Chapter 1 Biology: The Science of Life

Learning Objectives

1. Explain the basic characteristics that are common to all living organisms.
2. Distinguish between the levels of biological organization.
3. Summarize how the terms homeostasis, metabolism, and adaptation all relate to living
organisms.
4. Contrast chemical cycling and energy flow within an ecosystem.
5. Define the term evolution.
6. Explain the process of natural selection and its relationship to evolutionary processes.
7. Explain how the fossil record, biogeography, anatomy and molecular biology support Darwin’s
theory of evolution.
8. Summarize the general characteristics of the domains and major kingdoms of life.
9. Identify the steps of the scientific method.
10. Describe the basic requirements for a controlled experiment.
11. Distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis.
12. Distinguish between science and technology.
13. Summarize some of the major challenges currently facing science.

Biology is the science of _________________________________

The Characteristics of Life

Characteristics shared by all living organisms:

▪ Life is _______________________________

▪ Acquire ______________________ and ____________________ from the environment

▪ Maintain an internal environment

▪ Respond to ___________________________________

▪ Reproduce
▪ Have adaptations

▪ Ability to __________________________ to changing conditions

Life is organized

▪ Cell—

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 1

 • The cell is living, but made up of nonliving molecules
• The majority of organisms are unicellular

▪ Ex:
• Plants, fungi and animals are multicellular

▪ Tissues—

▪ Organ—

▪ Organ systems—

▪ Organism

**Understanding the smallest part is crucial to understanding the whole

Levels of organization

___________________ - smallest unit of an element

___________________- union of two or more atoms

___________________ - structural and functional unit of all living things

___________________ - a group of cells with a common structure and function

___________________ - composed of tissues that function together for a specific task

___________________ - several organs working together

___________________ - complex individuals that contain organ systems

___________________ - organisms of the same species in a particular area

___________________ - interacting populations in a particular area

___________________ - community plus the physical environment

___________________ - regions of the Earth inhabited by living things (land, water and
atmosphere)

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 2

Maintaining homeostatic conditions

• _____________________________ relies on the maintenance of

______________ conditions within certain boundaries

• May depend on __________________________ —moving to a warmer

area
• Other Examples?

• May not require conscious activity—liver releases stored sugar

• Examples?

Homeostasis - the ability to maintain a relatively stable ___________________________

__________________________________ in an ever-changing outside world

• The internal environment of the body is also ______________ (ever changing to try to
reach a state of equilibrium)

• Chemical, thermal and neural factors in the body interact to maintain homeostasis

• Blood ______________________________
• Release of sugar from the liver

• Blood ______________________________
• After loss of blood

• Blood ______________________________
• Release of hormones

• ___________________________________
• Shivering, or sweating

Homeostatic control mechanisms

• A _____________________________________ produces a change in the body

• Ex: blood loss, starvation, increase in blood pressure

• 3 components of the control mechanism

• ________________________ – monitors the internal environment and detects the

change

• _________________________ _____________________ – determines the set

point for homeostasis (98.6 oF, 120/80, pH of 7.4, 1.5 gal of blood, blood sugar
level of 70-99 mg/dl)

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 3

 • _________________________ – provides the means to respond to the changes
(hormones and nervous center)

Life requires materials and energy

▪ Life cannot be maintained without them, examples:

▪ Food—

• Energy—

• Metabolism

▪
▪

Ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth is the ____________

• _________________________ transforms solar energy into chemical

energy of food.

How are nutrient materials and energy acquired?

Energy flows from the ________________ through ______________________, and through

other members that feed on each other.

___________________________________ return the nutrients to the producers.

Chemical Cycling -- Chemicals move from one population to another in a food chain

▪ Begins when __________________________________ take in solar energy

▪ The process of photosynthesis transforms ________________ ___________

into ________________________ ___________________

Some energy is lost to the atmosphere as ________________ -

The ecosystems could not stay in existence without _____________ ______________

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 4

 • Requires a ________________________ ___________________ of energy

Living organisms respond

▪ Find energy and/or nutrients by interacting with the environment

▪ Ability to respond often results in ______________________________

• Ex: leaves of a plant turn toward the sun
• Ex: Animals run to safety
• Ex:

Appropriate responses help ensure _________________________– these activities are

the __________________________________ of the organism.

Living organisms reproduce and develop

▪ Every living thing can ______________________ (make another organism like
itself)
• Bacteria and other single-celled organisms simply split in two –

_____________________ _______________________________

• In multicellular organisms, the reproductive process usually begins

with the union of egg and

sperm to produce an embryo – _________________ ________________

▪ Embryo grows and ______________________according to _______________

inherited from parents
▪ In all organisms, genes are made of __________________

• DNA provides the blueprint or ________________________________

▪ For _______________

Viruses are biological agents, but lack some key characteristics of life:

• Are not made up of __________________________

• They lack structures needed for cellular functions like homeostasis and metabolism

• They cannot _________________________ on their own

• are “body snatchers”
• they make the cell they infect do the work for them by hijacking the host cell’s machinery.
Living organisms have adaptations

▪ Adaptations are ____________________ that make organisms suited to their way

of life

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 5

 ▪ Some hawks catch fish, others are better at catching rabbits.

▪ Adaptations for flight –

▪ Adaptations for catching prey –

▪ Penguins have adaptations for swimming and surviving in very cold temperatures.
▪
▪
▪

An adaptation is a feature that is common in a _______________________ because

it provides some ___________________________ _________________________.

• Adaptations can take many forms:

• a _________________________ that allows better evasion of predators

• an ______________________ __________________ that allows the organism to

access a valuable new resource or allows it to blend in with its environment to
evade predators

• Ex:

Daily Adjustments vs. Population Changes

Daily adjustment or acclimatization are the adjustments of an _____________________ to their

environment

• Ex:

• Ex:

Population Changes result in changes in the __________________________ of a

____________________ over time

• Ex:

How do these population changes occur?

______________________ is the manner in which a ___________________becomes adapted

to their environment

__________________________________can result in a change of an anatomical

structure of the ___________________ population

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 6

Ex: Hawaiian honeycreepers
• All evolved from one species of finch
• Different _____________ ________________ resulted from different types of
____________
• Still share certain characteristics from common finch ancestor—body shape,
nesting behavior, etc.

• _______________________________ conditions led to the changes in bill shape

– adaptation.

Evolution —process by which __________________ accumulate ___________________

over ________________ to become more suited to their ________________________

The study of evolution involves all levels of biological ___________________________

• Core concept of biology— explains many different types of _____________________

It helps us understand why there are so many different types of organisms and why they have the
characteristics they do

Organisms share the same basic characteristics

▪ They are all composed of

▪ They all have genes that are composed

▪ This unity suggests living organisms descend from a _____________

__________________

•
•
•

Evolutionary tree traces the ___________________ of life on Earth to a

_____________________

___________________________ – it shows how groups of organisms are

___________________ to one another

Environments may change due to the influence of living or nonliving factors

Living (biotic factors)

1. Competition - Members of the same species use ________________________ that are in

__________________________ __________________

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 7

 • ________________ (plants competing for sunlight)

• ________________ (animals competing for food sources)

• ________________ (habitat - area of the community)

2. Predation –

• As the prey population increases, they are easier to find by their predators

3. ____________________________ – one species obtains nutrients from another species

(usually does not kill the host but can weaken it).

Non-living (abiotic factors)

1. __________________________________ – precipitation and temperature

•

2. __________________________________ - Volcanic eruptions, meteors

Why do we care about evolution?

Understanding evolution has practical applications

• Prevention and treatment of _____________________

• ____________________________ of bacteria to antibiotics is becoming common

• Tuberculosis
• Gonorrhea
• Staph

▪ If one bacterial cell lives because it is __________________to

_______________________, its offspring will inherit this drug-defeating ability

▪ The more antibiotics are used, the more natural selection favors resistant bacteria, and
the more often antibiotic resistant infection will occur.

Ex:

How does evolution occur?

_____________________________ __________________________ – process that results in a

___________________________ adapted to the __________________ and thus leads to
evolution

Natural selection requires:

1. Organisms vary __________________

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 8

 • Physical, functional, or behavioral characteristics

2. Organisms ________________________ to __________________________

• More offspring are produced than the resources can support

3. Organisms differ in their ____________________ (reproductive success)

• Individuals that have favorable traits survive and reproduce to a greater extent

Over time, the proportion of the favorable trait _________________ in a __________________

• the population becomes _______________________ to the environment

Charles ______________________ and Alfred Russell _______________ both independently

came to the conclusion that evolution occurs by a process called natural selection.

• Natural selection is based on how a population ______________ in response to its

environment

▪ The most fit are ________________ __________________ to their environment

▪ The most fit _________________________ more than the others

▪ Therefore, the most fit individuals become __________ _________________ in a

population

▪ This is known as ___________________ _________________

**However, there were different ideas on the mechanism of evolution:

1. Inheritance of acquired characteristics (proposed by _________________)
2. Natural selection (proposed by _________________)

Mechanisms of evolution

Lamarck’s proposal - Inheritance of _____________________________ characteristics

Originally, giraffes had short necks.

Giraffes ______________________ their necks in order to reach food.

With continual stretching, most giraffes now have long necks.

NOT supported by modern genetics

Darwin’s proposal - Natural selection

Originally, giraffe neck length ________________________________

Competition for food (the ______________________ to ____________) caused long-necked

giraffes to survive and have the most offspring

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 9

Due to ________________ ______________, most giraffes now have long necks

(________________________ _______________________).

Mutations create ____________________ in nature

• Lamarck believed these mutations were generated _______________________
• Darwin believed these mutations occurred by ________________ ___________
• Darwin’s theory is supported by modern science
• We now know that natural selection is not operating on organisms, but on their units of
_______________________________ (genes)

Natural selection is supported by data

• The members of a population have ___________________ (ex: some long and short
necks)

• The population produces more offspring than the resources can support (ex:

______________________ _____ ____________)

• The individuals that have a ______________________ _____________ survive (ex: only

the giraffes with long necks survive)

• They _____________________________ and pass the _____________________ traits

to

their _____________________________ (due to genetics the offspring will have long necks)

• Over time, the population has longer necks

• The _______________________ has ____________________ to its environment.

If heredity did not have a way to maintain these ______________________, then the alterations
in these ___________________ would disappear. There would not be a mechanism for an
organism to evolve new characteristics.
Evidence of evolutionary change

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 10

Darwin’s conclusions are based on 3 things:
1. Fossil evidence
2. Biogeographical evidence
3. Anatomical evidence

Darwin’s conclusions are further supported by ______________________ _______________

4. Molecular evidence.

Evolutionary evidence (Darwin’s conclusions):

1. Study of geology and _____________

▪ Fossils are mineralized ______________________ of formerly living organisms or the

impressions of formerly living organisms

▪ Fossils trapped in rock strata show us changes in organisms have progressed over
time

• usually from the _________________ to more __________________

▪ Species are not fixed but have ________________ _____________ ____________

▪ Fossils can tell the _________________ _______________ of Earth

Some interesting fossils serve as ____________________ links between groups.

It took about 15 million years for whale ancestors to transition from life on land to life in water
(several “intermediates” in between).

Transitional form that links __________________ and __________________

archaeopteryx
• The remains of this ancient organism have some characteristics that are
similar to a bird and some characteristics that are similar to a reptile
• Jaws with teeth (like a reptile) and wings and feathers (like a bird)

2. Biogeography - Study of the distribution of life-forms on Earth

▪ When forms are related, they evolved in one locale and then spread to accessible regions

▪ South America and Australia were once connected a long time ago when both marsupial
(kangaroos, wombats, etc.) and placental mammals arose

After Australia drifted away (by continental drift), the marsupials __________________ into many
different forms because it didn’t have to compete with the placental mammals

Each type of marsupial _________________ to a different way of life from a ________________

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 11

In the Americas, the placental mammals competed successfully against the marsupials. The only
marsupial to remain is the opossum
▪ Supports that evolution is influenced by the _____________________ (involves both

___________________ and ______________ factors)

Since evolution is influenced by the __________________environment on a particular continent

• Geographic isolation leads to genetic isolation, and eventual _________________

isolation
o

• This can drive the origin of _________________ -species

• _____________________ - formation of a new species

Darwin’s observation of finches (observed in the Galapagos Islands)

• Some were like mainland finches, others quite different

o Ground-dwelling finch beak size dependent on _______________ they eat

o Tree-dwelling finch beak size and shape dependent on the ________________ they eat

Darwin speculated that the ancestral finch migrated to different islands and the
_________________

_________________________ allowed the finch to evolve into a different _______________

Different species of finches occurred because the isolated populations evolved

____________________________ of the mainland population

• Due to different environments on each island.

3. Anatomical evidence

When one species splits into two, the resulting species share similar ______________, or
homologous traits
• They have common decent – come from a ______________ _____________
• Ex: All vertebrate forelimbs contain the same set of bones organized in similar ways
despite

dissimilar _____________________

• Anatomically similar structures – __________________ structures

Matching set of arm bones (__________________________ structures) have been altered by

evolution for different functions

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 12

Evolutionary evidence is further supported by modern technology (supports Darwin’s conclusions)

4. Molecular evidence

▪ All living organisms use the same biochemical molecules, including

_________ and __________________, indicating a degree of relatedness

Genes that produce fitness become gradually ___________________________ in populations

through the selection of the favorable traits, thereby allowing organisms to become more and
more adapted to their environments

Natural ___________________ can be an asset that gives an organism the capacity to

__________

Take home message on evolution:

• Organisms ________________________________ – from that single cell 4 billion

years ago to

the complex multicellular organisms of today, supported by the _____________

______________

Geology and fossils, anatomy, molecular biology, biogeography support the theory that

all organisms come from a ________________________ _______________________

Organizing the Diversity of Life

___________________ —discipline of naming and classifying organisms according to certain

rules
▪ Categories of classification
• Domain
• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species

*each level of organization contains a level of relatedness based on the ___________ of the
organisms

A species contains organisms that share a __________ _________ and can interbreed.

Systematics – classification of organisms based on evolutionary __________________

• As we learn more about these relationships between species, the taxonomy of a

given organism may _________________

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 13

 • Using modern day DNA analysis also brings about changes to the classification system

3 domains
▪ Domain _____________________
• Prokaryote—unicellular, does not have a membrane-bound nucleus
• May be representative of first cells on Earth

▪ Domain _____________________
• Prokaryote—unicellular, does not have a membrane-bound nucleus
• Found almost everywhere

▪ Domain _____________________
• Eukaryote
• Unicellular or multicellular
• Membrane-bound nucleus
Archaea

• Live in aquatic environments

• Can live in environments that:

▪ Lack ______________________________

▪ Extreme ___________________________

▪ Extreme ____________________________

▪ Too ________________

Bacteria
• Found almost everywhere
• Structurally simple, but metabolically diverse

Importance of Bacteria

• Nitrogen fixing
▪ turn atmospheric nitrogen to a form available to plants

• Photosynthesis
▪ some are photosynthetic - low on food chain; produce O2

• Food production
▪ Yogurt, sour cream, buttermilk, etc.

• Bioremediation
▪ Use bacteria to clean up oil spills, for example

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 14

 • Medicine production

• Genetic modification

• Help us __________________________ our food!

Domain Eukarya is divided into four kingdoms

▪ Kingdom Protista
▪ Kingdom Fungi
▪ Kingdom Plantae
▪ Kingdom Animalia

Each living thing has a two-part scientific name called the __________________ name

▪ Written in _________________________

▪ First word is ________________________

▪ Second word is specific epithet (or ________________________)
▪ Used by scientists to avoid confusion of common names

Ex:

Biology is the scientific study of life, so it requires the use of ____________________

___________

• Scientific method begins with ____________________________

▪ Can involve touch, hearing, sight, smell

• Develop a __________________________
• Scientist uses inductive reasoning—uses creative thinking to combine isolated facts
into a cohesive whole.

▪ Hypothesis— ___________________ explanation for an observation

▪
▪ Based on existing knowledge

▪ Can be __________________ (is falsifiable)

• Make a __________________________________ and perform experiments

• Prediction - what the scientist thinks the results will be

• Experiments – ______________________________ that test a hypothesis

• Requires good experimental design, where all the conditions are constant except
experimental variable

• _________________ group versus _______________ group

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 15

 • Collect and analyze _____________________ - ___________________ of an
experiment
• Scientists are skeptics

• Develop a ____________________________________________________
• Is the hypothesis supported or not?
▪ Experiments and observations must be repeatable.

Experimental variables

Independent – ___________________________ or manipulated variable

• also called the experimental variable

• condition that is deliberately changed
• Test groups are exposed to the __________________________ variable

Control – variable that is held ________________________

▪ This group is not exposed to the experimental variable being tested

Dependent – variable that changes because of the change in the independent variable

▪ Something that can be _________________________________

An example of a controlled study

We know that most stomach ulcers are caused by bacteria
• Hypothesis: Antibiotic B is better than Antibiotic A in current use for the treatment of ulcers
• 3 experimental groups
• Two treatment groups – A and B

• Control group receives _________________- Treatment appears to be the same

as the medicine, but actually does not contain the medicine.

Test subjects don’t know what they are receiving

• This is important to avoid a ________________

If the person believes they are taking medicine that will help, 20% of the time it will make them
better

even if there is no medication in the pill – known as the ______________ ______________

• Results determined by endoscopy

• Double-blind study—technician doesn’t know which group patient is in.
• Conclusion—investigators conclude their hypothesis is supported
• Scientific studies published in a scientific journal
• Review process
• General public usually relies on secondary sources, which may be inaccurate.
• Be especially careful of information on the Internet.

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 16

Scientific Theory - an accepted _________________________ for how the world works

• A hypothesis confirmed by many different studies becomes known as a

____________________________ ___________________________
▪ Ex: cell theory – says all organisms are composed of cells
▪ Ex: theory of evolution – all organisms have a common ancestor
• Can also be referred to as laws or principles

• ______________ - systematic way of getting _______________________

• Scientific findings lead to the development of technology

• ________________________—application of scientific knowledge for a practical purpose

▪ can have benefits and drawbacks
▪ Ex: cell phones
• ________________________________________—branch of ethics concerned with the
consequences of technology

Important scientific issues:

•
• Zika virus – can cause birth defects
•

• Global warming
• _______________________________________—variation in life on Earth; refers to
numbers of different species
▪ Estimated 400 species per day are lost due to human activity
▪ Extinction affects biodiversity

Interesting videos:

https://youtu.be/9CuhqQzBACQ

https://youtu.be/aTftyFboC_M

https://youtu.be/n3265bno2X0

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 17

Chapter 2: The chemical basis of Life

Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish among the types, location, and charge of subatomic particles.
2. Relate how the arrangement of electrons determines an element's reactivity.
3. Explain how isotopes are useful in the study of biology.
4. Contrast ionic and covalent bonds.
5. Identify the reactants and products in a chemical equation.
6. Describe the general structure of a water molecule.
7. List the properties of water that are important to life.
8. Understand the importance of hydrogen bonds to the properties of water.
9. Distinguish between an acid and a base.
10. Interpret the pH scale.
11. Explain the purpose of a buffer.

Metabolism –

Cells use chemical reactions

• This involves the formation of bonds
• Involves the breaking of bonds

• Required to maintain ______________________ and perform essential cellular functions

• Complex chemical reactions are involved in

•
•
•
•

The physical structure of a molecule enables its chemical nature, the chemical nature enables its
physiological function, and the physiology permits its __________________ ________________.

Physiology is the matching of ________________ to ______________________

__________________ - the study of ______________

Matter – anything the occupies ______________ and has ________________

______________ – matter that cannot be _________________________________________

Ex:

Ex of things that are not elements:

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 18

3 most abundant elements in our bodies:
•
•
•

Atom —

• Cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical reactions

• Has all the same __________________ of an element
Atomic theory states that elements consist of _______________

▪ Atomic ____________________________________—name of the atom or element

• Ex: _______ for hydrogen or _________ for sodium

▪ Subatomic particles

• ___________________________—no electrical charge, found in nucleus

• ___________________________—positive charge, found in nucleus

• ___________________________—negative charge, found outside of nucleus

Nucleus contains protons ( ) and neutrons ( )

Shells contain electrons ( )

Molecule is at least ___________ _________________ bonded together

Ex:

Ex:

___________________ - molecule that contains atoms of 2 or more ______________elements

Ex:

Ex:

What is the difference between a compound and a molecule?

A molecule is formed when _________ or _________ _____________ join together chemically.

It can be the same atom –

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 19

OR

It can be different atoms -

A compound is a molecule that contains at least _______ _______________________elements

**All compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds.

Molecular hydrogen (H2), molecular oxygen (O2) and molecular nitrogen (N2) are

_________________ but not compounds because each is composed of a ___________ element

Water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) are ___________________________

because each is made from more than one element (they are also ______________________)

*Properties of a ____________________________ are different from the properties of its

individual __________________

Ion is a ______________________ _____________________ – either positive (+) or negative (-)

• Formed when an atom gains OR loses an __________________

Ex:

_____________________ are atoms of the same element that have a different number of

__________________

Ex: hydrogen -

_______________________________ isotopes are atoms that emit radiation because the

excess neutrons are ________________________________, so they emit

__________________

Not all isotopes are radioactive

Ex:

Radiocarbon dating is a method for determining the age of something by comparing the amount
of C-14 to amount of C-12 in a sample

Unstable isotopes are radioactive

▪ They spontaneously emit subatomic particles or radiation

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 20

Radioactive isotopes are useful because an organism will take an isotope into the cell and use it
normally because the cell ________________________________________________________
1. Cells take up the molecules that have a radioactive atom and the decay can be detected
Ex: radioactive glucose (contains C-14) but looks the same as normal glucose

***Can be used as a _________________________ to see if an _____________ is functioning

properly.

PET scan uses sensors to detect the radiation and computers can then analyze the information to
detect:
•
•
•
•
2. Subatomic particles that are emitted from the radioactive atom can ________________
___________________ ___________________
• Packets of radioactive isotopes are placed in the body to destroy the cells in the area
• Ex: to remove prostate cancer

3. Radioisotopes can be used to ___________________________ surgical instruments

4. Radioisotopes can be used to kill bacteria in food.

Radioactive substances can also cause harmful changes in cells, damaging _____________ and
can cause ______________________

• Ex: the radioactivity released from the Fukushima nuclear plant after a tsunami
destroyed the facility

Electrons are constantly moving

▪ Electrons orbit the _______________________ in electron ______________

• ____ electrons fill first shell

• ____ electrons fill each additional shell

▪ Octet rule for __________________ shell (outermost shell)

• If an atom has more than 2 shells, the ___________________ shell is most stable
with _______ electrons

• Atoms can give up, accept, or share electrons to have 8

▪ Chemical ______________________________ of atoms are largely determined by the

arrangement of their electrons.

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 21

Electron Arrangement in Shells
• Shell 1: maximum of _______ electrons
• Shell 2: maximum of _______ electrons
• Shell 3: maximum of ______ electrons
• THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IN THE OUTTER SHELL (VALENCE ELECTRONS)

DETERMINES HOW THE ATOM WILL ___________________ WITH OTHER ATOMS

• The _____________________ shell can hold up to 2 electrons

• The _____________________ shell can hold up to 8 electrons

• Atoms with fewer than 8 electrons in the outer shell can react with other atoms so that
each will have a _______________ outer shell
• Ex:

Compounds and molecules contain chemical bonds - ______________ that hold atoms together

The type of bond that forms depends on whether they ____________ electrons or whether one

atom _________________ an electron to another atom

1. _______________ ________________ — form when 2 atoms are held together by the

________________________ between opposite charges (+ and -)

• An electron is _________________ from one atom to another to complete their outer shells

2. ___________________ _______________ — form when two atoms ___________

electrons to complete outer shell.

Ionic Bonds –

To form sodium chloride an electron is transferred from the sodium atom to the chlorine atom,

so each will have an outer shell with _________ electrons

Electron transfer causes the atoms to become ____________________, or charged atoms

• When sodium gives up an electron, it now has 1 more proton than electrons: now _____

• When chlorine takes an electron, it has more electron than protons: now ______

• Ionic compounds often called _____________

Covalent Bonding

▪ 2 atoms __________________________ electrons

▪ Ex: 2 hydrogen atoms can share electrons to fill their outer shell—orbits overlap

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 22

Structural formula —uses straight lines ________________
▪ 1 line indicates 1 pair of shared electrons.

Molecular formula —simply shows number of atoms involved _____________

Covalent bonds – 2 types:

Non-polar covalent bonds

• Atoms______________________________ share electrons

• Can bond identical atoms or different types of atoms

Polar covalent bonds

• Atoms ______________________________ share electrons

• Bonds ______________________________ types of atoms

• Results in polarity

Double covalent bond— sharing ______________________________ of electrons

▪ Ex: Oxygen gas O2 or O=O

Triple covalent bond —sharing _________________________________ of electrons

▪ Nitrogen gas N2 or N≡N

Single atoms may form covalent bonds with more than one atom
Ex:

Chemical formulas - A way of expressing information about a compound

Draw the chemical formula for glucose:

Chemical reaction - ___________________________ of the molecular structure of a substance

▪ ________________________________—molecules that participate in reactions

• Shown to the ______________of the arrow

▪ ________________________________—molecules formed by reactions

• Shown to the ___________________ of the arrow

▪ Equation is _____________________________ if the same number of each type

of atom occurs on both sides of the arrow.

6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2

carbon water glucose oxygen
dioxide
UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 23
_________________ is the single most important molecule on Earth

• All organisms are _________________ water

• the human body ranges from 50-75% (babies have the highest)
• fatty tissue contains less water, so obese individuals have less water
• Water has unique properties
• Properties come from the structure of the water molecule.

Water is held together with a _________________ ________________________ bond

• Atoms do not share the electrons equally
• Oxygen attracts the shared electrons more than the hydrogen atoms do, causing it to be
polar
Oxygen is slightly _____________________________ and the

hydrogens are slightly ______________________________

What type of bonds occur between individual water molecules?

________________________________ bonds – weak bond between the slightly positive

hydrogen of one water molecule and the slightly negative oxygen of another water molecule

Properties of water

1. Water is a ________________________________

▪ Dissolves other ________________ or ____________________ molecules

▪ Due to polarity and H-bonding, water dissolves many substances

▪ Ex: Water causes NaCl to and sugar to __________________________

Importance:
▪ Water facilitates __________________________________________________

2. Water molecules are cohesive and adhesive

• Cohesion
▪ Ability of water molecules to cling to _______________ _________________ due
to hydrogen bonding
• Adhesion
▪ Ability of water molecules to cling to other ________________ ______________

• Allows water to be excellent _________________________________ system

▪ Inside the cell – water moves ______________________ and _______________

• Cohesion and adhesion of water molecules in the blood allow it to fill the
vessels and transport materials

▪ In plants water moves from _______________ to _____________________

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 24

 ▪ Adhesion prevents ______________________ flow and cohesion allows

▪ ___________________________flow

Importance:
▪ Water serves as a _______________ ____________________
3. Water has a high surface tension

▪ Water molecules at the surface cling more tightly to each other than to the air
above.
▪ Mainly due to hydrogen bonding
Importance:

▪ Water is___________________ __________ ____________________

Molecules at the surface form stronger bonds – maintains stability of water ecosystems

Surface tension of water allows the cytoplasm to hold-up the cell membrane.

4. Water has a high heat capacity

▪ Lots of energy needed to increase temperature

▪ Lots of energy lost to decrease temperature

▪ Prevents __________________ _________________________ ______________

▪ Temperature of water rises and falls _______________

▪ Takes a great deal of ____________________ to break H bonds for evaporation

▪ Heat is dispelled as water evaporates

Importance:
▪ Water protects organisms from ___________________ _____________________ in
temperature – important for homeostasis

5. Ice is less dense than water

• Ice floats on top of water

Allows organisms to survive in freezing environments

▪ Unlike other substances, water _________________________ as it freezes

▪
▪ It makes life possible in water.

When water dissociates (breaks apart), it releases an equal number of hydrogen ions (H +) and
hydroxide ions (OH–)

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 25

Draw the water dissociation equation:

We can determine whether a solution is acidic or basic by the __________________________ of

hydrogen and hydroxide ions present

Acids

• Acidic solutions have a higher concentration of _________

• Ex: Lemon juice, vinegar, and coffee

• Acids _________________________hydrogen ions

Draw the acid dissociation equation:

Bases

• Basic solutions have a higher concentration of _______________

• (Low H+ Concentration)
• Ex: Milk of magnesia, Tums and ammonia

• Either _________________________ hydrogen ions or ___________________

hydroxide ions

Draw the base dissociation equation:

pH
▪ Mathematical way to indicate the number of hydrogen ions in solution

▪ pH scale ranges from ______ to ________

• pH below 7 is ___________________—more [H+] than [OH–]

• pH above 7 is ___________________—more [OH–] than [H+]

• pH of 7 is _______________________—[H+] equal to [OH–]

pH = 1/log [H+]

*****The higher the concentration of H+, the lower the pH

Acid: A solution that has an excess of H+ ions.

Strong Acid: An acid that has a very low pH (0-4)

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 26

Base: A solution that has an excess of OH- ions
Feels slippery

Strong Base: A base that has a very high pH (10-14)

Neutral: A solution that has a pH of 7. It is neither acidic nor basic (H + = OH-)

Pure Water is Neutral

•
• Has Same number of _____ and _____

A hydrogen atom that loses its electron becomes a hydrogen ion, ________

• H+ is very reactive and can __________________________ important chemical bonds

• The concentration of H+ in the body must be narrowly maintained within a normal pH
______
• HOMEOSTASIS

Buffer - Chemical or combination of chemicals that

▪ ______________pH change by taking up excess H+ or OH–

▪ pH of blood is about _________

▪ Cells are sensitive to pH changes, so biological systems contain buffers to keep the pH
within a normal range

▪ A buffer ___________________ the pH of a solution - makes it harder to change the pH

Examples of buffers:

_____________________________ – the body is unable to buffer high H+ ion concentration in

the blood

Affects:

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 27

Chapter 3 The Organic Molecules of Life

Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish between organic and inorganic molecules.
2. Recognize the importance of functional groups in determining the chemical properties of an
organic molecule.
3. Summarize the categories of carbohydrates and provide examples of their diverse biological
functions.
4. Summarize the categories of lipids and provide examples of their diverse biological functions.
5. Summarize the variety of protein types and provide examples of their diverse biological
functions.
6. Summarize the two categories of nucleic acids and describe their biological functions.

Organic molecules contain atoms of ____________________ and _________________

• Also called _________________________ molecules because they make up portions of

cells and tissues

Inorganic molecules do not contain both

Ex:

Carbon is versatile so it can form a variety of molecules

▪ Total of ______ electrons — 4 in outer shell

▪ Almost always shares electrons with elements such as __________________,

__________________, and _____________________

▪ Can bond with as many as 4 other elements

▪ Most often shares electrons with other _______________________ atoms

Carbon can form molecules with the same types of atoms, but with a different

structure, these are called _______________________________

- This allows the molecules to have a wide range of _______________________

Hydrocarbons-

• Can be branched
• Can have double bonds
• Can form rings

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 28

A carbon __________________________ is the chain of carbon atoms that forms the “backbone”
of any organic molecule

Molecules with the same carbon skeleton can still differ according to the type of
______________________ _____________ attached

A functional group is a specific combination of bonded atoms that always has the same chemical
properties and therefore always reacts in the same way

Functional groups attach to the __________________ ______________________

Group Found in

Hydroxyl -OH

Carboxyl -COOH

Amino -NH2

Sulfhydryl -SH

Phosphate -H2PO4

Functional groups determine its _____________________ ____________________

The Biological Molecules of Cells (aka _______________________________)

4 types —carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

Examples of carbohydrates –

How Do Living Things Use Carbohydrates?

Examples of lipids –

How Do Living Things Use Lipids?

Examples of proteins –

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 29

How Do Living Things Use Proteins?

When you digest foods, they are broken down into smaller molecules or ____________.
Your body then takes these subunits and build larger macromolecules that make up your cells

The subunits that make up the macromolecules are called _______________________.

Monomers join together to form ______________________________.

In a dehydration synthesis reaction _________________________ is removed

• Joins monomers together to form a polymer

Polymers can broken down into monomers with the addition of water in a

_____________________________reaction
• Breaks down polymers into individual monomers

Carbohydrates

▪ Primarily used as immediate ________________ _____________ in living things

▪ Exist in 3 forms:
• monosaccharides (one sugar)
• disaccharides (2 sugar molecules)
• polysaccharides (many sugars bonded together)

▪ Saccharide = sugar

Monosaccharides (______________)

▪ _______________________ sugar molecule - Simple sugars

▪ 3–7 carbon backbone
▪ Ex: Glucose C6H12O6

• Cells use glucose as their first choice of __________________

Disaccharides
▪ 2 monosaccharides bonded together

▪ Ex:

▪ Ex:

• table sugar

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 30

Using a hydrolysis reaction, yeast breaks down maltose into glucose and produces ethyl

alcohol in the process of ___________________________

Polysaccharides (______________)

▪ Polymers of monosaccharides – several simple sugars bonded together

▪ Some function as _________________ __________________ molecules

• Plants store glucose as _________________________

• Animals store glucose as ________________________

Some polysaccharides function as _____________________________ components

• ______________________ —plant cell walls

▪ Most abundant of all organic molecules
▪ Digested only by some microbes

• _______________________ —crab, lobster, insect exoskeletons

Lipids

▪ Long nonpolar hydrocarbon chains

▪ Very diverse structures and functions

▪ Fats and oils used for long-term _____________ ___________________

▪ Oil helps waterproof skin, hair, and feathers.

Fats and oils contain two types of subunit molecules: ________________________ and
__________ ____________

▪ Triglycerides are composed of 1 glycerol and ___ fatty acids

▪ Diglycerides are composed of 1 glycerol and ___ fatty acids.
▪ Monoglycerides are composed of 1 glycerol and ___ fatty acid.

Synthesis and breakdown of fat

What reactions are involved?

Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated

▪ __________________ ___________ — have no double bonds between carbon

atoms
▪ found in ____________________________ foods, such as

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 31

 •
•
•
•
▪ ___________________________ ________________ — have one or more
double bonds between carbon atoms

• found in plant oils (typically ______________________ at room

temperature)

Some unsaturated fatty acids (the omega-3 fatty acids) are essential and important nutrients for
development, especially in infants

Phospholipids
▪ Constructed like a triglyceride, except there is a __________ group instead of a 3 rd fatty acid

▪ One end of the molecule is water-soluble.

• Polar phosphate ____________________

• Hydrophilic -

▪ Other end of the molecule is not water-soluble

• Nonpolar fatty acid ___________________

• Hydrophobic -

The plasma membrane of cells is made up of a phospholipid bilayer

__________________________________ – a lipid that can be synthesized by the body

• Consists of 4 fused rings (not made of glycerol and fatty acids)

• Cells use cholesterol to make bile, steroid hormones and ___________________

• Cholesterol is an important component of the __________ _______________________
• Also get cholesterol in your diet (from egg yolks, cheese, liver)

Steroids
▪ Derived from _____________________________________________

▪ made of __________________________________________

▪ do not have fatty acids

▪ Differ from cholesterol and each other in the functional groups

▪ are insoluble in water

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 32

 ▪ Examples of steroid hormones:

Proteins
▪ Many functions: support, metabolism, transport, defense, regulation, and motion

Support - _________________________________________

Ex: protein in spiderwebs

Ex: ___________________________ the protein that contributes to hair and fingernails;

Ex: ___________________________, the protein that lends support to skin, ligaments, and
tendons

Metabolism - Many proteins are ___________________________. They bring reactants

together and thereby act as catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions in cells.

Transport - Channel and carrier proteins in the plasma membrane allow substances to enter and
exit cells; other proteins transport molecules in the blood

Ex: ______________________________, found in red blood cells transports O 2.

Defense - Some proteins, called ______________________, attack disease-causing agents to

prevent those agents from destroying cells and causing diseases and infections.

Regulation - ____________________________ are regulatory proteins. They serve as

intercellular messengers that influence the metabolism of cells

Ex: the hormone ___________________________ regulates the concentration of glucose in the

blood

Motion - The ______________________________ proteins actin and myosin cause muscles to

contract

Proteins are composed monomers called ______________________ ______________

▪ 20 different amino acids

▪ Differ according to _____ group

▪ R groups range in complexity from a single H atom to a complicated ring

compound

▪ It gives the amino acid a unique chemical ____________________

Amino acids have a central carbon bonded to hydrogen atom, amino group, carboxyl group, and
an R group

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 33

Peptides - two or more amino acids ____________________ linked

▪ Peptide bond—formed by ______________________________reaction between

two amino acid monomers

▪ Polypeptide—chain of many amino acids joined by _________________ bonds

▪ Proteins are polypeptide chains that have folded into complex shapes

▪ Amino acid __________________________ determines the final three-

dimensional shape of protein

Synthesis and breakdown of peptides

What reactions are involved?

Function of a protein is determined by its _____________________________________

1. Primary structure: Sequence of ______________ _____________ linked by peptide

bonds

2. Secondary structure: Shape resulting from __________________

____________________ at points along polypeptide chain

3. Tertiary structure: Complex _____________ and ________________ giving three-

dimensional shape
• Results from interactions between ________ ______________

4. Quaternary structure: Shape from interaction between polypeptide

____________________ forming protein complex.

Nucleic acids are polymers of ________________________________

▪ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

▪ Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

▪ Nucleotide composed of a phosphate, 5-carbon sugar, and nitrogen-containing

base

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 34

 • 5 types of bases—adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)
[DNA only], Uracil (U) [RNA only]

Label the nucleotide:

DNA
▪ Sugar is _____________________________________

▪ Shape is _____________________________________

▪ Complementary base pairing

• Adenine (A) binds with thymine (T)
• Cytosine (C) binds with guanine (G)

• ___________________ _____________________ stored in sequence of bases

• DNA is like a _____________ for what proteins are to be made by the cell

RNA
▪ The sugar is ________________________________

▪ Shape is ___________________________________

▪ Has _________________________________ (U) instead of thymine (T)

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 35

Nucleic Acids are ______________________ of nucleotides bonded together
• DNA
• RNA
Nucleotides are the __________________
• adenine (A)
• thymine (T) - **DNA only
• cytosine (C),
• guanine (G)
• uracil (U) - **RNA only

Relationship between proteins and nucleic acids

▪ Sequence of bases in DNA determines sequence of ___________ ___________ in a

protein

▪ Sequence of amino acids determines a protein's ____________________

and ____________________________

▪ Small changes in the DNA may cause large changes in a protein

▪ Ex:

Summary of Biological molecules (aka biomolecules or macromolecules)

Proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids are polymers – long strands of repeating units of small
molecules called monomers
• Amino acids are the monomers making up proteins
• Simple sugars (saccharides) are the monomers in carbohydrates
• Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids

Lipids don’t have repeating units, but the subunits that make up triglycerides are 3 fatty acids and
glycerol
cholesterol is composed of four fused hydrocarbon rings.

Review videos:

Carbon
https://youtu.be/QnQe0xW_JY4

Biological molecules
https://youtu.be/H8WJ2KENlK0

UNIT 1 LECTURE NOTES 36