PERSONAL-IDENTIFICATION-TECHNIQUES-MODULE

FORENSIC 2 – PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Course Description:
This course is designed to enumerate and describe the personal identification

techniques applied in crime detection and investigation. Specifically, it focuses on
fingerprint recording, developing of latent prints and identification of fingerprint for
purposes of court presentation.
The course covers the fundamental study of ancient and modern methods
personal identification with emphasis on Dactyloscopy, Orthodontology and Palmistry,
which embraces the identification and comparison of fingerprint patterns and ridge
characteristics; the scientific method of recognition, development and presentation of
latent prints; and the recording and classifying of fingerprints that include the Henry
System and the FBI Extension.
Course Objectives:
At the end of the course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the purposes, importance and application of the different personal

identification techniques in investigation and detection of crimes and criminal justice.
2. Enumerate the different personal identification techniques.
3. Discuss the procedures of the different personal identification techniques.
4. Demonstrate and apply procedures in fingerprint identification in crime detection and

investigation.
5. Apply the procedure in presenting fingerprint evidence in court.
6. Discuss the different principles, jurisprudence and related laws in the application of the
fingerprint identification technique.
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Criminalistics can be defined as the application of scientific methods to recognition,

collection and comparison of physical evidence generated by criminal or illegal civil
activity.
- It is the study of physical evidence through laboratory work.
- The application of scientific techniques in collecting and analyzing physical evidence

in criminal cases.
ORIGIN OF CRIMINALISTICS
1. The term criminalistics come from the German word Kriminalistik, invented by Austrian
criminalist Hans Gross. The real recognition of criminalistics as a science can be attributed
to Hans Gross who published his book “Handbuch fur Untersuchungrichter als System der
Kriminalistik” in 1889.
2. The development of anthropometry (the study of human physical dimensions) by

French Anthropologist Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914).
3. Fingerprint analysis by Scottish scientist Dr. Henry Faulds (1843-1930), English scientist
Francis Galton (1812-1911) and English Commissioner Sir Edward Richard Henry (1850-
1931) also contributed to the reinforcement of criminalistics.
4. The progress made in forensic photography by Swiss criminalist Rodolphe-Archibald

Reiss (1875-1929) was also a major contribution to the world of criminalistics.
5. The beginning of the era of modern criminalistics is attributed to Edmond Locard (1877-
1966). He formulated the basic principle of forensic science: “Every contact leaves a
trace”. This became known as Locard’s exchange principle.
CRIMINALISTICS encompasses the broadest variety of disciplines such as:
1. Dactyloscopy (fingerprint identification) – Identification of persons through

examination and comparison of fingerprints.
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2. Forensic Photography – It is the art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime
scene or an accident scene using photography for the benefit pf a court or to aid in an
investigation.
3. Forensic Ballistics – A branch of ballistics that involves in the investigation and

identification of firearms by means of the ammunitions fired through them.
4. Questioned Document Examination – A branch of instrumentation that deals with the

study of documents that are questionable or disputable.
5. Polygraphy (Lie Detection) – The system or practice of determining whether or not

somebody is telling the truth during questioning. A polygraph, popularly referred to as a
lie detector test, is a device or procedure that measures and records several
physiological indicators such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity
while a person is asked and answers a series of questions.
6. Legal Medicine – A branch of medicine which deals with the application of medical
knowledge to the purposes of law and in the administration of justice.
7. Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology – Forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry

to criminal investigation; focuses on the chemical analysis of substances connected to a
crime. Forensic Toxicology deals with the medical and legal aspects of the harmful
effects of chemicals on human beings. Toxicology is the study of the symptoms,
mechanism and treatments and detection of poisoning.
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES INCLUDES:
1. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY - is the examination of human skeletal remains for law

enforcement agencies to help with the recovery of human remains, determine the
identity of unidentified human remains, interpret trauma, and estimate time since death.
Forensic anthropology uses the techniques of physical anthropology to analyze skeletal,
badly decomposed, or otherwise unidentified human remains to solve crimes.
Forensic anthropologists can assess the age, sex, and unique features of a decedent and
are invaluable on documenting in trauma to the body and estimating how long a corpse
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has been decomposing. Forensic anthropologists work closely with individuals in law
enforcement and medical science and are often expert witnesses in murder trials.
2. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY - is the application of dental science to legal investigations,

primarily involving the identification of the offender by comparing dental records to a
bite mark left on the victim or at the scene, or identification of human remains based on
dental records.
3. DNA PROFILING - (also called DNA fingerprinting) is the process of determining an

individual's DNA characteristics, which are as unique as fingerprints. DNA analysis
intended to identify a species, rather than an individual, is called DNA barcoding.
DNA profiling is a forensic technique in criminal investigations, comparing criminal

suspects' profiles to DNA evidence so as to assess the likelihood of their involvement in
the crime. It is also used in parentage testing, to establish immigration eligibility, and
in genealogical and medical research.
4. FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION (DACTYLOSCOPY) - Identification of persons through

examination and comparison of fingerprints.
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Chapter 2
FOUNDATION OF FRICTION RIDGE PRINT EXAMINATION
I. Basic Principles of Fingerprint Identification
Fingerprint Identification is the cornerstone of personal identification. The system is based

on the undisputed facts after so many studies and research that, “No two persons have
exactly the same fingerprints patterns in their individual characteristics”. Hence,
fingerprint is the positive proof wherein law enforcement agencies look upon this science
as the best evidence of positive personal identification.
II. Why Fingerprint Identification?
1. Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification.
2. Fingerprints are permanent throughout life.
3. The science of fingerprint identification stands out among all other forensic sciences:
➢ Has served all the governments worldwide in providing accurate identification of

criminals.
➢ Established the first forensic professional organization, the International

Association of Identification (IAI), in 1915.
➢ Established the first professional certification program for forensic scientists, IAI’s
Certified Latent Print Examiner Program, in 1977.
➢ Remains the most commonly used forensic evidence worldwide.
➢ Continues to expand as the premier method of identifying persons.
➢ Outperforms DNA and all other human identification systems to identify more
murderers, rapists and other serious offenders.
III. History of Fingerprints
➢ The development of fingerprint science predates the Christian era by many

centuries.
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➢ Pre-historic Indian picture writing of hand with crudely marked ridge patterns,
fingerprint impressions on clay tablets recording business transactions in ancient
Babylon, and clay seals of ancient Chinese origin bearing thumb prints, were
found as evidence of early use of fingerprint as identification of persons impressing
the prints.
➢ The formal study began as early as 1686 but has finally gained official use in 1858
by Sir William James Herschel. Herschel used fingerprints in India to prevent
fraudulent collection of armies pay accounts and identity on other documents.
➢ In 1880, two major developments were achieved that ushered to more holistic
acceptance of fingerprint use, Dr. Henry Faulds, wrote to publication in Japan
entitled “On the Skin Furrows of the Hand”, regarding the nature on the practical
use of fingerprints for identification of criminals, His argument was supported by his
studies and successful experiments on permanency of one’s fingerprint.
➢ Sir Francis Galton, devised the first scientific method of classifying fingerprints.
➢ It was in 1882 when the first authentic record of official use of fingerprint was noted
in the USA.
➢ In 1891, Juan Vucetich, an Argentinian Police, used a system of fingerprint as

criminal identification based on Sir Francis Galton’s studies.
➢ As early as the start of 20 th century, fingerprint was used in criminal investigation

has gained acceptance across the USA and was adopted in use by the different
branches of the USA Armed Forces. The used of fingerprint since then had begun
to take its toll.
➢ Today, the US Federal Bureau of Investigation Identification files are rapidly

approaching 200 million sets of fingerprints- the largest collection in the world.
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IV. Methods of Identification through the ages:
1. Tattoos- signified family clan tribal relations. But it can be duplicated, changed, or
disfigured. Today it signifies local membership or gangs.
2. Scarcification- done by cutting on various parts of the body thus leaving scars forming
elaborate designs.
3. Personal Description/Portrait Parle- Speaking likeness.
4. Photography- unreliable because of the angle at which photograph is taken.
5. Anthropometry- system of identification based of the various bony structure of the

human body- introduced by Alphonse Bertillon. It can only be apply to adult. And it takes
a long time to learn and apply the system. It was a subject to error and duplication.
n hropo e r is the
science of obtaining
systematic measurements
of the human body.
lphonse er illon pioneered

Anthropometry as a means of
identification . e as
considered as he a her o
ersonal den i ica ion.
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V. Pioneers of Fingerprint Science
1. Dr. Nehemiah Grew
He presented his observation on the

appearance of the ridges on the fingers
and palm, entitled “ hilosophical
Transac ion” in 1684 before the Royal
Society of London, England. He described
the pores and the arrangement of ridges
and showed a drawing of the
configurations of the same on the same
palms.
Dr. Nehemiah Grew
Gre ’s hand illus ra ion displa ing ric ion ridge lo .
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2. Govard Bidloo (1685)
In 1685 he published “Anatomia Humanis Corporis” (Anatomy of the Human Body)

which described details of the friction skin of the thumb. He had in that publication
drawing of a thumb depicting the arrangement of the ridges, however, its description
was morphological in nature and not on its individuality.
A drawing of thumb depicting the arrangement of

ridges.
3. Dr. Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694)
An Italian Anatomist, who published the

work, “De Externo Tactus Organo”
(Concerning the External Tactile Organs). He
described that ridge found in the palm
surface of the hand which course in diverse
designs and the pores which served as the
mouth of the sweet glands. He discovered
the inner and outer structure of the skin; he
named the inner layer as DERMIS and the
Dr. Marcello Malpighi
outer layer as EPIDERMIS.
4. Herman Welcker (1856)
He undertook an experiment by printing his right palm

to prove himself if the ridges change. By 1897, forty-one
years later, he again printed his right palm. After a year
he published this palm prints. It proved that the ridge
characteristics do not change. –Principle of
permanency
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5. Johann Christoph Andreas (JCA) Mayer (1788)
In 1788, JCA Mayer wrote in his illustrated

textbook “Anatomical Copper-plates
with Appropriate Explanations” that the
arrangement of skin ridges in never
duplicated in two persons, thus he was
the first to write that friction ridge skin is
unique. In his explanation he clearly
pronounces one of the fundamental
principles of fingerprint that is the principle
of individuality.
JCA Mayer
Illustrations of friction ridge skin in the book of JCA Mayer in 1788
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6. Dr. Johaness E. Purkinje (1787-1869)
A Bohemian (Czechoslovakian) physiologist who devised new methods of

preparing microscope samples, and discovered sweat pores. He was the first person to
name the patterns on the fingers but never mentioned using them for personal
identification. He distinguished and named 9 fingerprint patterns, officially published in
December 22, 1823, at the city of Breslau Germany:
9 fingerprint patterns by Purkinje:
1. The transverse curve (Plain Arch)
2. The Central Longitudinal Stripe (Tented Arch)
3. The Oblique Stripe (Loop- Radial and Ulnar)
4. The Oblique Loop (Loop- Radial and Ulnar)
5. The Almond (Whorl)
6. The Spiral (Whorl)
7. The Ellipse-Elliptical Whorl (Whorl)
8. The Circle-Circular Whorl (Whorl)
9. The Double Whorl (Composite Twin Whorl) Johannes Purkinje
urkinje’s nine pes o ingerprint patterns.
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7. Arthur Kollman (1833 )
A German medical researcher

from Hamburg who studied the fingerprint
characteristics of friction ridges and volar
pads. In the 1880s (1883, 1885), Kollmann was
the first researcher to address the formation of
friction ridges on the fetus and the random
physical stresses and tensions which may have
played a part in their growth.
Volar pads - are transient swellings of tissue called

mesenchyme under the epidermis on the palmar
surface of the hands and soles of the feet of the
human fetus.
Arthur Kollman
8. David Hepburn (1895)
In 1895, Hepburn in his paper, “The Papillary Ridges on the Hands and Feet of
Monkeys and Men” was the first to recognize that friction ridges assist with grasping by
increasing the level of friction between the ridges and grasped object. He named volar
pads, hypothenar and thenar on the palm.
Left palmprint to illustrate the location of thenar and hypothenar
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9. Inez Whipple (1904)
In 1904, Inez Whipple published a paper that is considered by some of as a land

mark in the field of genetics and ridgeology. “The Ventral Surface of the Mammalian
Chiridium – With Special Reference to the Conditions Found in Man” suggests that the
development of the surfaces of the hands and feet of all mammals are similar to some
degree.
The figure above shows the distal portion of prints of right and left feet of two individuals showing
to an extreme degree the effects of pad fusion. The triradii which are shown by pen lines outside
the limits of the print were accurately located by a careful examination of the feet, although too
far up between the toes to be printed. C and D show the complete typical number of outer and
inner triradii. Source: Whipple, Inez L. (1904). "The Ventral Surface of the Mammalian Chiridium with
special reference to the conditions found in man". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie 7:
261–368. Triradii - A group of three ridges forming a Y shape at the base of each finger on the
palm of the hand.
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10. Dr. Harold Cummins (1929)
In 1943 he co-authored with Charles Midlo a book

entitled “Finger Prints, Palms and Soles – An
Introduction to Dermatoglyphics”. In this paper,
Cummins describes the formation and development
of volar pads on the human fetus. “He reports that the
human fetus still passes through some of the stages of
its evolutionary process and this includes the
appearance of waking pads.
He reported in Chapter 10 “Embryology”: “All fetus

develops pads in conformity to the morphological plan. There is considerate variation in
the time relations of the appearance and regression of pads..” Cummins noted that volar
pad configuration has effects to the ridge patterns.
The figure shows the

growth of the hand progresses
from (A) a paddlelike form
(magnification = 19.5 X), (B)
continues as the fingers separate
(magnification = 17.3 X) and (C)
the volar pads become
prominent (magnification = 7.7 X),
and (D) achieves infant-like
appearance by 8 weeks EGA
(magnification = 4.2 X). Cummins
(1929).)
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11. Alfred Hale (1952)
Alfred Hale was an associate of Harold Cummins at Tulane University. In 1952 he

published a paper called “Morphogenesis of the Volar Skin in the Human Fetus”. His
paper documents the actual stages of friction ridge development in addition to
describing the friction ridge skin formation on the human fetus. “Hale examined thin slices
of skin, cut in cross-section to the friction ridges, from the fingers of fetuses at different
stages of development. Cross sections of skin were placed on microscope slides and
stained for better viewing. Various stages of ridge development were then revealed.
The figure shows the stress

between the secondary
ridge and the surface is
evident below the furrows.
This stress occurs at the
time of differentiation.
(Fetus 200 mm. C/R length
X 600)
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12. Dr. William Joseph Babler
He was recognized as the most foremost authority in the structure and formation
of skin. He has spent over 20 years researching the prenatal development of friction skin,
writing numerous articles explaining his findings. He has established that the patterns on
the fingers are a result of the shape of the volar pads when friction skin begins to develop;
high volar pads create whorls while low volar pads create arches.
The illustration of volar pads in relation to the resultant fingerprint patterns on the tips of
the fingers. It was used as one of exhibits in US v. Byron Mitchell.
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VII. Application of Friction Ridge Skin Impressions
In 1858, the first practical systematic capture of hand and finger images uniformly
taken for identification purposes, when an English administrator in India, Sir William
Herschel, while working for the Civil Service of India, used prints to distinguish between
employees by commenced placing the inked palm impression and, later thumb
impressions of some members of the local population contracts. These prints were used
as a form of signature on the documents because of the high level of illiteracy in India
and frequent attempts at forgery. Herschel also began fingerprinting all prisoners in jail.
1. Sir William James Herschel (1833-1917)
In 1916, he published a 41 pages book, “The Origin o

ingerprin ” which described his research starting 1858 when
he practiced actual recording of the finger and palm prints
of the natives of India. Herschel described to place the native
entire palm on the document as safeguard against
repudiation of signatures. In 1877, he wrote to his superior
suggesting that fingerprint be used to prevent impersonation
and further request permission to enumerate the fingerprint
system in all jails in India.
First Palmprints and fingerprints taken 1859/60 by William James Herschel (1833-1917)
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2. Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)
Sir Francis Galton was considered to be one of the

greatest scientists of the 19th century. He is credited
with being the “first scientist of skin friction
identification”, although he played as much a role of
a promoter as a researcher. Galton published the
book on fingerprints in 1892, “Finger Prints”, which
initially introduced the field of fingerprint identification
to the criminal investigation system, and significantly
advanced the science of fingerprint identification.
He discovered the three families of fingerprint patterns:

the whorl, loop, and arch.
3. Dr. Henry Faulds
His article, ”On the Skin Furrows of the Hand”, was

published in 1880 in Japan in the British Journal,
describing the importance of fingerprint for
identification purpose. He points out his observation
that prints left at scene of crime would provide for
some identification of the offender when
apprehended, he recommended the used of thin film
of printers’ ink to record fingerprints.
He conceived the idea of using fingerprints for crime

detection. As a matter of fact, he compared
fingerprint twice upon an invitation of the Japanese
Police, which suspects pleaded guilty upon the
identification of their prints that were lifted from the
crime scene.
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4. Sir Edward Richard Henry (1850-1913)
Together with his two Indian clerks – Khan

Bahadur Aziz ul Haque and Rai Bahadur Hem
Chandra Bose - Henry devised a workable
Classification System of fingerprints which was
adopted by the Indian government to replace
the Bertillon System (Anthropometry) which
worked since 1892. Because of this success,
Henry was invited to read his paper before the
British Association for the Advancement of
Science.
5. Juan Vucetich (1858-1925)
An Argentinian police official, who devised his own

system of fingerprint classification. His most significant
work, “Dac iloscopia Co parada” (Comparative
Dactyloscopy) was published in 1904, which led him to
receive awards and honors from around the world.
However, the system that Vucetich founded did not
extend to the other countries other than the South
America, but his was the first instance that the
fingerprint science is used by law enforcement
personnel.
6. David R. Ashbaugh, Royal Canadian Mounted Po
A Canadian police officer known for his extensive research on the friction ridge
identification, introducing for the first time the use of the term ridgeology in forensic
identification and the ACE-V methodology. David Ashbaugh also wrote and published a
fundamental and essential reference book for the entire forensic identification
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community : Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic
and Advanced Ridgeology.
David Ashbaugh made extensive research on the science of fingerprint

identification. In the 80’s, he introduced in the field the ACE-V methodology for fingerprint
identification, where ACE-V stand for Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and
Verification. In 1983, Ashbaugh published the first article using the term ridgeology in
forensic identification, creating also the terms level 1, level 2, and level 3 detail now in
use in the identification community. In 1999, he authored a book treating of ridgeology
methods, poroscopy, edgeoscopy, pressure distortion, and more.
VIII. Fingerprint leading cases in USA and Philippines.
• People vs. Jennings – The United States leading case wherein, the first conviction
based on fingerprint was recognized by the Judicial Authorities.
People vs. Jennings became the first official case to integrate fingerprints as
plausible evidence in America after prints found at the crime scene correctly
identified Thomas Jennings as the murderer of Clarence Hiller.
• People vs. Medina – First conviction based on fingerprint and the leading judicial
decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence.
Agripino Ruiz made an impression as the first expert witness whose expert opinion
receives merit in Philippine judicial history. This could be considered a landmark
case where fingerprint evidence serves as basis in the conviction of Marciano
Medina.
IX. DATES TO REMEMBER
1883 – Mark Twain in his book, Life on the Mississippi, a murderer was identified by the use
of fingerprint identification.
1886 – USA, International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), National Bureau of

Criminal Identification, for exchange of arrest information.
1902- New York State of Prison in Albany claims the first practical, systematic use of
fingerprints in the U.S. to identifying criminals.
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1903- Fingerprints were adopted in the following penitentiaries: Sing Sing, Napanoch,
Auburn, ans Clinton.
1905 – Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Army. It was known as the first
military use of fingerprint.
1907 - Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Navy. It was known as the first
Navy use of fingerprint.
1908 - Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps.
1908 – The first official fingerprint card was developed.
1911 – The State of Illinois, USA made the first criminal conviction based solely in fingerprint
evidence. It was known as the first judicial ruling is such evidence.
1914 – Fingerprints were officially adopted in France replacing, Bertillonage-

Anthropometry.
1915 – A group of 22 identification personnel initiated the International Association for

Criminal Identification, the organization was renamed to International Association for
Identification (IAI).
1916 – First organized school for teaching fingerprint (Institute of Applied Science –
Chicago)
1918 – Edmond Locard wrote that if 12 points (Galton’s Details) were the same between
two fingerprints, it would suffice as a positive identification.
1924 – The Identification Division of Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI ) was established
after J. Edgar Hoover was appointed as Director.
1946 – the FBI had processed 100 million fingerprint cards in manually maintained files;
and 1971, 200 million cards.
1974 – The first professional fingerprint organization was formed in United Kingdom, the
National Society of Fingerprint Officers (NSFO).
1977 – At New Orleans, Louisiana on August 1, 1977, the IAI voted to establish the world’s
first certification program for fingerprint experts. Certified Latent Print Examiners (CLPEs).
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1980 – First computer data base was developed, which came to be known as the
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS).
2007 - The largest AFIS in America is operated by the Department of Homeland Security’s
US Visit Program, containing 74 million person’s fingerprints, primary in the form of two-
finger records.
X. Fingerprint Events in the Philippines
1. Mr Jones – one who first taught fingerprint in the Philippine Constabulary in the
year 1900.
2. Bureau of Prison – records show that in 1918, CARPETAS already used fingerprint.
3. Lt. Asa and N. Darby – established a modern and complete fingerprint files for
Philippine Commonweath during the reoccupation of the Philippines by the
American Forces.
4. Generoso Reyes – First Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by the Philippine

Constabulary.
5. Isabela Bernales – first Filipina Fingerprint Technician.
6. Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police Department and Flavio Guerrero – FBI
Washington gave the first examination in fingerprinting in 1927 and Agustin Patricio
of the Philippines, top the examination.
7. People of the Philippines vs. Medina - first conviction based on fingerprint leading
to judicial decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence.
8. Plaridel Education System – now known as the Philippine College of Criminology,

the first government recognized school to teach the Science of Fingerprint and
other Police Sciences.
9. The First National Bureau Identification (1924) was created by the Act of Congress,
the Bureau was established with the US DOJ (Washington DC).
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XI. Three Dogmatic/Basic/Principle of Fingerprint
1. Principle of Permanency- The papillary ridges are immutable, perennial and individual
from the third month of the embryonic of a person until decomposition set in after death.
Some attempts of destroying ridges and disguised:
1. John Dillinger – US notorious public enemy No. 1, who tried to remove hid
fingerprints with acid but failed. Post-mortem fingerprints was taken when he was
shot by FBI agents proved that he was John Dillinger.
2. Robert James Pitts – gained fame as the man without fingerprints knowing from an
inmate of a possible destruction of fingerprints.
3. Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons – who performed experiments on themselves by

burning with boiling water, hot oil and hot metal, had shown that after healing of
the epidermis, the original patterns of fingerprints reappeared.
2. Principle of Individuality (variation, uniqueness) – No two prints of different or the

neighboring fingers at the same person have ever been found to be identical or exactly
in all aspect.
3. Principle of Infallibility – that fingerprint is “incapable of error”, cannot commit mistakes.

Principle of infallibility means that the fingerprint is reliable and admissible evidence in
court.
XIV. Fingerprint is one of most infallible or reliable means of personal identification in view
of the following reasons:
1. Characteristics of fingerprint which are formed by collection of curved, straight, long,

short, and other various friction do not change naturally as the body ages.
2. Fingerprints are unique throughout the world and permanent throughout life.
3. Police agencies throughout the world accepted, adopted and utilized fingerprint
system as a means of absolute identification.
4. No two individual persons have exactly the same fingerprint patterns in their individual
characteristics.
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5. The court and other authorities since time immemorial take of its importance and
reliability as a means of identification.
XV. USES OF FINGERPRINT
1. Identification of criminals whose fingerprints are found ate the scene of the crime.
2. Identification of fugitives through a comparison of fingerprints.
3. Exchanging of criminal identifying information with identification Bureaus of Foreign

Countries in case of mutual interest.
4. Means of personal identification.
5. Identification of unknown deceased.
6. Prevention of hospital mistake in the identification of infants.
7. Licensing procedure for automobiles, firearms, aircraft and other equipment.
XVI. Legal Bases of Fingerprint Evidence
1. People vs. Jennings – The United States leading case wherein, the first conviction based
on fingerprint was recognized by the Judicial Authorities.
2. State vs. Cerciello (New Jersey) – fingerprint evidence was permitted to be inroduced.
3. State vs. Conners – it was held competent to show by a photograph the fingerprints
upon balcony post of a house entered, without producing that post in court.
4. People vs. Coral (California) – it is completely settled law that fingerprints are the
strongest evidence of the identity of a person.
5. Bilangawa vs. Amador (Philippines) – a fingerprint expert and constabulary sergeant

testified and successfully defended fingerprint evidence based on eight identical ridge
points.
6. People vs. Medina – First conviction based on fingerprint and the leading judicial
decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence.
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XVIII. Allied Science of Fingerprint Identification
1. Chiroscopy – The papillary ridges identification on the palms of the hand. The palms of
the human hands contain minute ridges and furrows that are found to be peculiar and
these peculiarities can aid investigators in establishing the identity of the suspect. Like
fingerprints, palm prints can also be found in the crime scene.
2. Podoscopy – The science of identification through friction ridge characteristics existing

on the sole of the human foot. Ridge characteristics on the fingers will be the same as
the ridge characteristics found on the sole of the human feet.
3. Poroscopy – Refers to the scientific examination or study of arrangement and shape of

the pores of the friction ridges through which the bodily fluids are secreted or discharged.
The development of this study was credited to Dr. Edmond Locard of Lyon, France who
devoted much of his time in studying minute opening of the friction ridges. Locard in 1912
asserted that due to its extensive quantity, same distribution of the number of pores
between two persons is theoretically impossible. Pores follow the same principle of
permanency as of the fingerprint making it as reliable and valid for personal
identification. Locard is known as the Father of Poroscopy.
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Chapter 3
WAYS AND PROCEDURES IN TAKING FINGERPRINT IMPRESSION
Fingerprinting
It is the process of recording fingerprint through the use of fingerprint ink.
1. Two Types of Fingerprint Impression:
a. Rolled Impression – is an impression made or place in the fingerprint card which is

taken individually by rolling the ten fingers of the subject 180 degrees from tip to the
second joints.
b. Plain Impression – is an impression made simultaneously that serves as a reference

impression.
Rolled Impression
Plain Impression
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Scientific Way of Taking Fingerprints
1. Prepare a set-up for printing.
2. Clean the inking plate/slab thoroughly before spreading the ink.
3. Place a small amount of fingerprint ink on each side of the slab and in the center,
then start spreading the ink using the roller back and forth until the ink is evenly
distributed.
4. To check whether or not the ink was spread properly or whether it is enough or
not, try to print one of your fingers or put the slab near the light and if brownish
reflection is observed it means you have a good ink for used.
5. Place the fingerprint card on the card holder properly to ensure that proper entry
will be easy.
6. Check the hands of the subject. Make sure that it is clean and dry. If it is perspiring
freely, wipe them off with a soft, clean cloth dampened with alcohol.
7. The technician should stand at the left of the subject in taking the right-hand
impression and take the right side in taking the left-hand impression of the subject.
8. Subject should be instructed to stand straight but relax and not to assist the
technician rolling his finger.
9. In taking the rolled impression, technician should place first the right thumb to be
rolled towards the body of the subject while other fingers no in use is either folded
or closed. Then ink the remaining fingers and rolled it away from the body of the
subject. Make sure to roll the fingertip from tip down to the beginning of the next
joint, and from one side of nail to the other (180 degrees).
10. Same should be applied in the left hand only that the technician will turn to the
right of the subject.
11. Apply moderate amount of pressure in printing subject’s fingers to avoid blurred
prints but hold subject hand firmly so as to prevent pulling that may cause smeared
impression.
12. To obtain the plain impression, all the fingers of the right hand should be pressed
lightly upon the inking plate, the press simultaneously upon the lower right hand of
the card and do same to the left hand.
27
Equipment in Printing Fingerprint Impression
1. Ink Roller – refers to an instrument used for spreading the ink into the ink slab or
inking plate.
2. Ink Slab/inking plate- refers to a piece of metal or a plane glass with as much as
¼ thick and 6 or more inches long where the fingerprint ink is distributed for
fingerprinting.
3. Card Holder – refers to a gadget sued for clipping the fingerprint card to avoid
movement of the card during printing.
4. Fingerprint ink – refers to an especially manufacture ink for purposes of taking

fingerprints.
5. Fingerprint Card – refers to a piece card used for recording the ten fingerprints.
The usual size is 8” x 8”.
28
6. Fingerprint table – a table intended for taking fingerprints.
7. Post-mortem fingerprint equipment – refers to a set of equipment of hypodermis

syringe, spoon, tissue builder solvent, tissue cleaner, etc. for taking prints of dead
person.
Problems in Fingerprinting a Living Person
Reasons for Poor Impression:
1. Poor ink 2. Dirty finger or equipment
3. Improper rolling 4. Rolling more than once
5. Too much pressure 6. Slippage
7. Over inking 8. Incomplete inking
Problems in Recording Inked Fingerprint:
1. Temporary Deformities
2. Permanent Deformities
3. Deformities
POST-MORTEM FINGERPRINTING
One of the most challenging, and also rewarding, aspects of latent print examination is
the determination of identity of deceased individuals:
1. Fingerprinting the newly dead (flexible and intact fingers).
2. Fingerprinting the dead, where stiffening of the fingers and/or early

decomposition are present (Hands clenched or fingerprints wrinkled or
decomposing).
3. Fingerprinting the dead in difficult cases.
1. Fingerprinting the newly dead (flexible and intact fingers).
-Regular inking process on standard fingerprint card
2. Fingerprinting the dead, where stiffening of the fingers and/or early decomposition
are present (Hands clenched or fingerprints wrinkled or decomposing).
- Breaking the rigor, injection of tissue builder, and removal of skin of fingertips or
disarticulation of fingers
3. Fingerprinting the dead in difficult cases.
- Macerated fingers - used concentrated ammonium hydroxide

- Mummified fingers – used 1-3% solution of potassium hydroxide
- Injection of tissue builder
29
Chapter 4
FINGERPRINT CHARACTERISTICS AND FORMATION
There are only three general groups of fingerprint patterns. Each of this group or family
may have the same characteristics or resemblance. These resemblances of patterns
therefore may be further divided into sub-groups or types. These divisions are as follows:
ARCH – 5% LOOP – 60% WHORL – 35%
Plain Arch Radial Loop Plain Whorl
Tented Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket Loop Whorl
Double Loop Whorl
Accidental Whorl
30
FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
Fingerprint - A reproduction on smooth surfaces of the pattern or design formed by the

ridges on the inside of the end joint of a finger or thumb.
Component Parts of Fingerprint Patterns
Ridge Surface – is that component of the friction skin that actually forms the fingerprint
impression.
1. Ridges – are the tiny elevation or hill like structure found on the epidermis layer of
the skin containing sweat pores.
2. Furrows – are the canal like impression or a depression found between the ridges
which maybe compare with low area in the thread.
The black lines in the impression are formed by the ridges

while the white spaces which are between the ridges are the
furrows.
Component Parts of Fingerprint Patterns
Sweat Pores – is a small opening found anywhere across the ridge surface where the
sweat comes out.
Sweat Duct – is a long host like structure that serves as the passage way for the sweat that
exits at its mouth, the pore
Sweat Glands – are found in the dermis layer of the skin which responsible for the
production of the sweat (watery substance).
31
BASIC STRUCTURE OF SWEAT GLANDS
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
Ridge characteristics known as Galton ridges or minutiae are small distinctive

points in a fingerprint impression. Generally, ridge characteristics are common from one
fingerprint to another. Its placement in the pattern makes it peculiar from others. Ridge
bifurcates while it runs, and sometimes it forms a dot, and island, or a spur. Irrespective of
the prevalence of these unique characteristics, a fingerprint expert has to identify points
as many as he can in order to produce positive identification. Positive identification can
only be concluded once the ridge details in two impressions (impression from the suspect
and fingerprint recovered from the crime scene) are of perfect similarity as to relative to
position, orientation, direction, and structures without any single difference or deviations.
32
Common Ridge Characteristics
1. Island (Short ridge) –An independent ridge that is not connected to the other ridges,
travels in a short distance and then suddenly terminates or ends.
Ridge island
Ridge island
Ridge island
2. Dot or Series of Dots – They are fragmentary ridges formed like a dot or dots.
Dot ridge or series of dot ridges
33
3. Short ridge or Short Series of ridges – They are fragmentary ridges formed by a short or
short series of dot.
Short ridge or short series of ridges
4. Ridge Ending – It is a termination or ending of ridge or ridges.
Ridge ending
34
5. Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which are shorter in length
than the main ridge.
Ridge hook or spur
Ridge hook or spur
6. Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge between two ridges.
Ridge bridge
35
7. Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of ridge which is madly formed, thin, short or
broken which appears in depressions between two well-formed ridges.
Incipient or nascent ridge
Incipient or nascent ridge
Two well-
formed ridges
8. Sufficient Recurve – The space between shoulders of loop, free of any appendage,
and abutting at right angle.
36
9. Shoulder of a Loop – It is that point at which the recurving ridge turns or curve.
The space between the shoulders of loop (the yellow mark) is the sufficient recurve.
Shoulder
Shoulder
10. Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
11. Rod or Bar – Is a single ridge at the center of recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
The envelop is a single ridge enclosing

one or more rods or bars (inner
recurving ridge with yellow mark)
The ridge with green mark is called rod

or bar.
37
12. Enclosure – A bifurcation which does not remain open but which the legs of the
bifurcation, after running along side by side, short distance, come together again to form
a single ridge once more.
Enclosure
13. Bifurcation/Bifurcating ridge – A single ridge that which splits into two ridges, forming
a Y shape structure. It is referred to as fork.
Bifurcating
ridge
Bifurcating
ridge
38
Image of a fingerprint with some ridge characteristics identified.
5 6 7
4
8
9
2
10
1
11
19
12
18 13
14
17 16 15
1. Short ridge 10. Dot

2. Ridge ending 11. Ridge Enclosure
3. Ridge ending 12. Bifurcating ridge
4. Ridge bridge 13. Dot
5. Ridge ending 14. Ridge ending
6. Bifurcating ridge 15. Ridge ending
7. Bifurcating ridge 16. Dot
8. Ridge ending 17. Ridge ending
9. Core 18. Delta
19. Bifurcating ridge
39
LEGEND
1. Bifurcation 8. Ridge End 15. Bifurcation 22. Abutting Ridge
2. Ridge End 9. Ridge End 16. Ridge End 23. Ridge End
3. Ridge End 10. Ridge End 17. Ridge End 24. Ridge End
4. Ridge End 11. Bifurcation 18. Bifurcation 25. Bifurcation
5. Core, One rod 12. Ridge End 19. Ridge End 26. Bifurcation
6. Bifurcation 13. Bifurcation 20. Ridge End 27. Island
7. Bifurcation 14. Ridge End 21. Delta 28. Ridge End
40
TERMS THAT ARE FREQUENTLY USED IN TYPING FINGERPRINT PATTERNS:
1. RECURVING RIDGE – This is a kind of ridge formation that curves back in the direction
from which it started. It looks like a hair pin.
The ridges with colors are the recurving ridges.

The ridge with color red is the innermost
recurving ridge.
2. CONVERGING RIDGE – This is a ridge formation whose closed end is angular and serves
as a point of convergence, usually pointed.
41
3. APPENDAGE – This is a short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right
angle.
4. BIFURCATING RIDGE – This is a single ridge which splits into two ridges, forming a Y shape
structure. It is referred to as a fork.
Bifurcating
ridge
Bifurcating
ridge
42
5. DIVERGING RIDGES – X and Y are the type lines. These are two ridges flowing side by
side and suddenly separating, one ridge going one way and the other ridge going
another way.
6. TYPE LINES – These are the basic boundaries of fingerprint patterns. They are formed by
ridges which run parallel, then diverge or separate to surround the pattern area.
7. PATTERN AREA - This is the part of a fingerprint which lies within the area surrounded by
the type lines.
The X and Y are the type lines
PATTERN AREA
Divergence
X
X
Y
Y
Divergence
The ridges with red marks are the

basic boundaries of the fingerprint
pattern called type lines.
The blue arrows are pointing on

the point of divergence- the point
where the two ridges separate.
The pattern area is the part

surrounded by the type lines.
43
8. DELTA – This is a focal point on a ridge formation at or directly in front or near the center
of the divergence of the type lines.
9. CORE – This is a point in ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of pattern.
Core
Delta
BASIC FINGERPRINT PATTERN TYPES

1. Plain Arch
2. Tented Arch
3. Plain Loop (Radial and Ulnar loop)
4. Plain Whorl
5. Central Pocket Loop Whorl

6. Double Loop Whorl
7. Accidental Whorl
44
1. PLAIN ARCH
This is pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern then flow toward the
other side, with a rise at the center.
It will be noted that there may be various formations such as ridges, bifurcation,
dots, and islands involved in this type of pattern. But they all tend to follow the
general ridge contour: they enter on one side, make a rise or wave in the center,
tend flow or tend to flow out the other side.
45
2. TENTED ARCH
This is a type of pattern where majority of the ridges from an arch and one or more ridges
at the center shape a tent in outline giving an angle of 90⁰ degrees or less, or one with
an upward thrust having an angle of 45⁰ degrees or more, or a pattern similar to loop but
lacking one or two of its essential elements.
In tented arch, most of the ridges enter upon one side of the impression and flow or tend
to flow out upon the other side, as in the plain arch type, however ridge of ridges at the
center do not. There are three types of tented arch based on the definition:
1. The type on which at the center form a definite angle of 90⁰ degrees or less.
2. The type in which one or more ridges at the center form up an upward thrust is an
ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree form a horizontal plane of 45⁰
degrees or more.
3. The type approaching the loop type, possessing two of the basic or essential
characteristics of the loop, but lacking the third.
46
3. LOOP
This is a pattern in which one or more of the ridges enter on either side of the impression,
then turn around (recurve), passing or touching an imaginary line drawn between the
delta and core, then flow toward the same side of the impression from whence the ridges
entered.
Requisites of a loop
An impression to be considered a loop must possess four requisites:
1. It must have a delta.
2. It must have a core.
3. It must have a recurving ridge that passes between the delta and core.
(Sufficient recurve)
4. It must have a ridge count of at least one.
Core
Delta
The pattern above is a loop. It has a recurving ridge

(ridge with yellow mark) that passes between the delta
and core; and it has a ridge count of 12.
RIDGE COUNT - This is the process of counting the ridges

that touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between
the delta and core of a loop.
47
Sufficient Recurve – may be defined as part of the recurving ridge between shoulders of
loop. It must be free of any appendages abutting upon the outside of the recurve at a
right angle.
Sufficient recurve Shoulder
Shoulder
The part of the recurving ridge between shoulders of loop (ridge with yellow
mark) is the sufficient recurve.
48
Appendage – This is a short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
Some explanation is necessary of the importance attached to appendages. Much care

should be exercised in interpreting appendages because they sometimes change the
shape of the recurving ridge to which they are connected.
If an appendage touches or abuts outside the shoulders of the recurving ridge at a right
angle, it spoils the recurve.
Points to remember in determining an appendage:
1. It must be in 90⁰ degrees. If it fails to abut in such required degree or fails to connect in
between the shoulders of the looping ridge, then it does not affect the recurve.
2. It must abut between the shoulders of the recurving ridge. If it fails to abut or connects
between the shoulders of the looping ridge, then it does not affect the recurve.
No matter how short it is, always remember that its presence in the fingerprint may greatly
change the course of identification.
The following recurving ridges are spoiled by appendage.
49
The following recurving ridges are Good Recurve (the recurve is not spoiled by the
abutting ridge).
GOVERNING RULES IN DELTA AND CORE SELECTION
1. Delta Formations
DELTA – This is a focal point on a ridge formation at or directly in front or near the center
of the divergence of the type lines. Delta is sometimes called as outer terminus.
It can be found in the following:
1. First ridge that forms at the divergence of the type lines.

2. First ridge that forms in front or center of the divergence of the type lines.
3. First ridge that forms the nearest to the divergence of the type lines.
The ridges with red marks are the

type lines.
The blue arrows are pointing on

the divergence.
Delta
50
Six (6) Delta Formations
The delta may be one of the following ridge characteristics.
1. Delta as bifurcating ridge
2. Delta as abrupt ending ridge
3. Delta as short ridge
4. Delta as a dot
5. Delta as meeting of two ridges
6. Delta as a point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center or in front
of the divergence.
51
Rules Governing the Choice Between Two or More Possible Deltas:
1. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation which does not open toward the
core.
Example:
The bifurcation at E is closer to the core

than the bifurcation at D. However, E is
not immediately in front of the
divergence of the type lines and it does
not open toward the core. A—A and
B—B are the only possible type lines in
this sketch and it follows, therefore, that
the bifurcation at D must be called the
delta. The first ridge count would be
ridge C.
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the
bifurcation is selected.
Example:
A problem of this type is shown in this

figure. The dot, A, and the bifurcation
are equally close to the divergence of
the type lines, but the bifurcation is
selected as the delta. The ridges
marked "T" are the type lines.
52
3. When there are two or more possible deltas which conform to the definition, the
one nearest the core is chosen.
Example:
Prints are sometimes found wherein a

single ridge enters the pattern area
with two or more bifurcations opening
toward the core. Ridge A enters the
pattern area and bifurcates at points X
and D. The bifurcation at D, which is the
closer to the core, is the delta and
conforms to the rule for deltas. A—A
and B—B are the type lines. A
bifurcation which does not conform to
the definition should not be considered
as a delta irrespective of its distance
from the core.
4. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the
type lines toward the core, but at the nearer end only.
Example:
The location of the delta in this case

depends entirely upon the point of
origin of the ridge running between the
type lines toward the core. If the ridge
is entirely within the pattern area, the
delta is located at the end nearer the
point of divergence of the type lines .
53
2. CORE FORMATION
CORE – This is a point in ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of
pattern. Core is sometime called as inner terminus.
Core
Rules Governing the Selection of the Core of a Loop
The core, as the name implies, is the approximate center of the finger impression. It will
be necessary to concern ourselves with the core of the loop type only. The following
rules govern the selection of the core of a loop:
1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.
The ridges with marks are recurving ridges, the one

with yellow mark is the innermost sufficient recurve.
The core is placed upon or within the innermost
sufficient recurve, as shown in this figure.
54
2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high
as the shoulders of the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from
the delta.
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising as
high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it
touches the looping ridge or not.
4. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high
as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the two center
rods, the two center rods being treated as though they were connected by a recurving
ridge.
55
Figures 1 to 6 illustrate the rule that a recurve must have no appendage abutting upon
it at a right angle between the shoulders and on the outside. If such an appendage is
present between the shoulders of a loop, that loop is considered spoiled and the next
loop outside will be considered to locate the core. In each of the figures, the point C
indicates the core.
1 2
3 4
=
C
5 6
56
C
Figures 7 to 9 reflect interlocking loops at the center, while figure 10 has two loops side
by side at the center. In all these cases the two loops are considered as one. In figure
7, when the shoulder line X—X is drawn it is found to cross exactly at the point of
intersection of the two loops. The two loops are considered one, with one rod, the core
being placed at C. In figure 8, the shoulder line X—X is above the point of intersection
of the two loops. The two are considered as one, with two rods, the core being at C.
In figure 9, the shoulder line X—X is below the point of intersection of the loops. Again
the two are treated as one, with two rods, the core being placed at C. In figure 10, the
two are treated as one, with two rods, the core being placed at C.
8 9
10
57
RIDGE COUNTING
This is the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line drawn
between the delta and core of a loop.
Core
Delta
RIDGE COUNT: 12
Core
Delta
RIDGE COUNT: 1
58
The following figures show various loop patterns and their ridge count:
RIDGE COUNT: 12 RIDGE COUNT: 6
59
RULES IN RIDGE COUNTING
1. Locate the exact points of the core and delta.
2. Count all ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between the core and
delta.
3. Never include the core and the delta in the count. Count only those ridges which
intervene or pass between the core and delta
4. Incipient ridges are never counted, no matter where they appear. The general rule is
that in order to be counted, the width of a ridge must be equal to the width of the other
ridges in the pattern under consideration.
What ridges are included in ridge counting? Ridges subject to ridge counting with given
numerical values are as follows:
1. A ridge island or dot is given one ridge count.
2. A short ridge is given one ridge count.
3. A long ridge is given one ridge count.
4. An abrupt-ending ridge is given one ridge count.
5. A bifurcating ridge- If a ridge bifurcates or branches into two across the imaginary line
cross only the bifurcation directly at the point of forking, it is counted as two. If the
imaginary line does not cross the point of forking or falls short of touching it, it crosses only
one ridge the count given is one.
6. Ridge enclosures are counted as two ridges – When the imaginary line crosses or
touches the point of bifurcation of an enclosure, two ridges are counted
7. Criss-crossing or meeting of two ridges is counted as two ridges
DIVISIONS OF A LOOP (RADIAL AND ULNAR LOOP)
The terms "radial" and "ulnar" are derived from the
radius and ulna bones of the forearm. Loops which
flow in the direction of the ulna bone (toward the little
finger) are called ulnar loops and those which flow in
the direction of the radius bone are called radial
loops.
60
On the right hand, radial loops slope to the left and ulnar loops slope to the right. Loops
whose ridges flow toward the direction of the little finger are called ulnar loops.
To differentiate a radial from an ulnar loop, one must know from what hand such
impression is taken. On the right hand, radial loops slope to the left and ulnar loops slope
to the right. On the left hand, radial loops slope to the right and ulnar loops slope to the
left.
Flow of Ridges
ULNAR LOOP ULNAR LOOP RADIAL LOOP
The above patterns show the direction ridges flow if located in the RIGHT HAND.
The ridges
flow in the The ridges flow in the
direction of direction of the little
the thumb, finger, therefore it is
therefore it is ulnar loop.
radial loop.
On the right hand, radial

loops slope to the left and
ulnar loops slope to the
right.
RIGHT HAND
RADIAL LOOP –
ULNAR LOOP -
61
Flow of Ridges
ULNAR LOOP RADIAL LOOP ULNAR LOOP
The above patterns show the direction ridges flow if located in the RIGHT HAND.
RL The ridges flow in the

UL direction of the thumb
UL
RL
RL
are radial loops while the
ridges in the direction of
little fingers are ulnar
loops.
RL
UL
RL
On the left hand, radial

loops slope to the right
and ulnar loops slope to
the left.
LEFT HAND
RADIAL LOOP –
ULNAR LOOP -
62
4. PLAIN WHORL
This is a pattern consisting of two deltas and in which at least one ridge makes a turn
through one complete circuit. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must
touch or cross at least one of the recurving or circuiting ridges within the pattern area.
The pattern could be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle.
Elements of the Plain Whorl:
1. A complete circuit
2. Two Deltas
3. At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary line traversing

between the two deltas.
Right Delta
(LD)
Left Delta
(LD)
The fingerprint pattern above is an example of plain

whorl. It has two deltas, and circuiting ridges are
touched or crossed between the two deltas.
63
The following are typical examples of plain whorl type:
64
5. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL
This is pattern which possesses two deltas, with one or more ridges forming a complete
circuit which maybe oval, spiral, circular, or any variant of a circle; or it is a pattern
consisting of two deltas, with one or more recurving ridges with an obstruction at right
angles to the inner line of flow, between which an imaginary line would touch or cross no
recurving ridge within the inner pattern area.
Elements of the Central Pocket Loop Whorl:
1. At least one recurving ridge or obstruction ridge at right angle.
2. Two deltas.
3. No recurving ridge within the pattern area is touched or crossed by an imaginary

line drawn between the two deltas.
Right Delta
(LD)
Left Delta
(LD)
The pattern above is an example of central pocket loop

whorl. No recurving (circuiting ridge) is touched or
crossed by an imaginary line between the two deltas. In
this pattern the left delta is outer delta and the right delta
is the inner delta.
65
Central Pocket Loop Whorl
A central pocket loop whorl consists of at least one recurving ridge, or an obstruction at
right angle to the line of flow, with two deltas, between which, when an imaginary line is
drawn, no recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is touched.
Difference from a plain whorl – an imaginary line drawn from delta to delta must not cut
or touch a recurving ridge (circuiting) in front of the inner delta.
LINE OF FLOW
The LINE OF FLOW OF A CENTER POCKET LOOP WHORL is determined by drawing an

imaginary line between the inner delta and the center of the innermost recurving ridge
(circuiting).
66
The following are typical examples of central pocket loop whorl type:
67
6. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL
This is a pattern consisting two separate and distinct loop formations, two sets of
shoulders, and two deltas.
Elements of Double Loop Whorl:
1. Two separate loop formations.
2. Two separate and distinct sets of shoulders.
3. Two deltas.
Rules in Double Loop whorl:
1. The loops necessarily do not have to be of the same length and size.
2. The loops of a double loop whorl do not have to possess the requirements of the
plain loop.
3. There must be two separate loop formations.
RD
LD
The ridges with yellow marks show the separate loop formations
with two separate and distinct set of shoulders.
68
The following patterns above are example of double loop whorls. In double loop
whorl, there are two separate loop formations and two separate and distinct sets of
shoulders
The “S” type loop whorls are NOT considered Double loop whorls.
Examples:
“ n erlocking” are NOT considered Double loop whorls.
Examples:
69
The following are typical examples of Double loop whorl type:
70
7. ACCIDENTAL WHORL
The accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different types of

pattern, with the exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas; or a pattern
which possesses some of the requirements for two or more different types; or a pattern
which conforms to none of the definitions.
It may be a combination of loop and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and central
pocket loop, double loop and central pocket loop, or other such combinations.
Elements of Accidental Whorl:
1. Combination of two different types of patterns with the exception of the Plain
arch.
2. Two or more deltas.
The following are accidental whorl combining loop with a tented arch:
71
The following are accidental whorl combining a loop and a plain whorl or central
pocket loop:
72
RIDGE TRACING FOR WHORLS
This is a process of tracing the ridge that originates from the left delta flowing towards the
right delta or near that point and determining the number or intervening ridges between
the traced ridge and right delta to constitute the three sub divisions, (I) Inner, (M) Meeting
and (O) Outer.
Rules in Ridge Tracing:
1. Ridge Tracing always starts from the left delta proceeding towards the right delta or
nearest to that point.
RD
LD
2.When the ridge being traced ends abruptly, drop to the next ridge below to continue
the tracing until the traced ridge runs into or opposite the right delta.
RD
LD
3. When the ridge being traced is a bifurcation, always follow the lower branch until the
tracing is complete. Do not begin your trace in the type lines.
RD
LD
73
RESULT OF RIDGE TRACING:
1. When the ridge being traced from the left delta to the right delta passes inside or in
front of the right delta and there are 3 or more ridges cross or touch the imaginary line
drawn between the right delta and the ridge traced, the result of tracing is “Inner” and
represented by capital letter “I”.
The ridge/s with yellow marks is the

ridge traced, it starts from the left
delta. The trace is “ NNER” since the
traced stops inside or in front of the
right delta and eight (8) ridges cross
or touch the imaginary line drawn
between the right delta and the
ridge traced.
LD
RD
2. When the ridge being traced passes on either inside or outside of the right delta and
there are two (2) or less ridges that cross or touch the imaginary line drawn between the
right delta and the ridge traced, the result of tracing is Meeting and represented by
capital letter “M”. Likewise, when the traced ridge exactly stops at the right delta, such
trace shall be considered as Meet.
The ridge with yellow mark is the

delta. The trace is “MEETING” since
the traced stops inside or in front of
the right delta with one (1) ridge
that cross or touch the imaginary
line drawn between the right delta
and the ridge traced.
LD
RD
74
3. When the ridge being traced passes outside or below the right delta and there are
three or more ridges that touch or cross the imaginary line drawn between the right delta
and traced ridge, the result of the tracing is Outer and represented by capital letter “O”.
RD
The ridge/s with yellow marks is the

delta. The trace is “OUTER” since the
traced stops outside or below the
right delta and six (6) ridges touch or
LD cross the imaginary line drawn
between the right delta and traced
ridge.
RIDGE TRACING FOR ACCIDENTAL AND DOUBLE LOOP WHORL
1. Accidentals often possess three or more deltas. In tracing them only the extreme
deltas are considered, the tracing beginning at the extreme left delta and proceeding
toward the extreme right delta.
Example:
2. In a double loop or accidental the problem of where to stop tracing is sometimes

presented: The rule is, when the tracing passes inside of the right delta, stop at the
nearest point to the right delta on the upward trend (Figure X). If no upward trend is
present, continue tracing until a point opposite the right delta, or the delta itself, is
reached (figure Y).
Figure X Figure Y
75
Chapter 5
THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
Classification - refers to the sorting of things into division or group so that they can at later
time be quickly located.
The main purpose of a classification system is to facilitate the filing, searching and
retrieval of fingerprint records.
The Philippines is using a locally modified classification system the Henry, Galton, FBI with
NBI Modification. This system is derived through succession of steps: first is blocking out a
set of prints. Blocking out is the process of writing the below each pattern a
corresponding symbol of the fingerprint pattern in the space provided in the card
conspicuously or in a capital letters purposely to facilitate the attainment of Primary
Classification.
Blocking – Indicating the type of pattern by placing at the bottom of each finger block
to reflect the type.
SYMBOLS IN BLOCKING OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
Plain Arch - A
Tented Arch - T
Radial Loop Right Hand - / Left Hand -\
Ulnar Loop Right Hand - \ Left Hand - /
Plain Whorl - W
Central Pocket Loop Whorl - C
Double Loop Whorl - D
Accidental Whorl - X
76
Example of Blocking out:
DIVISION OF CLASSIFICATION FORMULA:
1. Primary Classification
2. Secondary Classification
a. Capital Letter Group
b. Small Letter Group
3. Subsecondary Classification
4. Major Division
5. Final Classification
6. Key Classification
Note: The exact position of the six divisions in the classification formula shall be the
following
Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final
Div. Cla. Cla. Cla.
Example:
17 I 30 U IMM 20
O 32 U MOM
77
1. PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
This refers to the summation of all the numerical values assigned to whorls appearing in a
fingerprint card which are expressed as numerator and denominator plus the pre-
established fraction of _1_ . Also known as Whorl Division.
1
Numerical value will be given to patterns belonging to whorl family only (Plain Whorl,
Central Pocket Loop Whorl, Double Loop Whorl and Accidental Whorl). Arches and Loops
have no numerical value.
Numerical Value:
Block 1 & 2 = 16
Block 3 & 4 = 8
Block 5 & 6 = 4
Block 7 & 8 = 2
Block 9 &10 = 1
The sum of all numerical value for fingers 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 is for Numerator and the sum
of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 is for Denominator.
1/1 – Minimum Primary Classification

32/32 – Maximum Primary Classification
There are 1,024 primary classification in the Henry Fingerprint System.
RIGHT HAND
1. Thumb 2. Index Finger 3. Middle Finger 4. Ring Finger 5. Little Finger
Denominator Numerator Denominator Numerator Denominator
Numerical value: Numerical Numerical value: Numerical Numerical value:

16 value: 8 value: 4
16 8
LEFT HAND
6. Thumb 7. Index Finger 8. Middle Finger 9. Ring Finger 10. Little Finger
Numerator Denominator Numerator Denominator Numerator
Numerical value: Numerical value: Numerical value: Numerical value: Numerical value:
4 2 2 1 1
*Assigning numerical value to whorl only.
78
Example No. 1:
1. Radial loop 2. Radial loop 3. Radial loop 4. Central pocket loop whorl 5. Double loop whorl
6. Ulnar loop 7. Radial loop 8. Radial loop 9. Plain Whorl 10. Central Pocket Loop Whorl
Solution:
First pair: 1. Right Thumb (/) = 0 The odd fingers (1, 3, 5, 7, 9) are the
2. Right Index (/) = 0 denominator and the even fingers (2, 4, 6, 8, 10)
are the numerator.
Second pair: 3. Right Middle (/) = 0
4. Right Ring (C) = 8 = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10
1+3+5+7+9
Third pair: 5. Right little (D) = 4
6. Right Thumb (/) = 0 = 0 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1_
0+0+4+0+1
Fourth pair: 7. Left Index (\) = 0
8. Left Middle (\) = 0 =9+1
5+1
Fifth fair: 9. Left Ring (W) = 1
10. Left Little (C) = 1 = _10_ (Primary Classification)
6
79
Example No. 2:
1 2 3 4 5
W W D / W
6 7 8 9 10
/ W / W C
Solution:
2. Right Index (W) = 16 1. Right Thumb (W) = 16
4. Right Ring (/) = 0 3. Right Middle (D) = 8
6. Left Thumb (/) = 0 5. Right Little (W) = 4
8. Left Middle (/) = 0 7. Left Index (W) = 2
10. Left Little (C) = 1 9. Left Ring (W) = 1
= 17 + 1
Numerical value will be given to
31 + 1
patterns belonging to whorl
= 18_ (Primary Classification) family only, W, C, D & X.
32
Example No. 3
1 2 3 4 5
W C C W /
6 7 8 9 10
W \ D X T
Solution:
2. Right Index (W) = 16 1. Right Thumb (W) = 16
4. Right Ring (W) = 8 3. Right Middle (C) = 8
6. Left Thumb (W) = 4 5. Right Little (/) = 0
8. Left Middle (D) = 2 7. Left Index (\) = 0
10. Left Little (T) = 0 9. Left Ring (X) = 1
= 30 + 1
25 + 1
= 31_ (Primary Classification)

26
80
2. SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
This is obtained by writing the capital letter symbols taken from the index fingers and small
letter group from the thumb, middle, ring and little fingers.
*It appears just right of the fraction which represents the primary.
CAPITAL LETTER GROUP – This refers to the patterns appearing at the index fingers, right
index as the numerator and left index as the denominator. The type of pattern which can
be appear as follows:
Plain Arch - A
Tented Arch - T
Radial Loop - R
Ulnar Loop - U
Plain Whorl - W
Central Pocket Loop Whorl - C
Double Loop Whorl - D
Accidental Whorl - X
SMALL LETTER GROUP – It only include small letters, a-r-t, a (plain arch), r (radial loop), and
t (tented arch). Prints with plain arch, tented arch and radial loop in any finger except
the index fingers constitute the small letter group of the secondary classification. Such
“small letters” are brought up into the classification formula in their relative positions
immediately adjacent to the index fingers. A dash (-) is used to indicate the absence of
each small letter between the index fingers and another small letter, or between two
small letters:
Example:
RIGHT HAND
1. Thumb 2. Index 3. Middle 4. Ring 5. Little
W C C W /
LEFT HAND
W \ D X T
Secondary Classification = _C- - r

R - -t
81
Example No. 2:
RIGHT HAND
/ W / \ T
LEFT HAND
8
\ D \ / W
Secondary Classification: Capital Letters that represent the

type of pattern found in the index finger of both hands.
Right Index is the numerator while the left index is the
numerator.
Small letters: a, r, t (plain arch, radial loop, and tented

arch) found in Thumbs, Middle, Ring, and Little fingers.
Secondary Classification = _rWr-t_

rDr
Example No. 3:
RIGHT HAND
A / A A T
LEFT HAND
/ \ \ W D
Secondary Classification = _aR2at_

Rr
82
3. SUBSECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
This refers to grouping of print according to the ridge count of loops and ridge tracing of
whorls appearing at the index, middle and ring fingers.
*It is placed on the classification line immediately to the right of the secondary
classification.
The result of the ridge count must written on the right upper corner of block where found
and later converted into symbol (I or O) and write it on the rightmost portion of the
classification line.
The result of the ridge trace must be written on the right upper corner of the block in
symbol (I, M or O) and re- exhibit on the rightmost portion of the classification line.
RIDDE COUNTING FOR LOOPS:
Index Fingers
1-9 ridge count = Inner (I)
10 or more ridge count = Outer (O)
Middle Fingers
Ring Fingers
RIDGE TRACING FOR WHORLS:
Inner (I) – when the traced ridge is inside or in front of the right delta and three (3) or
more ridges cross or touch the imaginary line drawn between the right delta and traced
ridge.
Meeting – when the traced ridge is in front or below the right delta consisting two (2) or
less ridges that cross or touch the imaginary line drawn between the right delta and
traced ridge.
Outer (O) - when the traced ridge passes outside (below) the right delta and three (3) or
more ridges cross or touch the imaginary line drawn between the right delta and traced
ridge.
Note: The right hand shall serve as the numerators while the left hand as the
denominators. On the case of tented arch or plain arch, there shall be no classification
on the finger when it appears and it will be represented by dash (-).
83
SUBSECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
Example No. 1:
This is an example illustrating the subsecondary in addition to other divisions of the

classification formula. The right index finger is a radial loop with a ridge count of 12,
the right middle finger is plain whorl with a ridge trace of outer (O) and the ring finger
is an ulnar loop with a ridge count of 17. On the other hand, the left index finger is a
plain whorl with a ridge trace of meeting (M), the left middle finger is a radial loop with
a ridge count of 18, and the left ring finger is plain whorl with ridge trace of inner (I).
Result of Subsecondary Classification: _OOO_

MOI
Result of primary, secondary and subsecondary class.:___5 R OOO__

12 W MOI
Example No. 2
RIGHT HAND
8 11 12
A / \ \ T
LEFT HAND
10 10 M
/ \ \ W D
Result: Subsecondary classification = _IOI_

OIM
84
4. MAJOR DIVISION
This division is derived from ridge count of loops and ridge trace of whorls of both thumbs.
It is written on leftmost part of the classification line before the primary classification.
Symbols for Loops: Symbol for Whorls

S – Small I - Inner
M- Medium M - Meeting
L – Large O – Outer
Ridge Count and Letter Symbols for Loops

Table 1
1. Ridge count of 1 to 11, Small. (S)
2. Ridge count of 12 to 16, Medium. (M)
3. Ridge count of 17 or more, Large. (L)
Table 2
*Loop pattern in both hands. To be applied only to the loop from the right thumb when
the ridge count of the loop from the left thumb is 17 or more, making it large (L).
1. Ridge count of 1 to 17, Small. (S)

2. Ridge count of 18 to 22, Medium. (M)
3. Ridge count of 23 or more, Large. (L)
When both hands are loop and the left thumb is Large (L) use or apply table 2 for the
right thumb.
Example No. 1:
RIGHT HAND
13
/ / A A T
LEFT HAND
16
\ \ \ W D
The right thumb is radial loop with ridge count of 13 and the left thumb is radial loop with
ridge count of 16. Therefore, table 1 was used to determine the letter symbols for both
thumbs:
Major Division is _M_ Note: The right thumb is the
M numerator while the left thumb is
the denominator.
85
Example No. 2:
RIGHT HAND
13 8 11 12
/ / \ \ T
LEFT HAND
17 10 10 M
/ \ \ W D
The right thumb is radial loop with ridge count of 13 and the left thumb is ulnar loop with
ridge count of 17. Table 2 was used to determine the letter symbol of the right thumb:
Major Division is _S_

L
When the left thumb is Large (L) use or apply table 2 for the right thumb.
Example No. 3:
RIGHT HAND
O 8 11 12
C / \ \ T
LEFT HAND
I 10 10 M
W \ \ W D
The right thumb is central pocket loop whorl with ridge trace of outer (O) and the left
thumb is plain whorl with ridge trace of inner (I).
Major Division is _O_

I
86
Example No. 4:
RIGHT HAND
I 8 11 12
W / \ \ T
LEFT HAND
18 10 10 M
/ \ \ W D
The right thumb is plain whorl with ridge trace of inner (I) and the left thumb is ulnar loop
with ridge count of 18.
Major Division is _ I _
L
Example No. 5:
RIGHT HAND
14 8 M 12
/ / W \ T
LEFT HAND
21 10 10 1M
/ \ \ W D
Classification of Major, Primary, Secondary and Subsecondary: _S___2 rR--t IMI __

L 10 Rr OIM
87
5. FINAL CLASSIFICATION
This refers to ridge count of a loop appearing at the right little finger. It is exhibited or place
at the extreme right of the classification line.
*If a loop does not appear in the right little finger, a loop in the left little finger may be
used. It is then indicated at the extreme right of the denominator.
Rules when there is no loop in the little fingers:
*A whorl may be used to obtain a final, ridge counting from left delta to core if in the
right hand and from right delta to core if in the left hand. (In ridge counting plain whorl
and central pocket loop whorl treat them as an ulnar loop)
*If there are two or more cores (usually applies to accidental whorls), the ridge count
is made from left delta (right hand) or right delta (left hand) to the core which is the
least number of ridges distant from that delta.
*The double loop is counted from the delta to the core of the upright loop. Where
loops of a double loop are horizontal, the nearest core is used.
Should both little fingers be Plain arch or Tented arch, no final is used.
Example:
RIGHT HAND
13 8 11 12 12
/ / \ \ /
LEFT HAND
17 10 10 M
/ \ \ W D
The right little finger is a radial loop with ridge count of 12. The final classification is 12. It is
exhibited or place at the extreme right of the classification line.
88
6. KEY CLASSIFICATION
It is the classification derived from the ridge counting of the first loop that appears in one
of the fingers from the thumb excluding the little fingers of both hands.
IF NO LOOP APPEAR IN A SET OF FINGERPRINT. The first whorl is ridge counted.
*KEY IS NOT POSSIBLE. If the entire set of prints is composed of plain arches and tented
arches, the key classification cannot be obtained.
The key classification no matter where it appears is always placed to the extreme left
of the numerator of the classification formula.
Example:
RIGHT HAND
M M I M 12
W W W W /
LEFT HAND
13 10 10 M
/ \ \ W D
The first ridge counting of a loop appearing in this card is the ridge count of the left thumb
with 13. Ridge counts from both Little fingers are excluded in key classification. Therefore
the key classification is 13.
Fingerprint Classification Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final

Div. Class. Class. Class.
Fingerprint Classification __13_____M_____26 W--r MIM____12__

M 26 Rr OIM
89
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION
Example No. 1
Classification: _22____M____11 U OOO________

L 6 U OMI 13
Example No. 2
Classification: _24____ L____1 R OOO____17__

L 1 R OOO
90
FILING SEQUENCE
Filing of Fingerprint Cards must be arranged according to its classification, filing

begins with the primary classification, secondary classification, subsecondary
classification, major division, final and key.
1. Primary Classification
In the primary classification, it starts with the denominator 1 with numerator 1 up

to 32, such 1 over 1, 2 over 1, 3 over 1, and so on. Followed by denominator 2; 1 over 2, 2
over 2 up to 32 over 2 until 32 over 32 will be reached.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -to- 32
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -to- 32
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -to- 32
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -to- 32
32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
2. Secondary Classification
The filing in secondary classification just simply follow the A, T, R, U, W, C, D, X. File

all plain arch (A) up to accidental whorl (X), as illustrated below:
A T R U W C D X
A A A A A A A A
A T R U W C D X
T T T T T T T T
A T R U W C D X
R R R R R R R R
A T R U W C D X
U U U U U U U U
A T R U W C D X
W W W W W W W W
A T R U W C D X
C C C C C C C C
A T R U W C D X
D D D D D D D D
91
A T R U W C D X
X X X X X X X X
3. Subsecondary Classification
The filing of subsecondary classification follows the sequence of I, M, O both

numerator and denominator, the sequences are as follows.
III IIM IIO IMI IMM IMO IOI IOM IIO MII
III III III III III III III III III III
MIM MIO MMI MMM MMO MOI MOM MOO OII OIM
III III III III III III III III III0 III
OIO OMI OMM OMO OOI OOM OOO etc. to OOO

III III III III III III III OOO
4. Major Division
a. When the thumb fingers has both loops appear, the following sequence are used:
S M L S M L S M L
S S S M M M L L L
b. When the thumb fingers has both whorls appear, the following sequence are used:
I M O I M O I M O
I I I M M M O O O
c. When whorl appears in the right thumb and a loop in the left thumb the following are
used:
I M O I M O I M O
S S S M M M L L L
d. When a loop in the right thumb and a whorl in the left thumb, the following sequence
are used:
S M L S M L S M L
I I I M M M O O O
5. Final Classification
- The final must be filed in numerical sequence from 1 up to the numbers of prints to be
filed.
6. Key Classification
- It is very easy in filing the key, just determined the designated key and arranged the
group according to its numerical sequence.
92
Chapter 6
THE EVIDENCE AND STANDARD PRINTS
Value of Fingerprint Evidence
Fingerprint evidence plays a vital role in criminal investigations because person’s

fingerprints are unique and do not change during the course of their life. Fingerprints can
be used to quickly and efficiently confirm or disprove a person’s identity like in checking
a suspect at a border crossing. Latent prints collected at a crime scene have the
potential link a series of crimes together, or to a place a suspect at the scene. It is also
important role in identifying victims following a disaster such as cyclone, earthquake,
bombing and other attack.
Nature of Latent Prints
The latent fingerprints, deposited by the fingertip pattern, is a complex mixture of natural
secretions and contaminations from the environment. Three types of glands are
responsible for the natural secretion of the skin, the sudoriferous eccrine, apocrine and
sebaceous glands.
*The palm of the hands and sole of the feet produce only eccrine gland secretions.
*Eccrine are the major sweat glands of the human body, found in virtually all skin, with
the highest density in palm and soles, then on the head, but much less on the trunk and
the extremities.
*Apocrine relating to or denoting multicellular glands which release some of their

cytoplasm in their secretions, especially the sweat glands associated with hair follicles in
the armpits and pubic regions.
*Sebaceuos glands small oil-producing gland present in the skin of mammals; are usually
attached to hair follicles and release a fatty substance, sebum, into the follicular duct
and thence to the surface of the skin
LATENT PRINTS – has been defined as the markings of oily matter or perspiration from the
skin glands left upon the surface which the hands and fingers may have touched it.
CHANCE IMPRESSIONS – these are impressions left by chance at the crime scene.
Three Categories of Fingerprints as to the Surface They are Located
1. Patent or Visible Prints

2. Impressed or Plastic Prints
3. Latent Prints
93
Patent or Visible Prints
This refer to the fingerprints that are easily seen or spotted by the eyes. They are
formed when the fingers with blood, grease, ink or dirt come in contact with surfaces that
are smooth surfaces such as glass, windows and papers. Since these prints are visible, it
only requires photograph before it is lifted. An adhesive lifting tape is used in lifting the
print and is later on placed on a lift card.
Example of patent print.
Impressed or Plastic Prints
These are imprinted is soft and pliable materials such as drying paint, clay or wax.
When the ridge pattern touched the mentioned materials, plastic or impressed prints
occurs. Like patent prints, these are visible and can be photographed without the
application of magnesium powders or other chemicals.
Example of impressed or plastic print.
94
Latent Prints
These are prints that are accidentally left at the crime scene that are normally
invisible to the naked eye but can be detected through the application of fingerprint
powders. The sweat glands or pores that present in the friction ridges of the fingers are
capable of perspiration that helps in creating prints. Since latent prints are invisible, the
fingerprint technician has to apply ultraviolet light, dusting, or chemicals to supplement
visualization before these are photographed.
A latent print developed using

fingerprint powder.
Three important factors in the selection of methods in the development of latent prints:
1. Nature of the surface e.g porous or non-porous, wet or dry, etc.

2. The apparent composition of the fingerprint residue or matrix (e.g. moisture
contaminated with oil and dirt)
3. Condition of the friction ridge impression
Development of Fingerprint Technique is Generally Classified into Three:
1. Brush and Powder Method

2. Chemical Methods
3. Special Illumination/Light Method
1. Brush and Powder Method
This method is best suited for smooth and non-porous surfaces such as glass
plastics, smooth metals, and other non-porous objects. This method includes the use of
fingerprint brush and numerous colored powders.
This method is performed by applying a small quantity of powder on the tip of the
brush that is later on brushed lightly on areas where possible fingerprints are present.
Magnetic powder on the other hand can be applied in dirty or greasy surfaces.
95
Open these links:
1. Developing Latent Fingerprints with Black Powder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tqFzVfPRd5s)
2. Developing Latent Fingerprints with Magnetic Powder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iomWm3_Qvhk
Materials for Collection of Latent Fingerprint (Powder method)
1. Fingerprint powders – refers to the powder used in developing latent prints found at
scene of the crime.
2. Fingerprint brushes – used for developing latent prints using non-magnetic powder.
3. Magnetic wand – use in powdering latent prints using magnetic powder.
4. Fingerprint lifting tape – refers to a tape used for lifting developed latent prints which is
quite harder than an ordinary tapes.
5. Latent Print Transfer Card – refers to a card used in preserving lifted latent prints which
is either white or black in background.
6. Fingerprint cameras – use in photographing the developed latent prints.
96
2. Chemical Method
a. Ninhydrin Method
This method uses ninhydrin solution which will react to amino acids present in
human perspiration. Ninhydrin powder consists of ninhydrin acetone solution and
ninhydrin petroleum benzene. It is applied by spraying or brushing the surface suspected
of containing a fingerprint. After ninhydrin is applied onto a surface, it may take two hours
for the prints to appear but, for those considered as weak prints the wait will be in a day
or even more. To speed up the development, the treated surface should be heated with
a steam iron.
Open these links:
Ninhydrin Development of Latent Fingerprints

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NuGGQ2XK9RM
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fF_v-MymoOk
b. Iodine Fuming
It is the first processing method used in the development of fingerprints (followed

b y ninhydrin) where iodine crystals are used to absorb in the oily and fatty residues of the
fingerprint. This is best applicable to fresh latent prints in the crime scene. Using iodine,
the fingerprints found on porous materials can be developed in four ways such as Iodine
Fuming gun Method, Iodine Dusting Method, Iodine Fuming Cabinet Method and Iodine
Solution Method. Latent prints developed by using this method are not stable therefore
photographs must be taken as soon as the prints become visible. The developed prints
appear in yellowish brown color.
Open these links:
Iodine Fuming Method

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izaJsCxKpiQ
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIbUiukcQBs
c. Silver Nitrate Method
A method of development of latent prints which uses silver nitrate solution to react
with sodium chloride (salt) present in the human sweat. The perspiration which contains
sodium chloride if combined with nitrate solution causes silver chloride to form.
Open these links:
Silver Nitrate Method

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hPh3Lc684Yo
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EZ4dIvspLqw
97
3. Special Illumination/Light Method
This method is best applicable to surfaces where fingerprints are less visible or
invisible under ordinary lighting condition. This method requires the use of numerous lights
that will aid the impression to fluorescence the surface.
Open this link:
Alternative Light Sources: Fingerprinting

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BUhyV3WC6y8
98
Chapter 7
FINGERPRINT EXAMINATION, IDENTIFICATION, AND PRESENTATION OF EVIDENCE IN

COURT
Nature of Ridge Characteristics (Minutiae)
Human skin is elastic, and no two impressions of the same fingerprint will be exactly
identical. Therefore, there is little value in measuring the angle formed by a bifurcation or
the precise distance between two particular minutiae on fingerprints.
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS (MINUTIAE) – This refers to the details of ridge structures,

formations and elements which differentiate from one fingerprint to another and which
impart individuality to each print.
Identification by fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection

of certain ridge characteristics, is also known as Galton details, points of identity, or
minutiae, and the comparison of the relative positions of these minutiae points with a
reference print, usually an inked impression of a suspect’s print.
Fingerprints are compared to each other by examining the minutiae to determine

whether:
1. The same minutiae are present (e.g., bifurcation)

2. The minutiae flow in the same direction (e.g., the bifurcation is on a ridge running
horizontally and the two divided ridges are to the right of the bifurcation)
3. The minutiae occupy the same relative positions to each other (e.g., the
bifurcation is separated from an enclosure below it by six intervening ridges.
Points of Similarity. Minutiae on two different fingerprint impressions meet the criteria.
Points of Dissimilarity. Minutiae do not meet these criteria.
Points of Identification. Sufficient minutiae are located in the same true relative sequence
or unit of relationship, then an identification is assumed.
*As soon as fingerprint examiner identifies a single unexplainable point of
dissimilarity between two fingerprint impressions, then he or she assumes that they are not
the same.
99
The opinion of the fingerprint examiner will be one of the following:
- There is a match between two fingerprints (Identification);

- There is not a match between two fingerprints (Non-Identification); or
- The comparison is inconclusive (Inconclusive).
IDENTICAL POINTS NECESSARY TO BE ADMITTED AS FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE IN COURT:

1. When there are more than 12 evident points and the impression is clear, the
identification is absolute.
2. When there are between 8 and 12 evident points, identification certainly depends
upon: - clearness of the type
- rarity of the type
3. Presence of the core and delta in the part that is acceptable.
Basis of Fingerprint Comparison:
1. Variations in appearance
2. Level of detail in prints
3. Ranges of clarity
COMPARING PRINTS
ACE-V METHODOLOGY
A- Analysis
C- Comparison
E- Evaluation
V- Verification
This methodology is introduced by Roy A. Huber, a document examiner in Canada
in 1959. In 1980’s ACE-V was adopted by the fingerprint identification community through
Ridgeology of David Ashbaugh.
Significance of ACE-V Methodology:

1. Gives structure to and guide the examiner through the process.
2. Bases identifications upon sound scientific principles.
3. Conclusions are objective; based on faithful execution of this methodology, not
mere observations or intuition.
100
4. Assures validity and reliability of the conclusions.
5. Consistency and repetition of the methodology is assured.
6. Embraces all the factors required by sound scientific practices.
ANALYSIS
This is the observation and description stage of the scientific method. It involves
collecting a series of observations to gain an understanding about an observable group
of events (in our case – friction ridge features, their appearances and the influences that
act upon them.
This is applied with the objective of reducing the friction ridge features to their
basic components which involves a thorough assessment of the properties and attributes
of the friction ridge features in the unknown latent impression.
Analysis also highlights the assessment for the causes/factors of distortions and
their effect upon the latent print is performed. An assessment of the degree of clarity
present in the impression is made.
Factors that influence the appearance, clarity if the friction ridge impression:
a. The materials upon which the friction ridge impression has been deposited.
b. Pressure distortion.
c. External elements.
d. The development processes/es.
e. The quantity and quality of latent print ridges.
f. Standard fingerprint quality images.
COMPARISON
Comparison of the unknown to the known is done once the fingerprint examiner
has analyzed the unknown mark and the accumulated all the information possible it is
then compared to a print on a fingerprint form.
Comparison of Ridge Characteristics

If the patterns are found to be in agreement the comparison moves to the next
level- the comparison of ridge characteristics. The ridge features are examined to
ascertain whether they are in the same position, in the same order and have the same
101
relationship to each other with none in disagreement in both the known prints and
unknown prints. This is known as coincident sequence.
The comparison begins with determining the general ridge flow and shape of the
friction ridge impression:
a. Followed by selecting key focal characteristics, understanding their position, direction
and relationship.
b. Then comparing these formations in known exemplar (standard).
c. The quality and quantity of this information directly affects the ease or difficulty of this
process.
EVALUATION
After comparing the unknown and the known print the fingerprint expert will make
their evaluation. They will weigh up all of the information available as a result of the two-
comparison process and determine whether there is unique agreement between the
two confirm identity beyond all reasonable doubt.
Evaluation is made based on the identification philosophy. The identification
philosophy can paraphrased by the following statement:
“Friction ridge identification is established through the agreement of ridge
formations, in sequence, having sufficient uniqueness to establish individuality”
(Ashbaugh, 1999).
The result of the analysis and comparison is for evaluation process, it is this process
where findings and conclusions are formulated.
The conclusion is limited to the following findings which are commensurate with
this methodology:
a. Identification – it is determination that two friction ridge impressions originated from the
same source.
b. Non-Identification – it is determination that two friction ridge characteristics originated
from two sources.
c. Inconclusive – Unable to individualize or exclude the source of a friction ridge
impression.
102
VERIFICATION
The most crucial aspect of the identification process is the verification element.
This is an independent and complete analysis, comparison and evaluation of both prints
which is carried out with minimum of a further two fingerprint experts. The verification
process is the key to the reliability of fingerprint evidence.
It demonstrates that the original conclusions are valid through consistent results
from the different experts who have analyzed, compared and evaluated the information
available in both impressions.
METHODOLOGY OF FINGERPRINT EXAMINATION

There are four methods applied in the Fingerprint Examination. These methods are
being used in the examination of print (known and unknown prints) in the Philippines.
1. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION
2. EXAMINATION PROPER
3. PREPARATION OF REPORT
4. VERIFICATION
1. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION
The examiner determines whether the latent print is suitable for the next step.
a. Concern/s
1. Blurred, absence of ridge details.
2. Number or ridge details.
a) There must be at least ten (10) or more ridge details in agreement for
identification.
b) Ten ridge details- based on the case of People V Medina.
c) For less than ten (10) ridge details. Ridge details may be considered as
fragmentary prints.
d) However, those ridge details may also be used for elimination purposes,
verifying whether the prints having those number of ridge details will not match or
not homologous with the print/s to be compared.
103
b. Screening of Standard Prints
1) Quality of the rolled and plain impressions

2) Signatures of the subjects and the operator
3) Other pertinent information
c. Marking/Numbering and Photographing
1) Markings or numbering of prints (Questioned and Standard) “Q-1”, “Q-2”.. & “S-
1”, “S-2”….
2) Sequence of numbering
3) The use of pencil and permanent marker
4) Photographing latent prints such as “Q-1”, “Q-2”… and standard prints to
facilitate examination
2. EXAMINATION PROPER
To determine whether or not two prints are Identical, Examiner must evaluate the
Four Variable Factors:
a. General Pattern Agreement

b. Qualitative Concordance
c. Quantitative Factors
d. Relationship of Ridge Details
a. General Pattern Agreement
Both the questioned and standard prints must be of the following:

1)Same types of fingerprint pattern
2) Identical flow of the ridges and similarity in general shape and form of the ridges.
b. Qualitative Concordance
Comparison of both the questioned and standard prints must reveal:

1) That the ridge details of both are of the same kind,
2) Same location and,
3) Should face the same direction.
104
Questioned Print
Standard Print
- The ridge details of both prints are of same kind.
105
Questioned Print
5
4 8
9
3
2
1 10
Standard Print
7
5
4 8
3 9
2
1 10
- Same Location of ridge details.

- Should face in the same direction.
106
c. Quantitative Factors
This refer to the number of identical ridge details that must be present in both
the questioned and standard prints.
The Supreme Court of the Philippines
- People vs. Medina – is the first leading judicial decision in the Philippine
Jurisprudence on the Science of fingerprint.
- The examiner concluded based on ten points that the two impressions were from
the same person, and that the fingerprint on the box was that of the defendant.
The Supreme Court held, that as to the correspondence of fingerprints is admissible
for the purpose of proving identity.
d. Relationship of Ridge Details
The number of intervening ridge/s between ridge details in both prints must be
the same.
The number of intervening ridge/s between the ridge details in both prints must
be the same.
107
- The number of intervening ridge/s between the ridge details in both prints must
be the same.
108
3. PREPARATION OF REPORT
The Fingerprint Examiner after examination and determined whether or not

the two prints are Identical, Not Identical and or Inconclusive, it must be reduced in
writing.
a) Identification – is declared both prints being compared when there is findings

of agreement in all of the four (4) variable factors evaluated (General Pattern
Agreement, Qualitative Concordance, Quantitative Factors and Relationship of Ridge
Details
e.g. FINDINGS:
Questioned print marked “Q-1” is identical with the right index fingerprint
appearing on the specimen marked “S-1”
CONCLUSION:
Questioned latent print marked “Q-1” was impressed by the right index finger of
one Jose Dela Cruz whose standard finger and palm prints appear on the specimen
marked “S-1”.
b) Non-Identification
1) Different type patterns
2) Ridge details are not in agreement in regards with the position and direction.
3)With lower number of ridge details (for exclusion purpose).
e.g. FINDINGS:
Questioned print marked “Q” is not identical with any of the standard finger and
palm prints appearing on the specimen marked “S”
CONCLUSION:
Questioned print marked “Q” was not impressed by any of the fingers and palms
of the person whose standard finger and palm prints appear on the specimen marked
“S”.
c) Inconclusive
After the examination finds the print that:
1) Not sufficient number of ridge details for identification/individualization.
2) Absence of ridge detail.
3) There might be ridges but no ridge details.
e.g. FINDINGS:
Questioned print marked “Q” possesses six (6) ridge details only.
109
CONCLUSION:
The identity of questioned print marked “Q” could not be established for lack of
sufficient number of ridge details as basis for identification.
e.g. FINDINGS:
Questioned print marked “Q” is blurred.
CONCLUSION:
The identity of questioned print marked “Q” could not be established for lack of
basis.
4. VERIFICATION
Validation made by a Senior Fingerprint Examiner to confirm the process and

conclusions rendered by fingerprint examiner by applying the 4 variable factors in the
examination of prints.
FINGERPRINT COMPARATIVE CHART
110
PNP-AUTOMATED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AFIS)
Background
• AFIS is a type of biometric system that uses digital imaging to capture a fingerprint,
which then can then be compared to a database of fingerprint records to help
determine the identity of an individual.
• AFIS is a biometrics system commonly used in law enforcement where sets of prints
recovered in the crime scene were compared against the database of known
and unknown prints.
Law Enforcement AFIS has the ability to perform the following functions:
1. Search a set of known fingerprints (ten prints) against the records of an existing ten print
database (Ten print Inquiry (TI));
2. Search a latent print from a crime scene against a ten-print database (Latent Inquiry
(LI));
3. Search a latent print from a crime scene against the record of existing unsolved crimes
database (Latent to Latent Inquiry (LLI)); and
4. Search a new ten print against the record of existing unsolved crimes database (Ten
print to Latent Inquiry (TLI)).
Brief History of PNP-AFIS
• In 1980 to 1997 – during the incumbency as Chief of Philippine Constabulary crime

Laboratory (PCCL) of Col PEDRO ELVAS up to then PSSUPT REYNALDO ACOP, the
idea of having an AFIS has been nurtured and carefully laid out. Leg works, studies
and initial contacts with the Japanese government were initiated.
• December 2003 – Delivery and installations of the equipment started.
• August 15,2004 - formal launching of the AFIS Project/started its operation.
• September 16, 2004 – Registration/conversion or encoding fingerprint images and

details in AFIS started.
• May 2005 - turned over to the PNP.
• AFIS was approved under the Japanese General Grant Aid Program (GGAP) in
April 1998 in the amount of Y839,291,634 (P419,645,817.80).
111
PURPOSE OF EQUIPMENT
1. AFIS is the answer to the labor-intensive and time-consuming process of classifying,

searching, and matching fingerprint used for identification.
2. AFIS is primarily use by law enforcement agencies for criminal identification. The
most important of which include identifying a person suspected of committing a crime
or linking a suspect to other unsolved crimes. It also helps to identify victim of natural and
man-made disasters.
3. No matter how competent the evidence technician is at performing his job, the
gathering of physical evidence at a crime scene will be futile unless such evidence can
be properly processed and analyzed. Since fingerprints are by far the most frequently
retrieved physical evidence, making the system of analyzing such prints effective will
contribute the most toward greater success in identifying criminal offenders through the
use of physical evidence. (Petersilia, 1975, p 12)
112
REFERENCES:
Ayusip A., Ayusip J, and Berana D., “Handbook in Personal Identification Techniques.
2019.
Cueno B., Alpeche B. and Teves M., “Forensic Science – Personal Identification
Techniques”. 2019.
Rocamora J., “Foundation of Friction Ridge Print Examination”. 2017.
Hoover J.E., “The Science of Fingerprints Classification and Uses”. 1984.

https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/fbiscienceoffingerprints.html#chapter_xv
https://www.slideshare.net/juroc26/whorl-patterns
https://www.slideshare.net/juroc26/fingerprint-classification-slide-2
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-
maps/criminalistics#:~:text=The%20term%20comes%20from%20the,middle%20of%20the
%20nineteenth%20century.
113

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PERSONAL-IDENTIFICATION-TECHNIQUES-MODULE

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FORENSIC 2 – PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

This course is designed to enumerate and describe the personal identification

At the end of the course, you should be able to:

1. Explain the purposes, importance and application of the different personal

2. Enumerate the different personal identification techniques.

3. Discuss the procedures of the different personal identification techniques.

4. Demonstrate and apply procedures in fingerprint identification in crime detection and

5. Apply the procedure in presenting fingerprint evidence in court.

Criminalistics can be defined as the application of scientific methods to recognition,

- It is the study of physical evidence through laboratory work.

- The application of scientific techniques in collecting and analyzing physical evidence

2. The development of anthropometry (the study of human physical dimensions) by

4. The progress made in forensic photography by Swiss criminalist Rodolphe-Archibald

CRIMINALISTICS encompasses the broadest variety of disciplines such as:

1. Dactyloscopy (fingerprint identification) – Identification of persons through

3. Forensic Ballistics – A branch of ballistics that involves in the investigation and

4. Questioned Document Examination – A branch of instrumentation that deals with the

5. Polygraphy (Lie Detection) – The system or practice of determining whether or not

7. Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology – Forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES INCLUDES:

1. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY - is the examination of human skeletal remains for law

2. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY - is the application of dental science to legal investigations,

3. DNA PROFILING - (also called DNA fingerprinting) is the process of determining an

DNA profiling is a forensic technique in criminal investigations, comparing criminal

4. FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION (DACTYLOSCOPY) - Identification of persons through

FOUNDATION OF FRICTION RIDGE PRINT EXAMINATION

I. Basic Principles of Fingerprint Identification

Fingerprint Identification is the cornerstone of personal identification. The system is based

II. Why Fingerprint Identification?

1. Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification.

2. Fingerprints are permanent throughout life.

➢ Has served all the governments worldwide in providing accurate identification of

➢ Established the first forensic professional organization, the International

➢ Remains the most commonly used forensic evidence worldwide.

➢ Continues to expand as the premier method of identifying persons.

III. History of Fingerprints

➢ The development of fingerprint science predates the Christian era by many

➢ In 1891, Juan Vucetich, an Argentinian Police, used a system of fingerprint as

➢ As early as the start of 20 th century, fingerprint was used in criminal investigation

➢ Today, the US Federal Bureau of Investigation Identification files are rapidly

3. Personal Description/Portrait Parle- Speaking likeness.

4. Photography- unreliable because of the angle at which photograph is taken.

5. Anthropometry- system of identification based of the various bony structure of the

lphonse er illon pioneered

1. Dr. Nehemiah Grew

He presented his observation on the

Dr. Nehemiah Grew

Gre ’s hand illus ra ion displa ing ric ion ridge lo .

In 1685 he published “Anatomia Humanis Corporis” (Anatomy of the Human Body)

A drawing of thumb depicting the arrangement of

3. Dr. Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694)

An Italian Anatomist, who published the

4. Herman Welcker (1856)

He undertook an experiment by printing his right palm

In 1788, JCA Mayer wrote in his illustrated

Illustrations of friction ridge skin in the book of JCA Mayer in 1788

A Bohemian (Czechoslovakian) physiologist who devised new methods of

9 fingerprint patterns by Purkinje:

1. The transverse curve (Plain Arch)

2. The Central Longitudinal Stripe (Tented Arch)

3. The Oblique Stripe (Loop- Radial and Ulnar)

4. The Oblique Loop (Loop- Radial and Ulnar)

5. The Almond (Whorl)

6. The Spiral (Whorl)