WEEK 10.

Classroom Management: How to cope with diversity,

misbehavior and misconduct?

The Power of Personal Relationships Thomas S. Mawhinney and Laura L. Sagan

Title: The Power of Personal-Relationship Building in Education

Introduction: Donta's Experience Highlights Significance

 Donta's encounter with her teacher illustrates the impact of

personal-relationship building.
 The initial student/teacher encounter often shapes the entire school
year.
 The quality of teacher-student relationships is crucial for classroom
management and student achievement.

Building Positive Relationships:

 The example of a teacher welcoming Donta after a stressful situation.

 The contrast between coercive and welcoming classrooms.
 Emphasis on emotional security for higher-level thinking.
 Researchers assert the significant impact of teachers on student
achievement.

Personal-Relationship Building Skills:

 Describing personal-relationship building as a vital skill.

 Two-part definition: Contacting students' personal worlds and traits
that foster affection.
 The importance of adding these skills to a teacher's repertoire over
time.

Ways of Contacting Students' Personal Worlds:

1. Knowing Your Students:

 Differentiating instruction based on students' interests.

 Recommending interest surveys to discover students'

uniqueness.
 Advocating for teachers to allow students to know them
personally.
2. Reestablishing Contact and High Expectations:
 Overcoming negative interactions by reestablishing positive

contact.
 Emphasizing the need for closure in discipline problems.

 Academic benefits of high expectations and their role in

personal-relationship building.

Conclusion:

 Highlighting personal-relationship building as a crucial skill for

teachers.
 Emphasizing the impact on classroom atmosphere and student
readiness.
 Encouraging continuous development of these skills for effective
education.
Title: The Role of Active and Empathetic Listening in Education

Introduction:

 Active listening as a powerful teaching strategy.

 James Stronge categorizes it under the broader concept of caring.
 Active listening's impact on student participation and engagement.

Benefits of Active Listening:

 1. Understanding and Acknowledging Student Contributions:
 Active listening emphasizes understanding the context and

content of students' remarks.

 Acknowledging and referencing students' contributions fosters

a positive atmosphere.
2. Nonjudgmental Approach:
 Encouraging an open, nonjudgmental environment.

 Allowing students to express themselves without fear of

criticism.
3. Signaling the Importance of Student Input:
 Demonstrating that students' thoughts and responses are

valued.
 Using students' names when referencing their contributions for

a personalized touch.

Involvement Beyond the Classroom:

 Teachers' involvement in extracurricular activities fosters

connections.
 Attending events outside regular school hours strengthens the
teacher-student bond.
 The positive impact of teacher presence at school activities.

Teacher Traits for Building Relationships:

1. Respect, Courtesy, and Fairness:

 The story of a respected teacher exemplifying courtesy and

fairness.
 Emphasizing the importance of basic human qualities often

overlooked in secondary schools.

2. Caring and Understanding:
 Balancing caring without crossing professional boundaries.

 The concept of "pedagogic caring" and its positive impact on

student motivation.
3. Humor:
 Recognizing the role of humor in engaging certain types of
learners.
 Differentiating between appropriate and inappropriate humor

in the classroom.
4. Love of Children:
 The essential quality of genuinely caring for children in

education.
 Addressing the issue of individuals in education who may lack

affection for students.

Risking Closeness:

 Andy Hargreaves' notion of the "emotional geographies of

teaching."
 The dilemma of maintaining professional distance while fostering
genuine connections.
 Balancing closeness and detachment in the teaching profession.

Conclusion:

 Advocacy for personal-relationship building as a coachable and

crucial skill.
 Dismissing the myth that effective teachers are born, not made.
 Emphasizing the learnable nature of teaching skills and the
continuous improvement of educators.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of spending initial class time
establishing rules and procedures?
Advantages of Spending Initial Class Time Establishing Rules and
Procedures:

1. Clear Expectations:
 Advantage: Setting rules and procedures at the beginning

creates clear expectations for students.

 Impact: Students understand the behavioral standards,

fostering a positive learning environment.

2. Classroom Management:
 Advantage: Establishing rules helps in effective classroom

management.
 Impact: It prevents disruptions, making it easier for teachers to

conduct lessons and maintain order.

3. Promotes Respect:
 Advantage: Rules promote mutual respect between students

and teachers.
 Impact: Students feel secure when expectations are known,

leading to a more respectful and positive classroom culture.

4. Time Efficiency:
  Advantage: Investing time in the beginning saves time in the
long run.
 Impact: Proactively addressing potential issues minimizes

disruptions, allowing for more efficient teaching throughout the

year.
5. Consistent Environment:
 Advantage: Establishing procedures creates a consistent

learning environment.
 Impact: Students benefit from a predictable structure, which

can enhance focus and engagement.

6. Student Accountability:
 Advantage: Clear rules hold students accountable for their

behavior.
 Impact: Students are more likely to take responsibility for their

actions when expectations are transparent.

Disadvantages of Spending Initial Class Time Establishing Rules and

Procedures:

1. Time Consumption:
 Disadvantage: Spending too much time on rules may take

away from instructional time.

 Impact: Excessive rule-setting may hinder the introduction of

academic content.
2. Overemphasis on Control:
 Disadvantage: Excessive rule-setting may create an

atmosphere of control.
 Impact: Students might perceive the learning environment as

restrictive, affecting motivation and creativity.

3. Student Overwhelm:
 Disadvantage: Introducing numerous rules at once can

overwhelm students.
 Impact: Instead of clarity, students may feel confused and less

focused on learning objectives.

4. Inflexibility:
  Disadvantage: Strict adherence to rules may lead to
inflexibility.
 Impact: Some students may feel stifled, and unique situations

might not be appropriately addressed.

5. Negative Perception:
 Disadvantage: Excessive rule-setting might create a negative

perception.
 Impact: Students may view the learning environment as

authoritarian, affecting the teacher-student relationship.

6. Failure to Address Root Issues:
 Disadvantage: Overemphasis on rules may overlook

addressing underlying issues.

 Impact: Behavioral problems might persist if the focus is solely

on enforcing rules without understanding the root causes.

In summary, while establishing rules and procedures is essential, balance

is key to ensure a positive and effective learning environment without
sacrificing instructional time or stifling creativity.

Which method of “contacting students’ personal world” do you admire most?

The effectiveness of methods for "contacting students' personal world"
can vary based on individual preferences, teaching styles, and the specific
context of the classroom. Different students may respond differently to
various approaches. However, some methods are generally considered
effective in building positive teacher-student relationships. Here are a few
methods that are often deemed effective:

1. Active Listening:
 Effectiveness: Actively listening to students, showing empathy,

and responding thoughtfully can build trust and understanding.

2. Getting to Know Students Through Interest Surveys:
 Effectiveness: Understanding students' interests helps tailor

lessons to their preferences, making the learning experience

more engaging.
3. Teacher Self-Disclosure and Genuineness:
  Effectiveness: Sharing appropriate aspects of the teacher's life
fosters a sense of authenticity, making students feel more
connected.
4. Involvement in Extracurricular Activities:
 Effectiveness: Actively participating in events outside the

classroom demonstrates commitment and can strengthen

teacher-student relationships.
5. Reestablishing Contact After Negative Interactions:
 Effectiveness: Making an effort to rebuild connections after

conflicts shows students that mistakes can be overcome and

emphasizes positive interactions.
6. Using Humor:
 Effectiveness: Appropriately using humor can create a positive

and relaxed classroom atmosphere, contributing to a more

enjoyable learning environment.

It's important for teachers to be flexible and responsive, adapting their

approach to the unique needs and preferences of their students. Building
strong teacher-student relationships often involves a combination of
these methods, applied with genuine care and consideration for the
individuality of each student.

The authors speak of the dangers of involving oneself too closely in the personal
lives of students. What are your views on this issue? In your own school
experience, did you observe problematic examples of this?
The text emphasizes the delicate balance that teachers must strike when
involving themselves in the personal lives of students. While caring and
understanding are essential components of effective teaching, there are
potential dangers associated with becoming too closely entwined in the
personal lives of students. Here are some considerations and my views on
this issue:

Pros:
 1. Building Trust and Connection: Being aware of students' personal
lives can help build trust and a stronger connection between
teachers and students.
2. Addressing Individual Needs: Understanding students'
backgrounds and challenges allows teachers to tailor their approach
to better address individual needs.
3. Enhancing Learning: A supportive and understanding teacher-
student relationship can contribute to a positive learning
environment.

Cons:

1. Professional Boundaries: Overinvolvement may blur professional

boundaries, leading to potential ethical concerns or
misunderstandings.
2. Teacher Burnout: Constant involvement in students' personal issues
can be emotionally draining and may contribute to teacher burnout.
3. Unequal Attention: There's a risk of providing unequal attention to
students based on personal relationships, potentially creating
favoritism.

In my own school experience, I have observed instances where teachers

became overly involved in students' personal lives. While most of these
interactions were well-intentioned, there were cases where the boundaries
between professional and personal became unclear. This sometimes led
to challenges in maintaining a fair and consistent approach to all
students.

It's crucial for teachers to exercise discretion and ensure that their
involvement in students' personal lives remains within appropriate
professional boundaries. Setting clear expectations, maintaining
confidentiality, and seeking guidance from mentors or school policies can
help navigate the fine line between caring for students and overstepping
professional boundaries.
WEEK 11- Sociology of Education

Title: Challenging Myths About Poverty in Education

Introduction:

 Educator's Dilemma: Janet's Struggle

 Need to Eradicate Systemic Inequities

Roots of the Culture of Poverty Concept:

 Oscar Lewis and the 1961 "Culture of Poverty" term

 Ethnographic Studies and Attributes Shared in Small Mexican
Communities
 Debate and Research on the Concept
 Conclusion: Lack of Empirical Support

Debunking Common Myths:

1. Myth: Poor people are unmotivated and have weak work ethics.
 Reality: No weaker work ethics; often work multiple jobs.

2. Myth: Poor parents are uninvolved in their children's learning,

largely because they do not value education.
 Reality: Similar attitudes about education; barriers to

involvement.
3. Myth: Poor people are linguistically deficient.
 Reality: All people use a full continuum of language registers;

linguistic varieties are structured.

4. Myth: Poor people tend to abuse drugs and alcohol.
 Reality: No higher likelihood of substance abuse; wealthier

individuals more prone to alcohol abuse.

Implications for Education:

 Need for Educators to Challenge the "Culture of Poverty" Myth

 Importance of Understanding Class and Poverty
 Overcoming Prejudices and Providing Equal Opportunities
Conclusion:

 Urgency to Challenge Harmful Myths

 Focusing on Systemic Inequities for Low-Income Students

Direkt okumayı yap

WEEK 12- Curriculum and instruction

High Stakes Testing and Educational Inequality in K-12 Schools Ronald W.

Solórzano

Subject: Curriculum and Pedagogy, Educational Politics and Policy, Research and
Assessment Methods
Title: The Impact of High Stakes Tests on Students of Color in U.S.
Education

Introduction: High stakes tests' extensive use and detrimental effects on

students of color. Historical association with exclusionary and racist
motives, contributing to discriminatory practices in college admissions.
Persistence of adverse impact in modern education.

Legacy of Tests and Discriminatory Practices: Early tests linked to

exclusionary and racist motives. Discrimination in college admissions,
fostering genetic and cultural deficit theories to explain low achievement
for students of color. Continuation of adverse legacy in present-day
education.

Demographic Changes and Challenges: Growth of students of color

with diverse languages and cultures poses challenges to the schooling
process.

Impact on Students of Color: Disproportionate penalization by school

policies. Unequal educational experiences and persistent achievement
gaps. Trends in reading and math disparities. Detrimental effects on
English learners, with language and opportunity to learn (OTL) concerns.
Test-Based High Stakes Decisions: Negative effects on students of
color, including retention, graduation, and dropout rates. Influence on
English learners' educational paths.

Testing Results and Trends: Disparities in reading and math

achievement. Maintenance of inequality and lack of progress.

Ramifications and Recommendations: Adverse effects on students of

color. Need for culturally and linguistically relevant curriculum. Integration
of communities and schools for critical analysis. Empowering teachers as
instructional leaders. Recommendations for lasting change.
Title: The Legacy of Testing and Educational Inequality

Introduction: High stakes tests, with historical ties to eugenics, remain

prevalent in education, often linked to standards, accountability, and
efficiency. Since the "Nation At Risk" report, schools face scrutiny,
emphasizing higher test scores, competitive courses, and quality teaching.
High stakes tests control the K-12 process, impacting students, teachers,
and administrators, with repercussions leading to sanctions.

Defining High Stakes Tests: Tests are considered high stakes when an
individual student's score determines educational paths, program
eligibility, grade promotion, or graduation. Schools failing to meet
standards face reconstitution or conversion to charters. Public reporting
of school scores adds praise or shame, affecting schools, especially those
with high enrollments of students of color or English learners.

Persisting Educational Inequality: Racial achievement gaps persist, with

Hispanic and Black students scoring lower than White and Asian students.
Minority-populated schools often have fewer resources and higher
disciplinary actions, contributing to ongoing inequality.

Historical Context and Discriminatory Practices: Legacy of

discriminatory practices, such as boarding schools, denial of education,
and segregation, contributes to the current unequal state. The concept of
"educational debt" denotes the ongoing impact of historical oppression.
Present Inequality and Poverty: Current educational practices, including
segregation and limited language instruction, maintain inequality. A
significant number of children live in poverty, with minorities
disproportionately affected.

Role of Tests in Sustaining Inequality: Tests, initially established for

sorting soldiers, continued to sort K-12 students, disproportionately
impacting Blacks, Latinos, and even Jewish students. Eugenic theories
perpetuated by tests influenced discriminatory practices. Terman's
eugenics advocacy reinforced segregation and cultural deficit models to
explain low achievement among minority students.

Impact on Latino and Black Students: Eugenic theories led to genetic

and cultural deficit models, explaining low achievement among Latino
and Black students. While genetic literature tempered, cultural deficit
models persisted, attributing low achievement to students' language and
cultural characteristics.

Conclusion: The legacy of testing, rooted in eugenics, has contributed to

persisting educational inequality. Current practices and policies continue
to shape the unequal experiences of students of color, emphasizing the
need for transformative changes in the education system.
Title: Demographic Changes, Inequality, and High Stakes Testing in
K-12 Education

Introduction: Demographic shifts in K-12 public school enrollment, with

a decrease in White students and an increase in Hispanic and Asian
students, highlight the growing diversity in the student population. The
impact of this shift on educational policies, particularly high stakes testing,
is crucial for addressing the needs of students of color.

Demographic Changes: Over a 16-year period, White children's

percentage decreased, while Hispanic and Asian percentages increased,
emphasizing the growing presence of Latino students. Current enrollment
trends project a continued increase in Hispanic and Asian populations,
underlining the importance of considering language and culture in the
educational process.
Impact of Inequality and High Stakes Tests: Against a historical
backdrop of xenophobia and racism, present-day high stakes tests
contribute to negative educational consequences for students of color.
Retention and graduation policies, both tied to testing outcomes,
disproportionately affect students of color.

Retention and Inequality: Grade retention policies, often tied to test

scores, disproportionately impact students of color. Latinos and Blacks
face higher retention rates than their White counterparts. Tracking, lack of
cultural relevance in the curriculum, and inadequate resources exacerbate
the vulnerability of students of color to retention policies.

Tracking and Opportunity to Learn (OTL): Tracking by ability and

language negatively affects students' opportunity to learn grade-level
subject matter. High stakes tests, used for placement in special programs
and tracking, contribute to inequality. English-language proficiency tests
and grade-level tests determine program placement, further perpetuating
disparities.

Impact on Latino and Black Students: Latino and Black students

experience higher retention rates than White students, with an increasing
trend. The GAO study reveals additional negative consequences, such as
higher suspension and expulsion rates, for students in high poverty and
high Black and Hispanic enrollment schools.

Correlation with Dropout Rates: Grade retention correlates with student

dropout rates, with studies suggesting an overall negative effect on
retained children. The practice is discriminatory and adds to the likelihood
of dropping out, perpetuating the cycle of inequality.

Conclusion: The intersection of demographic changes, high stakes

testing, and educational policies results in adverse consequences for
students of color. Retention policies, informed by high stakes tests,
contribute to a cycle of inequality, disproportionately affecting Latino and
Black students. Urgent attention is needed to reform policies, address
cultural relevance, and ensure equitable opportunities for all students.
Title: Dropout Rates, High School Exit Exams, and English Learners:
Impact on Students of Color

Introduction: This section addresses the impact of high school exit exams
and dropout rates, specifically focusing on their disproportionate effects
on students of color and English learners. High-stakes testing, tied to
graduation requirements, is examined for its role in perpetuating
educational inequalities.

High School Exit Exams: High school exit exams, implemented in 28

states, aim to ensure students' attainment of an acceptable level of
learning for graduation. However, studies indicate a correlation between
these exams and increased dropout rates, emphasizing the need for a
critical examination of their impact.

Deficit Model and Pushout Phenomenon: The term "dropout" implies a

deficit model, placing blame on students and families rather than
acknowledging systemic issues such as resource deficiencies, segregation,
and inadequate teaching. Students of color, especially, may experience a
"pushout" phenomenon, where they are forced out due to cultural
mismatches in traditional schooling practices.

Predictive Power and Curriculum Alignment: Exit exams assume

predictive power for future success, yet evidence supporting this is
challenging to gather. Furthermore, the failure of these exams may result
from inadequate teaching of the subject matter, highlighting the
importance of curriculum and instruction alignment.

Inequality in Dropout Rates: While overall dropout rates have decreased

over time, gaps persist between White and minority students. Hispanics
continue to experience higher dropout rates than Black and White
students, indicating ongoing disparities.

Dropouts (Pushouts) and English Learners: English learners, particularly

Latinos, face vulnerability in high-stakes testing and school completion.
They often attend under-resourced schools and experience higher
dropout rates. The number of English learners is increasing, emphasizing
the need for tailored educational approaches.

Challenges Faced by English Learners: English learners, primarily

Spanish speakers, face challenges in high school completion rates. The
graduation rates for this group are notably lower than the national
average, with limited English proficiency posing a significant barrier.

Declining Participation Rates and Academic Achievement:

Participation rates for English learner programs are decreasing,
particularly among Hispanics, while their academic achievement remains
lower than other groups. The decline in participation is concerning given
the challenges English learners face in acquiring grade-level content.

Conclusion: The intersection of high-stakes testing, dropout rates, and

the experiences of English learners underscores the urgent need for
educational reforms. The current system perpetuates inequalities,
especially affecting students of color and English learners, necessitating
culturally relevant and linguistically appropriate educational strategies.
Title: The Role of Achievement Tests in Perpetuating Inequality in
Education

Introduction: This section delves into the implications of achievement

tests, focusing on how they contribute to educational disparities,
particularly for Black and Latino students. The article critiques the singular
use of tests for making crucial educational decisions and highlights the
racial discrepancies in test scores, emphasizing the impact on curricular
decisions.

Critique of Single-Purpose Testing: The article argues against the

practice of using one test for various life-changing educational decisions
such as grade retention, denial of diplomas, tracking for college prep or
remedial courses, and acceptance into special programs. Testing experts
caution against relying on a single test for multiple purposes, as tests are
designed with specific goals in mind, and their misuse can narrow the
curriculum.
Influence of High-Stakes Tests on Curriculum: High-stakes tests, due
to their prominence in educational policies, shape curriculum and
pedagogy. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
underscore the significant impact of these tests on educational practices.
The article highlights how the focus on test content narrows the
curriculum, restricting what is taught in schools.

Racial Disparities in Reading Achievement: Using data from the

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), the article presents
reading achievement trends for Grades 4, 8, and 12. Despite overall score
increases, racial gaps persist, with Black and Hispanic students
consistently scoring below White and Asian counterparts. The gaps have
endured over decades, indicating a systemic failure to address
educational inequalities.

Math Achievement Disparities: Similar disparities are observed in math

achievement, where White and Asian students consistently outscore Black
and Hispanic students. Although scores improved for all groups between
1990 and 2015, achievement gaps remained largely unchanged. The
article emphasizes that despite efforts, Black and Hispanic students
continue to lag behind their peers in math achievement.

Impact on High School Students: For high school students, reading and
math scores did not show significant improvement over two decades. The
racial achievement gaps persisted, with Black students experiencing a
decline in reading scores. The article underscores that policies aimed at
enhancing educational equality have not effectively addressed disparities,
leading to a perpetuation of unequal academic growth and opportunities.

Conclusion: The article concludes by asserting that the historical legacy

of tests, rooted in racism, continues to shape educational outcomes for
students of color. The use of tests has resulted in lower achievement in
reading and math, higher rates of in-grade retention, and increased
dropout rates for Black and Latino students. English learners face
additional challenges, further hindering their academic success. The article
calls for a critical reevaluation of testing practices to dismantle the
enduring cycle of educational inequality.
Title: Addressing Educational Inequality: A Call for Culturally
Relevant Assessments

Introduction: The article critically examines the use of high-stakes tests in

K-12 education, particularly their adverse effects on students of color,
such as Blacks and Latinos. The author contends that these tests
contribute to perpetuating educational inequality, and historical
discrimination against people of color is reflected in the current
educational landscape.

Persistence of Educational Inequality: The article emphasizes the

prolonged trend of educational inequality, as evidenced by consistent or
growing gaps in test scores between racial groups. Despite warnings from
testing experts about the limited validity of using one test for multiple
purposes, policymakers continue to employ these tests without
questioning their effectiveness.

Historical Context and the Education Debt: Drawing a connection

between historical discrimination and current educational disparities, the
article introduces the concept of the "education debt" proposed by
Ladsen-Billings. The article argues that high-stakes tests, historically
rooted in eugenics and racism, play a pivotal role in maintaining this debt
by overlooking the experiences and histories of people of color.

Recommendations:

1. Culturally and Linguistically Relevant Content: The author calls

for a reevaluation of what is considered essential in education. The
article advocates for curricula that integrate the lived experiences,
languages, and cultures of people of color, challenging the Euro-
centric narratives present in current textbooks.
2. Implementing a Multicultural Curriculum: The article supports the
infusion of diverse perspectives into the curriculum, advocating for a
transformative and social action approach. This includes changing
basic assumptions about the curriculum to provide a more inclusive
and representative education.
 3. Empowering Students for Social Change: The author proposes a
curriculum that empowers students to become reflective social critics
and active participants in social change. This approach aims to
develop critical thinking skills and political efficacy among students.
4. Reassessment of Tests and Assessments: The article recommends
a reevaluation of tests and assessments to align with a culturally and
linguistically relevant curriculum. Assessments should focus on
understanding whether important content and skills have been
learned, rather than reproducing dominant narratives that maintain
inequality.
5. Flexible and Authentic Assessments: Tests do not need to be
commercially purchased; instead, the article suggests developing
more relevant and authentic assessments that consider the diverse
ways in which students demonstrate knowledge. Teachers should be
involved in developing assessments that inform their instruction.
6. Teacher Involvement and Understanding: Teachers should play a
central role in assessment practices, understanding the appropriate
use of various tests. Assessments, including performance and
authentic assessments, should be seamlessly embedded in the
teaching and learning process.
7. Linguistically Sensitive Assessments for English Learners:
Assessments should be linguistically sensitive to the needs of English
learners. Depending on the purpose of the test, English learners
should not be assessed, especially for high-stakes purposes, in
English.

Conclusion: The article concludes by advocating for a shift in educational

practices, urging a departure from the current high-stakes testing system.
The recommendations emphasize the importance of a culturally relevant
curriculum, authentic assessments, and teacher involvement to address
the persistent educational inequality.
Title: Fostering Equality in Education: A Holistic Approach

Introduction: The article underscores the detrimental impact of high-

stakes tests on educational inequality, specifically for students of color. It
argues that these tests perpetuate disparities in learning outcomes, hinder
opportunities, and contribute to the broader concept of the "education
debt."

Community and School Integration: The author advocates for the

integration of communities into schools, emphasizing shared challenges
such as discriminatory practices and resource disparities. Community
schools, providing comprehensive services, are proposed as a means to
improve outcomes, especially for low-income students.

Education Debt and Community Empowerment: The concept of the

"education debt" is introduced, highlighting the link between societal
inequalities and educational disparities. The article contends that schools
cannot improve if communities remain under-resourced and plagued by
poverty and racial discrimination. Collaboration between schools and
communities is essential to address these challenges.

Statewide OTL Index: A proposal for a statewide Opportunity-to-Learn

(OTL) Index is presented. This index aims to monitor schools' progress in
achieving equity in various aspects of the schooling experience. The
responsibility for low achievement is shifted from students to the
educational system, holding schools, districts, and states accountable for
resource provision.

Teacher Empowerment: The article emphasizes the pivotal role of

teachers in student success and calls for a shift in their role from mere
implementers to instructional leaders. Teachers should be trained to lead,
question existing standards, and engage in reflective practices. The
importance of a professional community of teachers is highlighted, where
collective responsibility for school improvement is prioritized.

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Teachers are encouraged to adopt

culturally relevant pedagogy, questioning the authenticity of content
standards and advocating for anti-oppressive teaching strategies. The
importance of bilingualism and culturally sensitive assessments is stressed
to support a relevant curriculum.
Conclusion: The article concludes by asserting that high-stakes tests
contribute to the continuation of racial inequality in schools. However, it
holds hope for true educational reform through a transformative
curriculum, empowered teachers, and community-school collaboration,
aiming to relegate high-stakes tests to assessments supporting classroom
teaching and learning.

WEEK 13. Hidden Curriculum

The Informal System and the "Hidden Curriculum"

How "Invisible" Forces Impact Educational Experiences

Title: Unveiling the Hidden Curriculum: Sociological Perspectives on
School Dynamics

Introduction: The text delves into the sociological exploration of schools,

emphasizing the significance of the hidden curriculum within educational
institutions. The narrative begins with a vivid scene of a high school where
sociological observations are made, setting the stage for the examination
of the often unnoticed influences schools exert on students.

The Power of School Experiences: Schools are portrayed as powerful

environments shaping students not only through formal education but
also through the hidden curriculum. This less tangible aspect comprises
unplanned and unofficial elements that significantly impact students'
identities and experiences.

The Open Systems Approach and the Informal System: The open
systems model is introduced to illustrate the intricate relationship
between the educational system and its broader environment. The focus
shifts to the informal system within schools, encompassing the hidden
curriculum, cultural capital, and organizational habitus. These elements
are explored in detail to connect subtle aspects of the educational system
to its outcomes on students.
The Hidden Curriculum: Rules, Routines, and Regulations: The hidden
curriculum is unveiled, defined as the implicit teachings embedded in
school practices. It goes beyond formal education, involving the
transmission of norms, values, and beliefs. The concept is traced back to
Philip Jackson's term, and examples like school bells, classroom
arrangements, and report card evaluations are discussed. The functionalist
and conflict perspectives offer distinct views on the hidden curriculum's
role in fostering social cohesion or perpetuating power dynamics.

Sociological Theories and Abstract Impacts: Sociological theories are

applied to dissect aspects of the hidden curriculum, exploring how
routines and regulations impact students' integration into society.
Ethnographic insights reveal how the hidden curriculum molds students'
perceptions of individualism, autonomy, and creativity. The text also
questions the influence of frequent standardized testing on students'
identities and their acceptance of societal inequalities.

College as an Extension: The discussion extends to higher education,

illustrating how the hidden curriculum persists in college settings. The
absence of bells in college teaches self-discipline, while unspoken rules
govern intellectual, linguistic, and social conventions. The hidden
curriculum's emphasis on individualism in college may alienate certain
students, highlighting disparities in cultural assimilation.

Conclusion: The text concludes by emphasizing the pervasive nature of

the hidden curriculum throughout the educational system. It serves as a
critical lens through which sociologists can analyze the often overlooked
influences that shape students' perspectives, behaviors, and societal roles.
Title: Decoding Educational Dynamics: Classroom Codes, Language,
and Cultural Capital

Introduction: The educational landscape is a complex tapestry woven

with intricate patterns of classroom codes, language practices, and
cultural capital. In this exploration, we delve into the subtle yet powerful
forces that shape the informal aspects of the educational system.
Classroom Codes: Classroom routines are laden with interactions, both
verbal and nonverbal, totaling 300–600 per hour. These interactions,
termed "codes" by sociologist Basil Bernstein, convey implicit messages
about values, power dynamics, and attitudes. Bernstein's concept
highlights how language practices in education shape social reproduction.

Language Codes and Pedagogy: Bernstein defines codes as organizing

principles governing language practices within social groups. In
education, codes regulate curriculum transmission and pedagogy.
Elaborated speech codes, explicit and detailed, dominate classrooms,
influencing student-teacher interactions. This preference for elaborated
codes perpetuates and reflects social class inequalities.

Case Illustration: Story Time in Class: A 1st-grade story time scenario

illustrates the impact of speech codes on perceptions of student
intelligence. The use of elaborated or restricted codes in student
responses inadvertently influences teachers' assessments, contributing to
the labeling of students as either "smart" or "dull."

Cultural Capital: Pierre Bourdieu's concept of cultural capital, a symbolic

resource tied to cultural experiences, plays a pivotal role in educational
dynamics. Cultural capital operates as a form of social exchange, where
possessing the "right" cultural capital can result in social rewards and
positive evaluations within the educational system.

Case Illustration: "What I Did over Summer Break" Essays: An example

involving students' essays on summer break activities illustrates how
cultural capital influences teacher perceptions. The teacher's affinity for a
student with experiences aligning with middle-class cultural capital
inadvertently reinforces social class inequalities.

Symbolic Violence and Cultural Arbitrary: Bourdieu introduces the

concept of "symbolic violence," where the exclusion of certain forms of
cultural capital inflicts discouragement on students. Cultural arbitrary
emphasizes that the definition of valuable cultural capital is often
arbitrarily dictated by dominant classes, contributing to the reinforcement
of social hierarchies.
Organizational Habitus: The concept of organizational habitus extends
these ideas to explore how class-based dispositions, perceptions, and
appreciations become embedded in a school's culture. Schools are viewed
not merely as collections of individuals but as entities through which
pervasive streams of beliefs and practices flow.

Examples of Organizational Habitus: Examples at the elementary and

high school levels demonstrate how organizational habitus influences
teaching approaches and college guidance. Beliefs about students'
capacities, rooted in socioeconomic factors, lead to routines and practices
that either limit or expand students' educational opportunities.

Conclusion: In conclusion, the intricate interplay of classroom codes,

language practices, cultural capital, and organizational habitus shapes the
hidden curriculum of education. Recognizing these forces is crucial for
understanding how subtle yet impactful dynamics contribute to the
reproduction of social inequalities within the educational system.
Title: Unveiling Dynamics: Normative Institutional Arrangements in
Higher Education

Introduction: The exploration of higher education unveils the influence

of organizational habitus on student experiences. The term "normative
institutional arrangements" encapsulates how elements of campus life,
often unnoticed by students, shape social interactions and establish
control over social environments.

Greek Life and Gender Relations: The impact of normative institutional

arrangements on gender relations within Greek life is exemplified through
a case study at a Midwestern university. Rashawn Ray and Jason Rosow
found that the organizational structure of Black Greek organizations
fostered more egalitarian gender relations compared to predominantly
White Greek organizations. Minority status and the absence of formal
"houses" contributed to this difference.

Campus Sexual Assault: Normative institutional arrangements are

implicated in campus sexual assault dynamics, particularly party rape.
Elizabeth Armstrong, Laura Hamilton, and Brian Sweeney argue that
organizational-level factors such as resource distributions and ideologies
contribute to the "predictable outcome" of party rape. Concentration of
affluent students, limited social spaces on campus, and strict alcohol
policies intersect to push partying off-campus, exposing students to
greater risk.

Social Class and Identity: Normative institutional arrangements can

contribute to the isolation of lower-income students despite efforts to
enhance accessibility. Elite colleges' practices, such as separate lines for
voucher pickups and preferences in campus housing, inadvertently
exacerbate social class segregation. The concentration of affluent students
in specific areas leads to limited awareness of socioeconomic diversity,
perpetuating information monopolies on opportunities.

Conclusion: Normative institutional arrangements act as the backdrop

against which interactions unfold and identities are shaped on college
campuses. The locally specific structural arrangements play a crucial role
in determining the trajectory of social dynamics, gender relations, class
identities, and access to opportunities within higher education.
Understanding these arrangements is essential for addressing and
mitigating the inadvertent consequences they may yield.
Title: Unveiling the Impact: Education and the Built Environment

Introduction: Architectural designs significantly influence the purpose

and activities within educational buildings, with implications for student
behavior and performance. The relationship between the built
environment, particularly classrooms, and students' learning, behavior,
and identities is a critical area of exploration.

Built Environment and Learning: Research indicates that the physical

environment of a school, encompassing factors like building age, lighting,
and maintenance, significantly impacts student learning. Features such as
ideal temperature and natural lighting are associated with higher
educational attainment. "Excellent" school buildings contribute to
increased test scores, attendance rates, and a positive emotional
environment.
Classroom Layout and Seating Arrangements: Classroom setups where
the teacher is the center influence student behavior. Students in the
"action zone" exhibit higher focus, participation, and achievement.
Seating arrangements impact classroom climate; rows foster individual
task focus, while semi-circles enhance class discussions. The physical
environment, including decor and seating, should align with the learning
task at hand.

Friendship Patterns and Organizational Structure: The organizational

structure of classrooms and schools influences friendship patterns. Open
classrooms, despite declining popularity, promote interaction, shared
activities, and varied skill demonstrations. School layouts, especially in
terms of ability tracking, can either encourage or inhibit interactions
across diverse groups. Architecture plays a role in shaping student
interactions and friendships.

School Size and Impact on Education: Smaller schools are associated

with increased student engagement, leadership opportunities, and social
equality. However, replicating the benefits of naturally small schools
within larger school structures, such as schools-within-a-school, presents
challenges. Research indicates higher teacher and student engagement,
feelings of connectedness, and increased safety in smaller schools.

Challenges and Criticisms of Small Schools: While small schools show

success in engagement and satisfaction, challenges persist. The
replication of stratification patterns within small schools and the influence
of testing protocols pose hurdles to achieving educational equity. Critics
argue that small schools may inadvertently perpetuate old patterns of
school stratification and segregation.

Conclusion: The built environment in education, encompassing both

architectural design and organizational structure, plays a substantial role
in shaping student experiences. While less consciously designed, these
informal aspects significantly impact student learning, friendships, and
identities. Understanding and addressing these influences are crucial for
creating educational environments that foster equity and positive
outcomes for all students.
Applying Sociology to Education: How do you think the size, physical
condition, and architecture of your school impacted your learning,
attitudes toward school, and social interactions?
1. School Size:
 Learning Experience: In smaller schools, students may have

more active roles, increased interaction with teachers, and a

more personalized learning environment. They may feel a
greater sense of engagement and involvement in school
activities.
 Attitudes Toward School: Smaller schools can foster positive

attitudes toward school, as students may feel more connected

to their peers and teachers. A sense of community and shared
responsibility may contribute to a more favorable view of the
learning environment.
2. Physical Condition of the School:
 Learning Experience: The physical condition of a school,

including factors like building age, lighting, and maintenance,

can impact students' concentration and overall learning. A well-
maintained and aesthetically pleasing environment is likely to
contribute to a positive learning experience.
 Attitudes Toward School: A clean, safe, and well-maintained

school environment can positively influence students' attitudes

toward school. Conversely, poorly maintained facilities may lead
to dissatisfaction and a negative perception of the learning
environment.
3. Architecture of the School:
 Learning Experience: Classroom layouts and architectural

designs influence the dynamics of learning. Factors such as

seating arrangements, use of natural light, and overall design
can impact students' focus, participation, and achievement.
 Attitudes Toward School: The architecture of a school,

including its aesthetic appeal and functionality, contributes to

the overall atmosphere. Schools with well-designed and inviting
spaces may foster positive attitudes among students.
4. Social Interactions:
  School Size: In smaller schools, students may have more
opportunities for interaction and forming friendships across
different age groups. Larger schools may present challenges in
terms of forming connections due to the sheer number of
students.
 Architecture: The physical layout of classrooms and common
areas can influence social interactions. Open classroom designs
may encourage collaboration, while traditional layouts might
contribute to more structured social dynamics.

In summary, the size, physical condition, and architecture of a school

collectively shape the learning environment, attitudes toward school, and
social interactions. These factors interact in complex ways, and a well-
balanced and thoughtfully designed educational space can contribute to
a more positive and conducive learning experience for students.