Elements and the periodic table

particlesinanatom
Atomsaremadeofprotonsandelectrons inthenucleus andaresurrounded
by a largecloud ofnegativelychargedelectrons
Proton charge 1 Mass 1 Atomicmassvsnumber
Atomicmass isthenumberofprotons neutrons in anatom
Elston Half mm hooo
ofproton atomicnumberisthenumber ofprotonsinanatom
Atomicmass
Whatsanisotope
a
AtomswiththesamenumberofprotonsAn butdifferentnumberof a Elemseyntmoo

neutrons massnumber Theyhaveidenticalchemicalpropertiesbutdifferent

physicalproperties massdensity
Radioactiveisotopesdonthaveastablenucleus number
Atomic

Electronegativity theabilityofanatomtoattractelectronstowardsitself it increases

across a period anddecreasesdown a group IFthemost

subshellconfigurations

2
is 3 shellsarenumbered1,2 Theyareanenergylevel
subshellsexistwithinshells s p d f sublevel energy
l L 6
of
3 subshellsaremadeoforbitals12electrons Electronsarefound

i 332 thecondensedformulausesthe
48,9 noble gasclosest

criticalelements
criticalelementsareelementsthat are heavilyreliedon for industryandsocietyinareassuch
asrenewableenergy electronics eat
Lithium batteries
Aluminium packaging valence lines bonding lonepairs
Lewis dots
Lewisdiagrams structural pairs
bondpairs notlone
needs8 dotssurroundingtheelement

Na N N H2o H O can citzel a a

NEN P H
It
 Elements and the periodic table continued
shapes Polar vsnonpolar
Pyramidal If twoatomsin a covalentbondtheyarethesame electronsshared
equally diatomicmolecules
Bent

Linear H H 7 Hst F
symmetricalbondsarenon polar
Aysmmetricalmoleculescontainpolar arepolar
forces
intermolecular
theattractiveandrepulsiveforcesthatarisebetweenmolecules ofsubstances

dispersionforces
existbetweenAll molecules polarvsnonpolartheyarecausedbytemporarydipolesthataretheresult
of random movement of electrons Alwaysbetweenmolecules
Theyaretheweakestforce itincreasesthebiggerthebiggerthemasshighermelting points

DipoleDipole
occursbetweenpolarmolecules Result inattractionbetweenpositive
andnegativeendsofmolecules
Themorepolar stronger large electronegativitydifference

tydrogenBonding
occursbetween
highlypolarmolecules in which a
hydrogenbondswith a FON
strongestattraction groups
Godown
numberof
valenceelectrons

a Effer of
shells
 metals
theyhave a crystal latticestructure and have tightly
thestructureofmetals packed ato
metalsaremallableductileLustourousandhatehightensile
strength Malleble
canslideovereachother w o
freemoving

qq.gg I 9
breakingbonds sheets

High MP Bp
wire

d
Posh
Yghyrged Require a significantamount
particles stillholdtogether
whenforceapplied ofenergytobreakdueto
malleable ductile strong bonds

circularvslinear
economy Highmeltingpoint
theyhavehighmelting andboilingpoint
A linearEconomy productsaredisposed asthe bondsareverystrong
of afterbeingusedcreatinglots ofwaste
Leadsto depletion ofresources andenviro Hardbutbrittle
degradation
Strongelectrostaticforcesofattraction
Acirculareconomy resources areusedin a between ions in an ioniccompound so
loopwheretheyare reusedrecycled repaired if a strongforce disrupts thecrystal
promotingsustainability
IInisisdueto thelayer
Sodiumchloride NaCl ofalternatingcations
is a salt andisarranged with sodium anionswherelikeatoms
cationsandchlorideanions 6 ofeach one
areshiftedbesideeach
causingthem to repel
Electricalconductivity shatter
in solidform theycantmoreso electricity soluble insoluble
cannot beconducted however when soluble theionsbreakand bond with
meltedions become freetomore watermolecules mono
allowing for conductivity Insoluble theionsremainbonded and di
Posionsmore to negatively charged do not form a solution
electrodes resulting in a current electrolyte
compounds
Hydrated calls 2H20
G Iha
calciumchloridedihydrate
Reactions Reactions

Head alone in na son aq

fm off
Nitrate hydroxide
insoluble stectator ion
Ammonium oxide Na
potassium hosphate
Eethanoate sulfide
Bonding Comparison
Covalentlattices 3dimensionalcovalentlatticestructure
Allotrope differentformsofthesameelement

Diamond eachcarbonsurrounded
by4othersin a tetrahydral arrangement
veryhard sublimes brittlenonconductive singlebonds
usesforJewelleryandcuttingtools
have MP BPandalsoveryharddoesntconductconduct heat

Graphite each carbonbondedtothreecarbons and onedelocalised atom

conductive slippery
soft inlayers hexagonal
used in lubepencil
heldbyweakdispersionforces weakdispersion
forces betweenlayersallowtheselayerstoslide overeachother

Type Particles Bonding Structure Examples

lattice cathhiont Electrostatic repeatiaggerystalline na.ci

methke metalcations closelypackedcations cute

methffing
delocalised
electron inseaofdelocalised
carbonatoms continous network of diamond
Efflet coffeetg
bonded atoms graphite
Chromatography likedissolveslike
Polar polar
solution formedwhenasolidliquidorgasisdissolvedin aliquid nonpolar nonpolar
solute Thesubstancebeingdissolved miscibleorimiserole
solvent theliquiddissolving
Ionisation
whenyoucantdistinguishbetween moleculesthatare so polar
Homogenous theydissolveby
thesoluteorsolvent ionisingtoform hydratedionsthecovalent
bond breaks
Howcansubstancesdissolve
Theprocess iscalleddissociation HCl H2O CI t Hz t
become
hydrated
mote
mpoundsthatformhydrogenbondswwater
Thismeansthesolutionsaremiscible

of of o
I a
Insoluble
H H
dontdissolvein waterbecauseforcesof
420 attractionaremuchstrongerthan H2O
4H50H Y caltson aq

Dissociation
positiveends
ofwatermoleculesareattractedto negative ions and
viseversathis is iondipoleattractionionicbondsbrokenHbondsbroken
I I
Nacl s NatantCl Cag

Howdoes chromatography work JH

It is a processthatseparates differentsubstances in amixture
stationaryphase chalkpaper
mobilephase water
Effist
polar
Adsorption adheringontothesolidstationaryphase
Desorption dissolving into mobilephase
a sun
themorepolarthe
94,8194
solventthe higherit origin
goes mooi.ie hase
Mr
Continued

a solventfront distance componenttravels

so Rf
solventfrontdistance
gig am

iii iii ValuesAlwaysLessthan 1

themoststronglyabsorbedmovesshortestdistance
 MOLE in Allmolecalculations

Relativeatomicmass
relativeisotopicmass x abundence relativeisotopicmass x abundence
Ar
100
if calculatingabundences subin for x CalculateMolarMass
the biggerone 00 x themassin g ofonemoleinanelement
molarmass allmassesofelementstogether
measured in 91m01 7

My
mm f9massingm.it
amountinmole
me

Empiricalformula
206 207 208
tho ofisotopes I airitelysmallest
3 times to gettowholenumbers
n oofparticles
Molet Avogradosnumber 4 Empiricalformula
6.02 1023 n Avogrados
Avogrados a
molecularformula
hole
Empiricalformula molarmass
then divide the realativemass
bymolarmass
Percentage composition
massofelement incompound too
composition molarmassofcompound
Hydratedcompounds
shouldequal to100
Amount Amountafterheated water a
heate eg.al water amout
13 16 3 102 empiricalformula
M A1203 102
M Ala 54 ofhydratedCusoywasheatedand
eg 0.1809g

5 52.9 0.11569 ofCusoywasobtained

M H2O 0.1809 0.1156
thendo empiricalformula
 Organic Chemistry
series
Homologous

Agroupofmoleculeswithsimilar
structure pattermwphysical
properties

theintramolecular
forcesin hydrocarbons aretheforces that similarchemicalpropertiesthe
holdatomstogether Intermolecularforces existbetween samegenralformula Differs byCHz
molecules saturated
intermolecular
contains
onlyonesinglecarbonto
A a H
Emamaecular initiated
triple or doublebonded carbon to
carbonbonds
Alkanes
digamnic
Alkaneshave a formulaof Cn2nt2 and molecules that havethe
all ofthe carbonsare singally bonded samemolecular formularbut
theyarebothhomologousseries saturated differentstructuralformulas

Alkenes
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
andhave at least one doublebond
TheyhavethegeneralformulaChHan
Theyarefrom homologousseries

Branch
molecularformulas number typeofeachelement colt206

Iffy semistructural showschainofcarbonatomslistsinorder CHCHCH E CH

but
Alcohols
Alcoholshavethe OHgroupallowingthemtoform
intermolecularbonds betweenother
molecules
HBonds
Theyarepolar
Highboilingpoint
dissolve in water OHformsbondswithwater

solubility ofalcohols asthelengthincreases morenonpolar

 organic chemistry
Alkanes normal

methane th th tone 3 2 2 3 tt
isomers organicmolecules that havethesamemolecular formularbut
Butane differentstructuralformulas

i it
cHzCHzCHzCH
t.IQ i TYiEhyi
CH CHCH CH3
iftwobranches
on samecarbon

butane dimethyl
a methylpropane cc c

Alkenes include Functionalgroups

A groupofatoms thatgive
acharacteristicset of physical
but 1 ene and chemical properties to a
molecule containingthoseatoms
9 89 amethylprop a ene

Halokanes
Hydrogenreplaced with a halogenatom group17

Fluro
chloro
H CH3Br
H incorethane
Bromomethane
Bromo
todo
2
µ Cl cultscl2
112dichloromethylpropane
I
Alcohol
Analkanewith a hydrogenreplacedby a hydroxyl OH
group homologous

methanol CHUO H O H

ionaercnainiiigjiriiipiiii.in
combustion
ethanol oxygen carbondioxide water
2H50 i 302 g 2002 g 3H20 c

isomers
But 1 01 C C C C OH But 2 ol e c c 2methylprop 2 01 c C
gf of

CarboxylicAcids AlwayscountfromCOOHend
contain COOH RCOOH
2 methylbutanoic
methanoicacid HOOH H off II acid

Etim iii iiiis

ethanol butanoicacid ethyll butanoate water

methyll propanoate name

of carbonatomsattatened
No
limethyll to oxygen t is alcoholfyi
y No of atoms contain co from
carboxylic acid oate
not
profano