organs for
different functions

These features can differ in both plants and animals as they differ in their body design. Hence, these
prominent designs and characteristic features can be used to make subgroups and not aa broad
classification.

The classification system is of two types:

Two-Kingdom Classification- This system was proposed by Carolus Linnaeus who classified
organisms into two types- plants and animals.

Five-Kingdom Classification- This kingdom was proposed by R.H.Whittaker who divided the
organisms into five different classes:

 Monera
 Protista
 Fungi
 Plantae
 Animalia

Hierarchy of Classification

Carolus Linnaeus arranged the organisms into different taxonomic groups at different levels. The
groups from top to bottom are:

1. Kingdom
2. Phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species

Characteristics of Five Kingdoms

Kingdom Monera

 These are unicellular prokaryotes.

 They lack a true nucleus.
 They may or may not contain a cell wall.
 They may be heterotrophic or autotrophic.

For eg., Bacteria, Cyanobacteria

Kingdom Protista

 These contain unicellular, eukaryotic organisms.

 They exhibit an autotrophic or heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
 They possess pseudopodia, cilia, flagella for locomotion.

For eg., amoeba, paramaecium

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Kingdom Fungi

 These are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms.

 They exhibit a saprophytic mode of nutrition.
 The cell wall is made up of chitin.
 They live in a symbiotic relationship with blue-green algae.

For eg., Yeast, Aspergillus

Kingdom Plantae

 These are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms.

 The cell wall is made up of cellulose.
 They prepare their own food by means of photosynthesis.
 Kingdom Plantae is sub-divided into- Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms,
Angiosperms.

For eg., Pines, ferns, Mango tree

Kingdom Animalia

 These are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms without a cell wall.

 They are heterotrophs.
 The organisms in kingdom Animalia can be simple or complex.
 They are genetically diverse.
 They exhibit an organ-system level of organization.
 It is sub-divided into different phyla such as Porifera, Coelenterata, Echinodermata, Chordata,
etc.

For eg., Earthworms, Hydra, etc.

What is Pollution?

“Pollution is the introduction of substances (or energy) that cause adverse changes in the
environment and living entities.”

Pollution need not always be caused by chemical substances such as particulates (like smoke and
dust). Forms of energy such as sound, heat or light can also cause pollution. These substances that
cause pollution are called pollutants.

Pollution, even in minuscule amounts, impacts the ecological balance. Pollutants can make their way
up the food chain and eventually find their way inside the human body. Read on to explore the types
of pollution and their implications.

Types of Pollution

As stated before, there are different types of pollution, which are either caused by natural events (like
forest fires) or by man-made activities (like cars, factories, nuclear wastes, etc.) These are further
classified into the following types of pollution:

 Air Pollution Water Pollution

 Soil Pollution Noise Pollution

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Besides these 4 types of pollution, other types exist such as light pollution, thermal pollution and
radioactive pollution. The latter is much rarer than other types, but it is the deadliest.

Air Pollution refers to the release of harmful contaminants (chemicals, toxic gases, particulates,
biological molecules, etc.) into the earth’s atmosphere. These contaminants are quite detrimental and,
in some cases, pose serious health issues. Some causes that contribute to air pollution are:

 Burning fossil fuels

 Mining operations
 Exhaust gases from industries and factories

The effects of air pollution vary based on the kind of pollutant. But generally, the impact of air
pollution ranges from:

 Increased risk of respiratory illness and cardiovascular problems

 Increased risk of skin diseases
 May increase the risk of cancer
 Global warming

Acid rain: Acid rain is made up of highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, most specifically
the disproportionate levels of sulphur and nitrogen emitted by vehicles and manufacturing processes.
It is often called acid rain as this concept contains many types of acidic precipitation.

The acidic deposition takes place in two ways: wet and dry. Wet deposition is any form of
precipitation which removes acids from the atmosphere and places them on the surface of the earth. In
the absence of precipitation, dry deposition of polluting particles and gases sticks to the ground
through dust and smoke.

Causes of Acid Rain

The causes of acid rain are Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with the wet components of
rain. Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with water are found in two ways either man-
made i.e as the emissions that are given out from industries or by natural causes like lightning strike in
the atmosphere releasing nitrogen oxides and volcanic eruptions releasing sulphur oxide.

According to the Royal Society of Chemistry, which considers him the “father of acid rain,” the word
acid rain was invented in 1852 by Scottish chemist Robert Angus Smith. Smith decided on the word
while studying rainwater chemistry near industrial towns in England and Scotland.

The regular clean rain we experience, even though it is not clean i.e water and carbon dioxide react
together to form weak carbonic acid which essentially by itself is not extremely harmful. The reaction
occurring is :

H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)

The pH value of regular rainwater is around 5.7, giving it an acidic nature. The oxides of nitrogen and
sulphur are blown away by the wind along with the dust particles. They settle on the earth’s surface
after coming down in the form of precipitation. Acid rain is essentially a by-product of human activities
which emit oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the atmosphere. Example – the burning of fossil fuels,
unethical waste emission disposal techniques.

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Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide undergo oxidation, and then they react with water resulting in the
formation of sulphuric acid and nitric acid, respectively. The following reaction will clarify the acid
formation reaction:

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)

4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)

 Ozone depletion
 Hazards to wildlife

Among the other types of pollution, air pollution is theorized to have a planet-wide implication.
Scientists have even speculated an apocalypse-like scenario where air pollution if left unchecked, can
bring about an extreme form of global warming called the runaway greenhouse effect. Though this is
purely speculative, it is a phenomenon that has already occurred on Venus.

Water Pollution is said to occur when toxic pollutants and particulate matter are introduced into
water bodies such as lakes, rivers and seas. These contaminants are generally introduced by human
activities like improper sewage treatment and oil spills. However, even natural processes such as
eutrophication can cause water pollution.

Other significant causes of water pollution include:

 Dumping solid wastes in water bodies

 Disposing untreated industrial sewage into water bodies
 Human and animal wastes
 Agricultural runoff containing pesticides and fertilisers

The effects of water pollution are very pronounced in our environment. Furthermore, toxic chemicals
can bioaccumulate in living beings, and these chemicals can travel their way up the food chain,
ultimately reaching humans.

Among the other types of pollution, water pollution has severe consequences on humans. For
instance, in 1932, a grave case of water pollution incapacitated the inhabitants of an entire city in
Japan with neurological diseases and mental illness for many decades. However, the immediate cause
was not apparent but was eventually attributed to acute mercury poisoning. Methylmercury was
dumped into the surrounding bay and had ultimately bioaccumulated inside the fish. The local

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population then consumed these fish, and this resulted in the manifestation of ill effects and
neurological diseases.

Other consequences of water pollution include:

 Disruption of the ecosystem

 Threats to marine life
 Increased risk of water-borne diseases
 Increases toxic chemicals (such as mercury) in water bodies
 Eutrophication: Eutrophication is the process in which a water body becomes overly
enriched with nutrients, leading to plentiful growth of simple plant life. The excessive growth
(or bloom) of algae and plankton in a water body are indicators of this process.
Eutrophication is considered to be a serious environmental concern since it often results in the
deterioration of water quality and the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water bodies.
Eutrophic waters can eventually become “dead zones” that are incapable of supporting life.

Causes of Eutrophication

The availability of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus limits the growth of plant life in an
ecosystem. When water bodies are overly enriched with these nutrients, the growth of algae, plankton,
and other simple plant life is favoured over the growth of more complex plant life.

Soil Pollution, also called soil contamination, refers to the degradation of land due to the presence of
chemicals or other man-made substances in the soil. The xenobiotic substances alter the natural
composition of soil and affect it negatively. These can drastically impact life directly or indirectly. For
instance, any toxic chemicals present in the soil will get absorbed by the plants. Since plants are
producers in an environment, it gets passed up through the food chain. Compared to the other types of
pollution, the effects of soil pollution are a little more obscured, but their implications are very
noticeable.

Some of the common causes of soil pollution are:

 Improper industrial waste disposal

 Oil Spills
 Acid rain which is caused by air pollution
 Mining activities
 Intensive farming and agrochemicals (like fertilisers and pesticides)
 Industrial accidents

The effects of soil pollution are numerous. Specific wastes, such as radioactive waste
become particularly hazardous when they are not well-contained. A well-documented example is a
nuclear accident in Chernobyl, which has left an area of 2,600 km2 uninhabitable for several thousand
years.

Other effects of soil pollution include:

 Loss of soil nutrients, which renders the soil unfit for agriculture
 Impacts the natural flora and fauna residing in the soil
 Degrades vegetation due to the increase of salinity of the soil
 Toxic dust (such as silica dust) can cause respiratory problems or even lung cancer

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Noise pollution refers to the excessive amount of noise in the surrounding that disrupts the natural
balance. Usually, it is man-made, though certain natural calamities like volcanoes can contribute to
noise pollution.

In general, any sound which is over 85 decibels is considered to be detrimental. Also, the duration an
individual is exposed plays an impact on their health. For perspective, a normal conversation is
around 60 decibels, and a jet taking off is around 15o decibels. Consequently, noise pollution is more
obvious than the other types of pollution.

Noise pollution has several contributors, which include:

 Industry-oriented noises such as heavy machines, mills, factories, etc.

 Transportation noises from vehicles, aeroplanes, etc.
 Construction noises
 Noise from social events (loudspeakers, firecrackers, etc.)
 Household noises (such as mixers, TV, washing machines, etc.)

Noise pollution has now become very common due to dense urbanisation and industrialisation. Noise
pollution can bring about adverse effects such as :

 Hearing loss
 Tinnitus
 Sleeping disorders
 Hypertension (high BP)
 Communication problems

Biological magnification: It means accumulation of non-biodegradable chemicals (like pesticides) in

the living organisms (like plants, animals, including man) in a food chain. “The increase in the
concentration of harmful chemicals in the body of living organisms at each trophic level of a food
chain is called biological magnification”.

Carbon footprint, amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with all the activities of a
person or other entity (e.g., building, corporation, country, etc.). It includes direct emissions, such as
those that result from fossil-fuel combustion in manufacturing, heating, and transportation, as well as
emissions required to produce the electricity associated with goods and services consumed. In
addition, the carbon footprint concept also often includes the emissions of other greenhouse gases,
such as methane, nitrous oxide, or chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

The carbon footprint concept is related to and grew out of the older idea of ecological footprint, a
concept invented in the early 1990s by Canadian ecologist William Rees and Swiss-born regional
planner Mathis Wackernagel at the University of British Columbia. An ecological footprint is the total
area of land required to sustain an activity or population. It includes environmental impacts, such as
water use and the amount of land used for food production. In contrast, a carbon footprint is usually
expressed as a measure of weight, as in tons of CO2 or CO2 equivalent per year.

The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat.
This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The greenhouse
effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live.

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How does the greenhouse effect work?

As you might expect from the name, the greenhouse effect works …
like a greenhouse! A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a
glass roof. Greenhouses are used to grow plants, such as tomatoes and
tropical flowers.

A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the

daytime, sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and
air inside. At night time, it's colder outside, but the greenhouse stays
pretty warm inside. That's because the glass walls of the greenhouse
trap the Sun's heat.

The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases in
the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat similar to the glass
roof of a greenhouse. These heat-trapping gases are called greenhouse
gases. During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface warms up in the
sunlight. At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat back into the air. But some of the heat is
trapped by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our Earth a warm and cosy 58
degrees Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius), on average.

Earth's atmosphere traps some of the Sun's heat, preventing it from escaping back into space at night.

How are humans impacting the greenhouse effect?

Human activities are changing Earth's natural greenhouse effect. Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil
puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere.

NASA has observed increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and some other greenhouse gases in
our atmosphere. Too much of these greenhouse gases can cause Earth's atmosphere to trap more and
more heat. This causes Earth to warm up.

What reduces the greenhouse effect on Earth?

Just like a glass greenhouse, Earth's greenhouse is also full of plants! Plants can help to balance the
greenhouse effect on Earth. All plants — from giant trees to tiny phytoplankton in the ocean — take
in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen.

The ocean also absorbs a lot of excess carbon dioxide in the air. Unfortunately, the increased carbon
dioxide in the ocean changes the water, making it more acidic. This is called ocean acidification.

More acidic water can be harmful to many ocean creatures, such as certain shellfish and coral.
Warming oceans — from too many greenhouse gases in the atmosphere — can also be harmful to
these organisms. Warmer waters are a main cause of coral bleaching.

Global warming, the phenomenon of increasing average air temperatures near the surface of Earth
over the past one to two centuries. Climate scientists have since the mid-20th century gathered
detailed observations of various weather phenomena (such as temperatures, precipitation, and storms)
and of related influences on climate (such as ocean currents and the atmosphere’s chemical
composition). These data indicate that Earth’s climate has changed over almost every conceivable
timescale since the beginning of geologic time and that human activities since at least the beginning
of the Industrial Revolution have a growing influence over the pace and extent of present-day climate
change.

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 Student Agency

Student agency is defined as the capacity to set a goal, reflect and act responsibly to effect change.

SDG- Life on earth

Choose any one topic related to the environment, which you think needs an urgent call for action by
all countries and reflect your views on the same. Human beings impacting the ecology.

Goal:

Reflect:

Your actions as a responsible citizen:

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 Learner profiles
1. Caring
2. Reflective

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