WHI Institute for Competitive Exams.

ENGLISH ESSAY & PRECIS

LECTURE
CSP Sir Abdullah

Deconstruction of the Topic: Political Polarization,

Governance, and Society

Political Polarization
Political polarization refers to the growing ideological distance and division between

different political parties or groups. Historically, political polarization has fluctuated,

influenced by various social, economic, and political events. In the United States, for

instance, the Civil War era, the Civil Rights Movement, and recent decades have all
seen significant levels of polarization.

Political polarization in Pakistan refers to the increasing ideological and political divide

between major political parties and groups. Historically, Pakistan has experienced

periods of significant polarization, such as during the era of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz

Sharif in the 1990s, and more recently with the rise of Imran Khan's Pakistan Tehreek-

e-Insaf (PTI). Case Study of 2018 and 2024 election.

Causes of Polarization:
 ● Media: The rise of partisan news outlets and social media has amplified echo
chambers, where individuals are exposed only to information that reinforces
their existing beliefs. I.e., Channels like Geo News and ARY News often take
starkly different editorial lines, reflecting and reinforcing the polarization.
● Economic Inequality: Disparities in wealth and income can create distinct
socio-economic groups with divergent political interests and priorities. I.e.,
Urban areas like Karachi and Lahore often have different political priorities
compared to rural areas.
● Social Identity: Politics often intersects with race, religion, and other identity
markers, leading to polarized group identities. For example, the political
landscape in Karachi is heavily influenced by ethnic groups like the Muhajirs,
represented by parties such as the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM

Effects on Political Discourse and Democracy:

● Political Discourse: Polarization can lead to more contentious and less

constructive political debates, reducing the possibility of compromise. I.e., After
2018 election, the PTI government and opposition parties like the Pakistan
Muslim League-Nawaz (PML-N) and Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) often
engage in heated exchanges. After removal of Imran Khan we saw the same.
Even now, after 2024 election we are witnessing that old discourse.
● Democracy: High levels of polarization can undermine democratic processes
by fostering distrust in institutions, increasing political gridlock, and encouraging
extreme political behaviors. I.e., The 2018 and 2024 (even every election)
general elections were marred by accusations of military interference and
manipulation.

Governance
Governance refers to the processes and structures through which societies are

managed and decisions are made. Effective governance is crucial for maintaining

order, delivering public services, and ensuring the rule of law.

Types of Governance:

● Democratic: Involves participatory decision-making, free elections, and

protection of individual rights.
● Authoritarian: Centralized control with limited political pluralism and individual
freedoms. Pakistan has experienced significant military influence over politics,
 most notably under Zia ul Haq from 1977 to 1988 and General Pervez
Musharraf's regime from 1999 to 2008
● Hybrid Systems: Combine elements of both democratic and authoritarian
governance. Pakistan's governance often features a hybrid model with
democratic institutions overshadowed by strong military influence.

Relationship Between Governance and Political Polarization:

● In democratic systems, polarization can lead to policy stagnation and weakened

institutions. After 2018 elections, the polarization between PTI and opposition
parties resulted in legislative gridlock. And the same is being repeated after
2024 elections.
● In authoritarian regimes, polarization might be suppressed, but underlying
tensions can still exist, potentially leading to instability. During periods of military
rule, such as under General Zia-ul-Haq and General Musharaf, polarization was
often suppressed, but underlying tensions persisted, affecting long-term
stability.

Society
Society comprises the people, institutions, and social relationships within a country. It

plays a critical role in shaping political norms, values, and behaviors.

Impact of Polarization on Societal Cohesion and Stability:

● Cohesion: Polarization can erode social trust and solidarity, leading to

fragmented communities.
● Stability: Extreme polarization can increase the risk of social unrest and
violence, destabilizing society.

Interconnection
How Polarization Affects Governance:

● Polarization can paralyze legislative processes, hinder policy implementation,

and reduce public trust in government. Political polarization in Pakistan affects
 governance by creating legislative gridlock and hindering policy
implementation. For example, PTI's difficulties (during their tenure) in passing
key legislation due to opposition resistance reflect this impact. In contemporary
legislative processes, we can't see the major development in law making even
after 2024 election due to polarization.
● In extreme cases, it can lead to democratic backsliding or the rise of populist
and authoritarian leaders. I.e., Abusive politics, personal attacks etc

Outline:

1. Introduction

Thesis Statement: This essay explores the complex interplay between political
polarization, governance, and society, examining historical trends, current
dynamics, and future prospects through detailed case studies of various regions.

2. Historical Evolution of Political Polarization and Governance

2.1) A brief historical perspective on political polarization and governance

reveals how these dynamics have evolved over time.
(i) The early days of democratic governance often centred on policy
differences and ideological perspectives.
(ii) In the 20th century, ideological divides intensified during events such as
the Cold War.
(iii)The rise of global communication and media in the late 20th and early
21st centuries further amplified these divides.

3. Exploring the Dynamics of Political Polarization, Governance, and Society

3.1) Political Polarization

▪ Modern democracies have witnessed a significant rise in political

polarization, characterized by the increasing ideological distance
between political parties and groups.
▪ The media plays a pivotal role in shaping public opinion and political
discourse, often amplifying polarization through partisan coverage.
▪ Economic inequality is a significant driver of political polarization, as
disparities in wealth and income create a sense of injustice and fuel
resentment among different social groups.
▪ Social identity theory explains how individuals' affiliations with
particular groups influence their political attitudes and behaviors,
leading to group polarization.
 3.2) Governance

▪ Political polarization undermines democratic governance by making it

difficult to achieve consensus on important policy issues.
▪ In some cases, political polarization leads to the rise of authoritarian
leaders who promise to restore order and stability.
▪ Various regions experience a significant political and social polarization
which which promotes extremist elements in society impacting the
governance and introducing the fascist laws against
minorities/communities. i.e., Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
Trump and his supporters etc
▪ The polarization enhances the sectarian divisions which create
behavioural unacceptance regarding the governance among the
members of different factions.

i.e Sunni- Shia Muslims, have long influenced political dynamics and
governance.

3.3) Society

▪ The polarization has led to the rise of populist movements that exploit
political polarization for electoral gains.
▪ The polarization in politics and society has contributed to frequent
changes in government and social unrest.
▪ The world has experienced political polarization that affects its
governance and societal stability, with divisions between major political
parties and ethnic groups.
▪ Social institutions such as education, religious organizations, and civil
society play a crucial role in either mitigating or exacerbating political
polarization.

3.4) Interconnection and Future Prospects

▪ Effective governance reforms are essential to address political

polarization and its negative impacts.
▪ The future prospects of political polarization and whether it can be
reversed are uncertain, requiring a multifaceted approach to address its
root causes.
4. Case Studies of Various Countries
o Detailed analysis of the United States, focusing on partisan divides and their
impact on governance and society.
o Examination of India, highlighting the role of Hindu nationalism in political and
social polarization.
o Discussion of the Middle East, with a focus on sectarian divisions and their
impact on governance.
o Analysis of Europe, exploring the rise of populist movements and their
influence on political polarization.
o Study of African nations, emphasizing ethnic polarization and its effects on
governance and societal stability.
 oReview of South America, examining political instability and ideological
divisions.
o Evaluation of Pakistan, assessing political polarization and its impact on
governance and society.
5. Conclusion:
o Recap of key points.
o Implications for future governance and societal stability.
o Potential solutions and the role of global cooperation.

Essay

Political polarization has become a defining feature of contemporary politics, influencing

governance and society on a global scale. From the United States to India, and across Europe,
Africa, and South America, increasing division among political groups poses significant
challenges to effective governance and societal cohesion. Understanding the causes, impacts,
and potential solutions to political polarization is crucial for maintaining democratic stability
and social harmony. The essay explores the complex interplay between political
polarization, governance, and society, examining historical trends, current dynamics, and
future prospects through detailed case studies of various regions.

A brief historical perspective on political polarization and governance reveals how these
dynamics have evolved over time. In the early days of democratic governance, political debates
often centred on policy differences and ideological perspectives. The 20th century saw
ideological divides intensify, particularly during events such as the Cold War, which polarized
nations along capitalist and communist lines. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the rise
of global communication and media further amplified these divides, with the proliferation of
partisan media outlets and the advent of social media creating echo chambers and reinforcing
existing biases. Key definitions and concepts, such as political polarization, governance, and
societal cohesion, provide a foundation for understanding this complex issue.

Modern democracies have witnessed a significant rise in political polarization, characterized

by the increasing ideological distance between political parties and groups. This trend
undermines democratic processes, leading to gridlock and inefficiency in governance. For
instance, in the United States, the polarization between Democrats and Republicans has
reached unprecedented levels, affecting legislative productivity and public trust in government
institutions. The intense partisanship has made it difficult for lawmakers to reach compromises,
resulting in frequent government shutdowns and legislative stalemates.

The media plays a pivotal role in shaping public opinion and political discourse. In many cases,
media outlets, particularly those with partisan leanings, contribute to polarization by
emphasizing divisive issues and framing news in a way that reinforces existing biases. Social
media platforms, with their algorithms favouring sensational and emotionally charged content,
further exacerbate this divide by creating echo chambers where individuals are exposed only
to information that aligns with their beliefs. This phenomenon has been observed in the United
States, where partisan media and social media platforms have deepened the ideological divide
between conservatives and liberals.

Economic inequality is a significant driver of political polarization. Disparities in wealth and

income create a sense of injustice and fuel resentment among different social groups. In many
countries, economic policies that favour the wealthy and neglect the needs of the poor
exacerbate these divisions, leading to political movements that reflect these socioeconomic
divides. For example, in Brazil, economic inequality has contributed to the rise of populist
leaders who exploit these divisions for political gain. The election of Jair Bolsonaro, a far-right
leader, reflects the growing discontent among the Brazilian population with the traditional
political elite and their inability to address economic disparities.

Social identity theory explains how individuals' affiliations with particular groups influence
their political attitudes and behaviours. Group polarization occurs when like-minded
individuals come together, reinforcing their shared beliefs and becoming more extreme in their
views. This phenomenon is evident in many societies, where political parties and movements
are increasingly defined by social identities such as race, religion, and ethnicity, leading to
heightened tensions and conflicts. In India, for example, the rise of Hindu nationalism under
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has intensified divisions between religious communities,
particularly Hindus and Muslims.

Political polarization undermines democratic governance by making it difficult to achieve

consensus on important policy issues. In highly polarized environments, political leaders are
more likely to prioritize partisan goals over the common good, leading to ineffective
governance and public disillusionment with the political system. This dynamic is evident in
countries like the United States, where polarization has led to government shutdowns and
legislative stalemates. The inability of lawmakers to reach bipartisan agreements on critical
issues such as healthcare, immigration, and climate change has eroded public trust in
government institutions.

In some cases, political polarization leads to the rise of authoritarian leaders who promise to
restore order and stability. These leaders often exploit divisions within society to consolidate
power, undermining democratic institutions and processes. For example, in Turkey, President
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has used polarization to justify increasing his control over the judiciary,
media, and civil society, eroding democratic norms and institutions. Erdoğan's authoritarian
measures have been justified as necessary to combat political opponents and ensure national
stability, but they have also curtailed political freedoms and suppressed dissent.

The United States provides a stark example of political polarization, with deep divisions
between Democrats and Republicans on issues such as healthcare, immigration, and climate
change. This polarization has been fuelled by factors such as economic inequality, media
influence, and social identity politics. The 2020 presidential election and its aftermath
highlighted the extent of these divisions, with widespread allegations of electoral fraud and a
violent attack on the Capitol. The polarization has not only affected governance but also social
cohesion, as Americans increasingly view members of the opposing party with distrust and
hostility.

India, the world's largest democracy, has also experienced significant political and social
polarization. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the Bharatiya Janata
Party (BJP), Hindu nationalist rhetoric has intensified divisions between religious
communities. Policies such as the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) and the abrogation of
Article 370 have further polarized Indian society, leading to protests and communal violence.
The increasing influence of Hindu nationalist groups has marginalized minority communities,
particularly Muslims, and has led to a rise in hate crimes and social unrest.
In the Middle East, sectarian divisions, particularly between Sunni and Shia Muslims, have
long influenced political dynamics and governance. Countries like Iraq, Syria, and Yemen have
experienced devastating conflicts fuelled by these sectarian divides. Governance in these
regions is often challenged by the need to balance power among different sectarian groups,
leading to instability and external intervention. The ongoing civil wars in Syria and Yemen are
stark examples of how sectarian polarization can lead to prolonged conflicts and humanitarian
crises.

Europe has witnessed the rise of populist movements that exploit political polarization for
electoral gains. Parties such as the National Rally in France, Alternative for Germany (AfD),
and the Brexit Party in the UK have capitalized on public discontent with traditional political
elites and concerns over immigration and economic inequality. These movements have
challenged the established political order and strained the European Union’s cohesion. The
Brexit referendum, in particular, highlighted deep divisions within British society and raised
questions about the future of European integration.

In many African nations, ethnic polarization plays a significant role in shaping political
dynamics and governance. Countries like Kenya, Nigeria, and Ethiopia have experienced
ethnic conflicts that undermine national unity and democratic governance. Political leaders
often use ethnic divisions to mobilize support, leading to violence and instability. For instance,
in Kenya, election-related violence has been fuelled by ethnic tensions, as political parties align
themselves along ethnic lines. Efforts to promote inclusive governance and address ethnic
grievances are crucial for long-term stability in these countries.

South America has a history of political instability, with polarization contributing to frequent
changes in government and social unrest. Countries like Venezuela, Brazil, and Argentina have
experienced significant political divisions, often along ideological lines. In Venezuela,
polarization between supporters and opponents of the socialist government has led to economic
collapse and a humanitarian crisis. The political impasse has resulted in widespread poverty,
food shortages, and mass migration. In Brazil, the rise of far-right President Jair Bolsonaro has
deepened political and social divisions, with his controversial policies and rhetoric sparking
protests and opposition.

Pakistan has experienced political polarization that affects its governance and societal stability.
The country’s political landscape is marked by divisions between major political parties, such
as the Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) (PML-N), Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), and Pakistan
Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI). These divisions are often exacerbated by ethnic and regional
differences. The political polarization in Pakistan has led to frequent changes in government,
instability, and challenges in implementing consistent policies. The 2018 general elections,
which brought PTI to power under Imran Khan, highlighted the deep political divisions in the
country, with allegations of electoral rigging and protests by opposition parties.

Social institutions such as education, religious organizations, and civil society play a crucial
role in either mitigating or exacerbating political polarization. Education systems that promote
critical thinking and civic engagement can help reduce polarization by fostering a more
informed and tolerant citizenry. Religious organizations and civil society groups that
emphasize dialogue and cooperation can also bridge divides and promote social cohesion. In
many societies, these institutions act as mediators, providing platforms for dialogue and
conflict resolution.
Effective governance reforms are essential to address political polarization and its negative
impacts. Reforms could include measures to increase political accountability, enhance
transparency, and promote inclusive decision-making processes. Electoral reforms, such as
proportional representation, can also help reduce polarization by encouraging coalition-
building and compromise among political parties. Strengthening the rule of law and protecting
civil liberties are crucial for maintaining democratic governance in polarized societies.
Implementing policies that address economic inequality and promote social justice can also
reduce the underlying causes of polarization.

The future prospects of political polarization and whether it can be reversed are uncertain,
requiring a multifaceted approach to address its root causes. Efforts to reduce polarization must
involve a combination of political, economic, and social reforms. Promoting inclusive
governance, fostering dialogue and understanding among different social groups, and
addressing economic disparities are essential steps towards reducing polarization. Global
cooperation and the sharing of best practices can also play a crucial role in addressing this
challenge. The resilience of democratic institutions and the commitment of political leaders to
prioritize the common good over partisan interests will be critical in determining the future
trajectory of political polarization.

In conclusion, political polarization poses significant challenges to governance and societal

stability across the globe. The interplay between political polarization, governance, and society
is complex and multifaceted, influenced by historical, economic, social, and institutional
factors. Understanding this interplay is crucial for developing effective strategies to address
polarization and its impacts. By promoting inclusive governance, fostering social cohesion,
and addressing the root causes of polarization, societies can work towards maintaining
democratic stability and social harmony. The case studies of various regions highlight the
diverse manifestations of polarization and the importance of context-specific solutions. Global
cooperation and the commitment of political leaders to prioritize the common good are
essential for addressing the challenges posed by political polarization in the 21st century.