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Fast Response Energy Storage Devices
Technology Descriptions and Overview

January 2009
Contact: jjacobi@scottmadden.com
Copyright © 2009 by ScottMadden. All rights reserved.

Contents
 Introduction
 Technology Overviews
— Battery Energy Storage (BES)
• Lithium Ion (Li Ion)
• Lead Acid (LA)
• Metal-Air
• Nickel Cadmium (NiCd)
• Sodium Sulfur (NaS)
— Flow Battery Energy Storage (FBES)
• Polysulfide Bromide (PSB)
• Vandium Redox (VRB)
• Zinc Bromine (ZnBr)
— Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
— Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)
— Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES)
— Supercapacitor Energy Storage (SCES)
— Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
 Summary Comparison
1
Introduction
Introduction
 Fast-Response Energy Storage describes several technologies characterized by the ability to quickly change from
charging mode to discharge mode in order to provide energy (usually electricity) in short order when called upon. These
technologies are also referred to as High Performance Energy Storage Systems (HPESS)
 Applications of fast-response storage include1:
— Enhanced Power Quality. Energy storage can provide "ride-through" for momentary outages and extended
protection from longer outages. Coupled with advanced power electronics, storage systems can reduce
harmonic distortions and eliminate voltage sags and surges
— Renewables Support. In combination with renewable resources, energy storage can increase the value of
photovoltaic (PV) and wind-generated electricity, making supply coincide with periods of peak consumer demand
— Utility Support. Energy storage systems can be used to follow load, stabilize voltage and frequency, manage
peak loads, improve power quality, defer upgrade investments, and support renewables
 Major technologies discussed in this report are:
— Batteries – store electricity in a self-contained chemical reaction
— Compressed Air – store compressed air to spin turbines when released
— Flywheels – store energy as kinetic energy in spinning flywheels
— Pumped Hydro – water pumped from one reservoir to another from which it may be released to produce
hydroelectric power
— Supercapacitors – made up of plates holding opposite charges which induce an electric field in which energy can
be stored
— Superconducting Magnets – store energy in the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a coil wire
1Source: http://electricitystorage.org/technologies_applications.htm
3
Technology Overviews
Battery Energy Storage:
Lithium Ion (Li Ion) Batteries
Description
 Lithium Ion batteries are best known for their widespread use in the portable electronics market. The cathode in these
batteries is a lithiated metal oxide (LiCoO2, LiMO2, etc.) and the anode is made of graphitic carbon with a layer structure.
The electrolyte is made up of lithium salts (such as LiPF6) dissolved in organic carbonates. When the battery is being
charged, the Lithium atoms in the cathode become ions and migrate through the electrolyte toward the carbon anode
where they combine with external electrons and are deposited between carbon layers as lithium atoms. This process is
reversed during discharge
Advantages
 The main advantages of Li-ion batteries, compared to other advanced batteries, are:
— High energy density (300 - 400 kWh/m3, 130 kWh/ton)
— High efficiency (near 100%)
— Long cycle life (3,000 cycles @ 80% discharge)
Disadvantages
 While Li-ion batteries took over 50% of small portable market in
a few years, there are some challenges for making large-scale
Li-ion batteries. The main hurdle is the high cost (above
$600/kWh) due to special packaging and internal overcharge
protection circuits
 The auto industry is targeting Lithium Ion batteries as
the choice for plug-in-electric hybrid vehicles. There is
currently limited supply sources for Lithium (in South
America), and the absolute amount of potential Lithium
is in question – this is a potentially large issue for the
viability of Li-ion batteries
Source: http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_liion.htm
5
Lead Acid (LA) Batteries
Description
 LA batteries are the most common energy storage device currently in use. Both the power and energy capacities of lead-
acid batteries are based on the size and geometry of the electrodes. The power capacity can be improved by increasing
the surface area for each electrode, which means greater quantities of thinner electrode plates in the battery. To increase
the storage capacity of the battery, the mass of each electrode must be increased, which means fewer and thicker plates.
Consequently, a compromise must be made for each application
Advantages
 The success of LA batteries is due to the maturity of the
technology (research has been ongoing for an estimated 140
years), relatively low cost, long lifespan, fast response, and low
self-discharge rate. These batteries can be used for both short-
term applications (seconds) and long-term applications (up to 8
hours)
Disadvantages
 LA batteries are extremely sensitive to their environments. The
typical operating temperature for a LA battery is roughly 80°F, but
a change in temperature of 2°F or more can cut the life of the
battery by 50%. If the depth of discharge exceeds this, the cycle
life of the battery will also be reduced. Finally, a typical charge-to-
discharge ratio of a LA battery is 5:1. At faster rates of charge, the
cell will be damaged
Source: University of Limerick Energy Storage Report 2007, pp. 18. Available at:
http://www.iwea.com/index.cfm/page/archive?rdDF=2007%2011%20Energy%20Storage%20Techniques.pdf
6
Metal-Air Batteries
Description
 Metal-Air batteries are the most compact and, potentially, the least expensive batteries available. The anodes in these
batteries are commonly available metals with high-energy density like aluminum or zinc that release electrons when
oxidized. The cathodes or air electrodes are often made of a porous carbon structure or a metal mesh covered with
proper catalysts. The electrolytes are often a good OH- ion conductor such as KOH (Potassium Hydroxide). The
electrolyte may be in liquid form or a solid polymer membrane saturated with KOH
Advantages
 High-energy density and low cost makes metal-air batteries ideal for many primary battery applications. They are also
environmentally benign
Disadvantages
 The main disadvantage is that electrical recharging of metal-air batteries is
very difficult and inefficient. Although many manufacturers offer refuelable
units where the consumed metal is mechanically replaced and processed
separately, not many developers offer an electrically rechargeable battery.
Rechargeable metal air batteries that are under
development have a life of only a few hundred
cycles and an efficiency of about 50%
Source: http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_metalair.htm
7
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries
Description
 Sealed NiCd batteries are used commonly in commercial
electronic products such as a remote control, where light weight,
portability, and rechargeable power are important. Vented NiCd
batteries are used in aircraft and diesel engine starters, where
large energy per weight and volume are critical. A NiCd battery
is made up of a positive electrode with nickel oxyhydroxide as the
active material and a negative electrode composed of metallic
cadmium. These are separated by a nylon divider. The
electrolyte, which undergoes no significant changes during
operation, is aqueous potassium hydroxide. During discharge,
the nickel oxyhydroxide combines with water and produces nickel
hydroxide and a hydroxide ion. Cadmium hydroxide is produced
at the negative electrode. To charge the battery the process can
be reversed. However, during charging, oxygen can be produced
at the positive electrode and hydrogen can be produced at the
negative electrode. As a result, some venting and water addition
is required, but much less than required for a LA battery
8
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries (Cont’d)
Advantages
 NiCd batteries are ideal for protecting power quality against voltage sags and providing standby power in harsh
conditions. Recently, NiCd batteries have become popular as storage for solar generation because they can withstand
high temperatures (some as high as 120°F). The life of these batteries is relatively high at 10 to 15 years, depending on
the application. NiCd batteries can respond at full power within milliseconds. At small depth of discharge rates
(approximately 10%) NiCd batteries have a much longer cycle life (50,000 cycles) than other batteries. They can also
operate over a much wider temperature range than LA batteries
Disadvantages
 NiCd batteries do not perform well during peak shaving applications and consequently are generally avoided for energy
management systems. The life of NiCd batteries can be greatly reduced due to rapid charge/discharge cycles. NiCd
batteries suffer from ‘memory’ effects and also lose more energy due to self-discharge standby than LA batteries, with an
estimated 2% to 5% of their charge lost per month at room temperature in comparison to 1% per month for LA batteries.
Also, the environmental effects of NiCd batteries have become a widespread concern in recent years as cadmium is a
toxic material. This creates a number of problems for disposing of the batteries
9
Sodium Sulfur (NaS) Batteries
Description
 An NaS battery consists of liquid (molten) sulfur at the positive electrode and liquid (molten) sodium at the negative
electrode as active materials separated by a solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte. The electrolyte allows only the
positive sodium ions to go through it and combine with the sulfur to form sodium polysulfides. During discharge, positive
Na ions flow through the electrolyte and electrons flow in the external circuit of the battery producing about 2 volts. This
process is reversible as charging causes sodium polysulfides to release the positive sodium ions back through the
electrolyte to recombine as elemental sodium. The battery is kept at about 575°F to facilitate this process
Advantages
 NaS battery cells are efficient (about 89%) and have a pulse power capability over six times their continuous rating (for 30
seconds). This attribute enables the NaS battery to be economically used in combined power quality and peak shaving
applications
 NaS battery technology has been demonstrated at over 30 sites in Japan
totaling more than 20 MW with stored energy suitable for 8 hours daily
peak shaving. The largest NaS installation is a 6MW, 8h unit for Tokyo
Electric Power Company
Disadvantages
 The major disadvantage of NaS batteries is retaining the device at
elevated temperatures. It is not only energy consuming, but it also brings
with it problems such as thermal management and safety regulation.
Also, due to harsh chemical environments, the insulators can be a
problem as they slowly become conducting and self-discharge the
battery
Source: http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_nas.htm
10
Flow Battery Energy Storage:
Polysulfide Bromide (PSB) Batteries
Description
 Polysulfide Bromide battery (PSB) is a regenerative fuel cell technology that provides a reversible electrochemical
reaction between two salt solution electrolytes (sodium bromide and sodium polysulfide). PSB electrolytes are brought
close together in the battery cells where they are separated by a polymer membrane that only allows positive sodium ions
to go through, producing about 1.5 volts across the membrane. Cells are electrically connected in series and parallel to
obtain the desired voltage and current levels
Advantages
 PSB flow batteries can be used for all energy storage requirements including load leveling, peak shaving, and integration
of renewable resources. PSB batteries have a very fast response time; it can react within 20 milliseconds if electrolyte is
retained charged in the stacks (of cells). The net efficiency of this battery is about 75%. This battery works at room
temperature. It has been verified in the laboratory and demonstrated at multi-kW scale in the UK
Disadvantages
 During the chemical reaction small quantities of
bromine, hydrogen, and sodium sulphate crystals are
produced. Consequently, biweekly maintenance is
required to remove the sodium-sulphate by-products.
Two companies planning to build PSB facilities,
Innogy at the Little Barford Power Station in the UK
and Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) at Columbus,
MS, have both cancelled the projects
Sources: University of Limerick Energy Storage Report 2007, pp. 25. Available at:
http://www.iwea.com/index.cfm/page/archive?rdDF=2007%2011%20Energy%20Storage%20Techniques.pdf and
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_psb.htm
11
Vandium Redox (VR) Batteries
Description
 VR batteries store energy by employing vanadium redox couples. These are stored in mild sulfuric acid solutions
(electrolytes). During the charge/discharge cycles, H+ ions are exchanged between the two electrolyte tanks through the
hydrogen-ion permeable polymer membrane
Advantages
 VR batteries can be used for every energy storage requirement including UPS, load leveling, peak-shaving,
telecommunications, electric utilities and integrating renewable resources. In addition to versatility, the net efficiency of
this battery can be as high as 85%
 VR batteries storages up to 500kW, 10 hrs (5MWh) have been installed in Japan by SEI. VR batteries have also been
applied for power quality applications (3MW, 1.5 sec.)
Disadvantages
 VR batteries have the lowest power density and require the
most cells (each cell has a voltage of 1.2 V) in order to obtain
the same power output as other flow batteries. For smaller-
scale energy applications, VR batteries are very complicated
in relation to conventional batteries, as they require many
more parts (such as pumps, sensors, control units) while
providing similar characteristics. Consequently, when deciding
between a flow battery and a conventional battery, a decision
must be made between a simple but constrained device
(conventional battery), and a complex but versatile device
(flow battery)
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_vrb.htm
12
Zinc Bromine (ZnBr) Batteries
Description
 In each cell of a ZnBr battery, two different electrolytes flow past carbon-plastic composite electrodes in two
compartments separated by a microporous polyolefin membrane. During discharge, Zn and Br combine into zinc
bromide, generating 1.8 volts across each cell. This will increase the Zn2+ and Br- ion density in both electrolyte tanks.
During charge, metallic zinc will be deposited (plated) as a thin film on one side of the carbon-plastic composite electrode.
Meanwhile, bromine evolves as a dilute solution on the other side of the membrane, reacting with other agents (organic
amines) to make thick bromine oil that sinks down to the bottom of the electrolytic tank. It is allowed to mix with the rest of
the electrolyte during discharge
Advantages
 The ZnBr flow battery has the highest energy density of all the flow batteries, with a cell voltage of 1.8 V. No electrolyte is
discharged from the facility during operation and hence the electrolyte has an indefinite life. The ZnBr battery can be
100% discharged without any detrimental consequences and suffers from no memory effect
Disadvantages
 It is difficult to increase the power and storage capacities into the
large MW ranges as the modules cannot be linked hydraulically,
hence the electrolyte is isolated within each module. Modules can
be linked electrically though and plans indicate that systems up to
1.5 MW are possible. The membrane suffers from slight
degradation during the reaction so it must be replaced at the end of
the batteries life (2,000 cycles)
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_znbr.htm
13
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
Description
 A CAES facility consists of a power train motor that drives a compressor (to compress the air into a void), high pressure
turbine (HPT), a low pressure turbine (LPT), and a generator in conventional gas turbines (GT), 66% of the gas used is
required to compress the air at the time of generation. Therefore, CAES pre-compresses the air using off-peak electrical
power which is taken from the grid to drive a motor (rather than using gas from the GT plant) and stores it in large storage
reservoirs. When the GT is producing electricity during peak hours, the compressed air is released from the storage
facility and used in the GT cycle. As a result, instead of using expensive gas to compress the air, cheaper off-peak base
load electricity is used
Sources: University of Limerick Energy Storage Report 2007, pp. 15-16. Available at:
http://www.iwea.com/index.cfm/page/archive?rdDF=2007%2011%20Energy%20Storage%20Techniques.pdf,
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_caes.htm, and http://www.sandia.gov/media/NewsRel/NR2001/norton.htm
14
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) (Cont’d)
Advantages
 CAES is the only very large-scale storage technique other than PHES. CAES has a fast reaction time with plants usually
able to go from 0% to 100% in less than ten minutes, 10% to 100% in approximately four minutes and from 50% to 100%
in less than 15 seconds. As a result, it is ideal for acting as a large sink for bulk energy supply and demand, and also, it is
able to undertake frequent start-ups and shutdowns
 When the air is released from the reservoir, it must be mixed with a small amount of gas before entering the turbine. The
amount of gas required is so small that a GT working simultaneously with CAES can produce three times more electricity
than a GT operating on its own, using the same amount of natural gas
Disadvantages
 The reservoir can be man-made but this is expensive so CAES locations are usually decided by identifying natural
geological formations that suit these facilities. These include salt-caverns, hard-rock caverns, depleted gas fields, or an
aquifer. Salt-caverns can be designed to suit specific requirements. Fresh water is pumped into the cavern and left until
the salt dissolves and saturates the fresh water. The water is then returned to the surface, and the process is repeated
until the required volume cavern is created. This process is expensive and can take up to two years. Hard-rock caverns
are even more expensive, usually 60% higher than salt-caverns. Finally, aquifers cannot store the air at high pressures
and therefore have a relatively lower energy capacity
 CAES uses both electrical energy and natural gas so its efficiency is difficult to predict. It is estimated that the efficiency
of the entire cycle is in the region of 64% to 75%
http://www.iwea.com/index.cfm/page/archive?rdDF=2007%2011%20Energy%20Storage%20Techniques.pdf,
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_caes.htm, and
http://www.sandia.gov/media/NewsRel/NR2001/norton.htm
15
Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)
Description
 Most modern flywheel energy storage systems consist of a massive rotating cylinder (comprised of a rim attached to a
shaft) that is substantially supported on a stator by magnetically levitated bearings that eliminate bearing wear and
increase system life. To maintain efficiency, the flywheel system is operated in a low vacuum environment to reduce
drag. The flywheel is connected to a motor/generator mounted onto the stator that, through some power electronics,
interact with the utility grid. Some of the key features of flywheels are little maintenance, long life (20 years or tens of
thousands of deep cycles) and environmentally inert material. Flywheels can bridge the gap between short-term ride-
through and long-term storage with excellent cyclic and load following characteristics. Actual delivered energy depends
on the speed range of the flywheel as it cannot deliver its rated power at very low speeds
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_flywheels.htm
16
Flywheel Energy Storage (FES) (Cont’d)
Advantages
 Flywheels have an extremely fast dynamic response, a long life, require little maintenance, and are environmentally
friendly. They have a predicted lifetime of approximately 20 years or tens of thousands of cycles. As the storage medium
used in flywheels is mechanical, the unit can be discharged repeatedly and fully without any damage to the device.
Consequently, flywheels are used for power quality enhancements such as Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS),
capturing waste energy that is very useful in electric vehicle applications and finally, to dampen frequency variation,
making FES very useful to smooth the irregular electrical output from wind turbines
Disadvantages
 As flywheels are optimized for power or storage capacities, the needs of one application can often make the design poorly
suited for the other. Consequently, low-speed flywheels may be able to provide high power capacities but only for a very
short time period, and high-speed flywheels the opposite. Also, as flywheels are kept in a vacuum during operation, it is
difficult to transfer heat out of the system, so a cooling system is usually integrated with the FES device. Finally, FES
devices also suffer from the idling losses: when flywheels are spinning on standby, energy is lost due to external forces
such as friction or magnetic forces. As a result, flywheels need to be pushed to maintain its speed. These idling losses
are usually less than 2%
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_flywheels.htm
17
Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES)
Description
 Pumped storage is the most widespread energy storage system in use on power networks. Its main applications are for
energy management, frequency control, and provision of reserve. Conventional pumped hydro uses two water reservoirs,
separated vertically. During offpeak hours water is pumped from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. When
required, the water flow is reversed to generate electricity. Some high dam hydro plants have a storage capability and
can be dispatched as a pumped hydro. Underground pumped storage, using flooded mine shafts or other cavities, are
also technically possible. Open sea can also be used as the lower reservoir. Pumped hydro was first used in Italy and
Switzerland in the 1890's. A seawater pumped hydro plant was first built in Japan in 1999 (Yanbaru, 30 MW). Pumped
hydro is available at almost any scale with discharge times ranging from several hours to a few days. There is over 90
GW of pumped storage in operation world wide, which is about 3% of global generation capacity
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_pumpedhydro.htm
18
Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES) (Cont’d)
Advantages
 As well as large storage capacities, PHES also has a fast reaction time, hence identifying load-leveling as an ideal
application. Facilities can have a reaction time as short as 10 minutes or less from complete shutdown (or from full
reversal of operation) to full power. In addition, if kept on standby, full power can even be reached within 10 to 30
seconds. Also, with the recent introduction of variable speed machines, PHES systems can now be used for frequency
regulation in both pumping and generation modes (this has always been available in generating mode). This allows
PHES units to absorb power in a more cost-effective manner that not only makes the facility more useful, but also
improves the efficiency and the life of the facility. PHES can also be used for peak generation and black starts due to its
large power capacity and sufficient discharge time. Finally, PHES provides a load for base-load generating facilities
during off-peak production, hence, cycling these units can be avoided which improves their lifetime as well as their
efficiency
Disadvantages
 Pumped storage plants are characterized by long construction times and high capital expenditure. Due to the design
requirements of a PHES facility, the ultimate drawback is its dependence on specific geological formations that is; two
large reservoirs with a sufficient amount of hydraulic head between them must be located within close proximity to build a
PHES system. As well as being rare, these geological formations normally exist in remote locations such as mountains,
where construction is difficult and the power grid is not present. Finally, in order to make PHES viable, it must be
constructed on a large scale. Although the cost per kWh of storage is relatively economical in comparison to other
techniques, this large scale necessity results in a very high initial construction cost for the facility, therefore, detracting
investment in PHES (e.g., Dominion’s 2,100 MW Bath County Virginia cost $1.7 billion to build in 1985)
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_pumpedhydro.htm
19
Supercapacitor Energy Storage (SCES)
Description
 Electrochemical capacitors (EC) store electrical energy in the two series capacitors of the electric double layer (EDL),
which is formed between each of the electrodes and the electrolyte ions. The distance over which the charge separation
occurs is just a few angstroms. The capacitance and energy density of these devices is thousands of times larger than
electrolytic capacitors. The electrodes are often made with porous carbon material. The electrolyte is either aqueous or
organic. The aqueous capacitors have a lower energy density due to a lower cell voltage but are less expensive and work
in a wider temperature range. The asymmetrical capacitors that use metal for one of the electrodes have a significantly
larger energy density than the symmetric ones and have lower current leakage
Advantages
 Compared to lead-acid batteries, EC capacitors have lower energy density but they can be cycled tens of thousands of
times and are much more powerful than batteries (fast charge and discharge capability). This makes it a very attractive
replacement for a number of small-scale (<250 kW) power quality applications. Compared to batteries, supercapacitors
have a longer life, do not suffer from memory effect, show minimal degradation due to deep discharge, do not heat up,
and produce no hazardous substances
Disadvantages
 SCES has a very low energy storage density leading to very
high capital costs for large scale applications. They are also
heavier and bulkier than conventional batteries.
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_supercapacitor.htm
20
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
Description
 A SMES device is made up of a superconducting coil, a power conditioning system, a refrigerator and a vacuum to keep
the coil at low temperature. Energy is stored in the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in the coil wire. In
general, when current is passed through a wire, energy is dissipated as heat due to the resistance of the wire. If the wire
used is made from a superconducting material such as lead, mercury or vanadium, zero resistance occurs, so energy can
be stored with practically no losses. In order to obtain this superconducting state within a material, it must be kept at a
very low temperature. There are two types of superconductors; low-temperature superconductors that must be cooled
from 0K to 7.2K, and high-temperature superconductors that have a temperature range of 10K to 150K, but are usually in
the 100±10K region
Source: University of Limerick Energy Storage Report 2007, pp. 34-35. Available at:.
21
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
(Cont’d)
Advantages
 Due to the high power capacity and instantaneous discharge rates of SMES, it is ideal for the industrial power quality
market. It protects equipment from rapid momentary voltage sags, and it stabilizes fluctuations within the entire network
caused by sudden changes in consumer demand levels, lightning strikes or operation switches. As a result, SMES is a
very useful network upgrade solution with some sources claiming that it can improve the capacity of a local network by up
to 15%. Due to high energy consumption of the refrigeration system, SMES is unsuitable for daily cycling applications
such as peak reduction, renewable applications, and generation and transmission deferral
Disadvantages
 The most significant drawback of SMES is its sensitivity to temperature. The coil must be maintained at an extremely low
temperature in order to behave like a superconductor. A very small change in temperature can cause the coil to become
unstable and lose energy. Also, the refrigeration can cause parasitic losses within the system. Finally, although the rapid
discharge rates provide some unique applications for SMES, it also limits its applications significantly
Source: University of Limerick Energy Storage Report 2007, pp. 34-35. Available at:.
22
Summary Comparison
Summary Comparison
Capital Storage
Technology Advantages Disadvantages
Cost Efficiency
Battery Energy Storage (BES)
Lithium Ion (Li Ion) $1500/kw 95%  High energy density  High cost
 High efficiency
 Long life
Lead Acid (LA) $250/kw 85%  Mature technology  Sensitive to
 Low self-discharge environmental factors
 Sensitive to charge
rate
Metal-Air $950/kw 45%  High energy density  Low efficiency
 Low cost  Difficult to recharge
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) $600/kw 65%  Long life  High rate of self-
 Tolerates high discharge
temperatures  Disposal
Sodium Sulfur (NaS) $810/kw 80%  Demonstrated  Requires high
technology temperature
 Pulse power capability  Harsh chemical
environment
Note: Costs and efficiency are approximate and subject to change as research continues and technologies mature
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_comparisons.htm
24
Summary Comparison (Cont’d)
Capital Storage
Technology Advantages Disadvantages
Cost Efficiency
Flow Battery Energy Storage (FBES)
Polysulfide Bromide (PSB) $1095/kw 70%  Fast response  High maintenance
 Performs at room requirements
temperature
Vandium Redox (VRB) $1828/kw 80%  High efficiency  Low energy density
 High cost
 Complex
Zinc Bromine (ZnBr) $639/kw 75%  High energy density  Difficult to scale
 Long electrolyte life  Low cycle life
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) $450/kw 75%  Large scale/high  High capital costs
volume (reservoir
construction)
Flywheel Energy Storage (FES) $350/kw 90%  Fast response  Energy losses from
 High efficiency idling
Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES) $600/kw 80%  Fast response  High capital costs
 Large scale/high
volume
Supercapacitor Energy Storage (SCES) $300/kw 95%  Long life  Low energy density
 High efficiency  Bulky size
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage $400/kw 95%  High capacity  Requires low
(SMES)  Instantaneous temperature
discharge environment
Note: Costs and efficiency are approximate and subject to change as research continues and technologies mature
http://electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_comparisons.htm
25
Summary Comparison Power and Energy Application
Power Energy Power Energy

Technology Technology
Application Application Application Application
Lithium Ion Zinc Bromine

(Li Ion) – BES (ZnBr) – FBES
Compressed Air
Lead Acid
Energy Storage
(LA) – BES
(CAES)
Flywheel Energy
Metal-Air – BES
Storage (FES)
Nickel Cadmium Pumped Hydro Energy

(NiCd) – BES Storage (PHES)
Sodium Sulfur Supercapacitor Energy

(NaS) – BES Storage (SCES)
Superconducting
Polysulfide Bromide
Magnetic Energy
(PSB) – FBES
Storage (SMES)
 Energy Applications refer to production of useful energy, either
Vandium Redox on the transmission grid or as on site distributed generation
(VR) – FBES
 Power Applications refer to short term energy storage and grid
or system electricity voltage or frequency stability
Attribute Ranking High Medium Low
26
Summary Comparisons – System Ratings
Source: Energy Storage Association
27
Energy Storage Comparisons – Cost, Size, and Weight
Capital Cost per Unit (energy vs. power)
Energy Density (weight vs. size/volume)
28
Energy Storage Comparisons –Efficiency and Life Cycle
Costs
Life Efficiency (%)
Lifecycle Costs (¢/kWh – output)
29
Contact Us
For more information on Fast Response Storage Systems, please contact us.
Jere “Jake” Jacobi ScottMadden, Inc.

Partner and
Sustainability Practice Leader Ten Piedmont Center
Suite 805
Atlanta, GA 30305
Phone: 404-814-0020
Mobile: 262-337-1352
jjacobi@scottmadden.com
Prepared by : Jordan Gillis & Jere Jacobi

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Fast Response Energy Storage Devices

Technology Descriptions and Overview

Copyright © 2009 by ScottMadden. All rights reserved.

Power Energy Power Energy

Lithium Ion Zinc Bromine

Nickel Cadmium Pumped Hydro Energy

Sodium Sulfur Supercapacitor Energy

Source: Energy Storage Association

Energy Density (weight vs. size/volume)

Source: Energy Storage Association

Lifecycle Costs (¢/kWh – output)

Source: Energy Storage Association

Jere “Jake” Jacobi ScottMadden, Inc.

Prepared by : Jordan Gillis & Jere Jacobi

Copyright © 2009 by ScottMadden. All rights reserved.

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