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 THE PEARSON COMMUNICATION SCIENCES AND DISORDERS SERIES

INTRODUCTION TO

AUDIOLOGY

FREDERICK N. MARTIN • JOHN GREER CLARK

THIRTEENTH EDITION
 C ON T E N T S vii

8.2   Disorders of the Outer Ear and Their Treatments    230

Summary   242
Frequently Asked Questions    243
Suggested Readings    244

9 The Middle Ear   245

9.1   Anatomy and Physiology of the Middle Ear    246
9.2   Disorders of the Middle Ear and Their Treatments    252
Summary   276
Frequently Asked Questions    277
Suggested Readings    278

10 The Inner Ear   279

10.1   Anatomy and Physiology of the Inner Ear    280
10.2   Hearing Loss and Disorders of the Inner Ear    290
Summary   318
Frequently Asked Questions    319
Suggested Readings    321

11 The Auditory Nerve and Central Auditory

Pathways   322
11.1   Anatomy and Physiology of the Auditory Nerve and Central
Auditory Pathways    323
11.2   Hearing Loss and the Auditory Nerve and Central Auditory
Pathways   325
11.3   Tests for Auditory Processing Disorders    338
Summary   349
Frequently Asked Questions    350
Suggested Readings    350

12 Nonorganic Hearing Loss   351

12.1   Patients with Nonorganic Hearing Loss    352
12.2   Testing for Nonorganic Hearing Loss    356
12.3   Management of Patients with Nonorganic Hearing
Loss   365
Summary   368
Frequently Asked Questions    369
Suggested Readings    369
viii CONT ENTS

PART IV AUDIOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT   370

13 Beyond Hearing: Management of Balance Disorders,
Tinnitus, and Decreased Sound Tolerance   372
13.1   Disturbances of Balance    373
13.2   Tinnitus and Its Management    378
13.3   Decreased Sound Tolerance (DST)    384
Summary   386
Frequently Asked Questions 386
Suggested Readings    387

14 Amplification/Sensory Systems   388

14.1   Hearing Aid Development    389
14.2   Types of Hearing Aids    395
14.3   Implantable Hearing Assistance    400
14.4   Hearing Aid Selection and Fitting    407
14.5   Personal Sound Amplification Products and Hearing Assistance
Technologies   415
Summary   422
Frequently Asked Questions 423
Suggested Readings 424

15 Patient Management   425

15.1   Gathering and Sharing Information    426
15.2   Audiological Counseling    434
15.3   Management of Adult Hearing Impairment    442
15.4   Management of Childhood Hearing Impairment    452
15.5   Management of Auditory Processing Disorders    460
15.6   Multicultural Considerations    463
Summary   468
Frequently Asked Questions 469
Suggested Readings    470
Glossary    471
References    486
Author Index    508
Subject Index    512
 Preface

T
he founders of audiology could not have envisioned the many ways in which this
profession would evolve to meet the needs of children and adults with hearing and
balance disorders. Breakthroughs continue to come in all areas of audiological
diagnosis and treatment, resulting in a profession that is more exciting and rewarding
today than ever before.
Treatment is the goal of audiology, and treatment is impossible without diagnosis.
Some people have developed the erroneous opinion that audiology is all about doing
hearing tests. Surely, testing the hearing function is essential, however, it might appear
that many tests could be performed by technical personnel who lack the education re-
quired to be total hearing healthcare managers. Historically, the profession has rejected
this approach and has developed a model wherein one highly trained, self-supervised au-
diologist carries the patient and family from taking a personal history through diagnosis
and into management. Toward this end, the development of a humanistic, relationship-
centered, approach to hearing care has evolved, one in which the audiologist guides
patients and families to the highest success levels possible.

New to This Edition

With each new edition of this book, we strive not only to update the material to keep
content current with recent research, but also to make it more user-friendly for students.
Although a great deal of advanced material has been added, the primary target of this
book continues to be the new student in audiology. While providing an abundance of
how-to information, every effort is made to reveal to the novice that audiology can be a
rewarding and fascinating career. In this edition, a number of features have been added
or enhanced, including:
• A new chapter focusing on the diagnosis and management of balance, tinnitus,
and sound tolerance problems
• A breakdown of Check Your Understanding questions available in the eText so
that these follow each major section within each chapter rather than as a full
presentation of all questions for the chapter at the end
• A brief, instructional feedback statement has been added for each Check Your
Understanding question in the eText when the correct response is selected
• For better ease of review of key concepts, each learning outcome stated at the
beginning of the chapters is numbered to correspond with the major heading
within the chapter where that learning outcome is discussed
ix
x P REFAC E

• Additional “Clinical Commentaries” appear throughout the text

• Four new instructional videos in the eText edition covering probe-microphone
measures, immittance measures, hearing aids, and vestibulography
• A restructuring of material in many chapters for easier flow
• Updated references to reflect the most recent research

The eText Advantage

As with the twelfth edition, Introduction to Audiology is available as an eText. Publica-
tion in an eText format allows for several advantages over a traditional print format. In
addition to greater affordability, this format provides a search function that allows the
reader to locate coverage of concepts efficiently.
A variety of Activities designed to facilitate learning are placed at the ends of chap-
ters and accessible through the eText. At the conclusion of each major heading within
chapters, readers can access interactive eText multiple-choice Check Your Understand-
ing questions to assess comprehension of key concepts. Immediate instructive feedback is
provided after each question when correct responses are identified. We believe use of the
Check Your Understanding questions and the chapter activities can increase confidence
in preparation for examinations and other challenges. In their diagnostic form, these
questions and activities can help identify points of knowledge and areas of weakness or
knowledge gaps to direct students in their review of materials.
To further enhance assimilation of new information, links to twenty-two video
clips are interspersed throughout the text and are available through the eText. These
video clips demonstrate different aspects of audiological practice. They include illustra-
tion of otoscopic technique and basic hearing test procedures, as well as more advanced
electroacoustic and electrophysiologic tests, earmold impression technique, hearing aid
assessment measures, and more.
Bold key terms are clickable and take the reader directly to the glossary definition.
Navigation to particular sections of the book is also possible by clicking on desired sec-
tions within the expanded table of contents. Sections of text may be highlighted and
reader notes can be typed onto the page for enhanced review at a later date.
It is our hope that the eText format will enrich the student’s learning experience and
further enhance the learning process. To learn more about the enhanced Pearson eText,
go to www.pearsonhighered.com/etextbooks.

How to Use This Book

Throughout this book’s history of over four decades, its editions have been used by in-
dividuals in classes ranging from introductory to advanced levels. Students who plan to
enter the professions of audiology, speech-language pathology, and education of children
with hearing impairment have used it. All of these individuals are charged with knowing
all they can learn about hearing disorders and their ramifications. To know less is to do
a disservice to those children and adults who rely on professionals for assistance.
The chapter arrangement in this book differs somewhat from most audiology texts
in several ways. The usual approach is to present the anatomy and physiology of the ear
 P RE F A CE xi

first, and then to introduce auditory tests and remediation techniques. In this text, after
an introduction to the profession of audiology and a review of the science of hearing in
Chapters 1 and 2, a superficial look at how the ear works is provided as a conceptual
beginning to aid in the understanding of the details of auditory tests as they relate to the
basic mechanisms of hearing. Thus, with a grasp of the test principles, the reader is bet-
ter prepared to benefit from the many examples of theoretical test results that illustrate
different disorders in the auditory system.
The organization of this book has proved useful because it facilitates early com-
prehension of what is often perceived as difficult material. Readers who wish a more
traditional approach may simply rearrange the sequence in which they read the chap-
ters. Chapters 8 through 11, on the anatomy, physiology, disorders, and treatments of
different parts of the auditory apparatus, can simply be read before Chapters 3 through
7 on auditory tests. At the completion of the book, the same information will have been
covered.
The teacher of an introductory audiology course may feel that the depth of cover-
age of some subjects in this book is greater than desired. If this is the case, the primary
and secondary headings allow for easy identification of sections that may be deleted. If
greater detail is desired, the suggested reading lists at the end of each chapter can pro-
vide more depth. The book may be read in modules so that only specified materials are
covered.
Each chapter in this book begins with an introduction to the subject matter and
a statement of instructional objectives. Liberal use is made of headings, subheadings,
illustrations, and figures. A summary at the end of each chapter repeats the important
portions. Terms that may be new or unusual appear in bold print and are defined in the
book’s comprehensive glossary. Review tables summarize the high points within many
chapters. For those who wish to test their ability to synthesize what they learn and solve
some practical clinical problems, the Evolving Case Studies in selected chapters provide
this opportunity. The indexes at the back of this book are intended to help readers to
find desired materials rapidly.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their appreciation to Kayla Whitaker for her immeas-
urable assistance in preparation of aspects of this edition of the text and its instructors’
manual. Similarly, we are grateful to Brittany Gilb and Sarah Delaney for their assistance
with the accompanying slide bank. The authors would also like to express their appre-
ciation to the reviewers of this edition: Steve Bornstein, University of New Hampshire;
Ashley L. Dockens, Au.D., Ph.D., Lamar University; Andrea Warner-Czyz, The Univer-
sity of Texas at Dallas.
This page intentionally left blank
 About the Authors

Following a four-year enlistment in the U.S. Air Force,

Frederick Martin returned to college to complete his bachelor’s
and master’s degrees and embarked on a career as a clinical au-
diologist. After eight years of practice, he returned to graduate
school and earned his Ph.D., then he joined the faculty at The
University of Texas at Austin, where he taught and did research
for 38 years. He is now the Lillie Hage Jamail Centennial Profes-
sor Emeritus in Communication Sciences and Disorders.
In addition to the thirteen editions of Introduction to Au- Frederick N. Martin
diology, seven of which were co-authored by Dr. John Greer
Clark, Martin has authored seven books, co-authored another seven, edited thirteen, and
co-edited three. He has written twenty-four chapters for edited texts, 122 journal arti-
cles, 104 convention or conference papers, and five CD-ROMs. He served as a reviewer
for the most prominent audiology journals and for years co-edited Audiology: A Journal
for Continuing Education.
During his tenure at The University of Texas, Martin won the Teaching Excellence
Award of the College of Communication, the Graduate Teaching Award, and the Ad-
visor’s Award from the Texas Alumni Association. The National Student Speech-Lan-
guage-Hearing Association named him Professor of the Year in Communication Sciences
and Disorders at The University of Texas for 2002–2003. He was the 1997 recipient of
the Career Award in Hearing from the American Academy of Audiology, and in 2006,
he was the first to receive the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Texas Academy
of Audiology. In 2009, Martin was honored by the Arkansas Hearing Society with the
Thomas A. LeBlanc Award. The text, Introduction to Audiology, was a finalist for the
prestigious Hamilton Book Award of The University of Texas in 2006. He is a Fellow of
the American Academy of Audiology and the American Speech-Language-Hearing Asso-
ciation and is an Honorary Lifetime Member of the American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association and the Texas Speech-Language Hearing Association, and was the first and
remains the only recipient of Honorary Lifetime Membership in the Austin Audiology
Society. The College of Communication of The University of Texas at Austin established
the Frederick N. Martin Endowed Scholarship in 2011 awarded annually to an outstand-
ing graduate student at The University who plans to pursue a career in audiology.

xiii
xiv ABOU T THE A UTHO RS

Dr. Clark received his bachelor of science from Purdue University

and his master’s degree from The University of Texas at Austin.
Following postgraduate studies at Louisiana State University, he
completed his doctoral degree at the University of Cincinnati.
A recipient of both the Prominent Alumni and Distinguished
Alumnus Awards from the University of Cincinnati and the Honors
of the Ohio Speech and Hearing Association, Dr. Clark was elected
John Greer Clark a Fellow of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association in
1996. He is a Past President of the Academy of Rehabilitative Au-
diology, Past Chair of the American Board of Audiology, and a Fellow of the American
Academy of Audiology. He served four years on the Board of Directors of the American
Academy of Audiology and the Ohio Academy of Audiology, and, with his wife, was
co-founder of the Midwest Audiology Conference, which subsequently evolved into
separate conferences for the states of Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky. In 2017, he received
the Distinguished Achievement Award from the American Academy of Audiology.
A presenter at local, state, national, and international association meetings and
conventions, Dr. Clark has served as a faculty fellow for the Ida Institute in Naerum,
Denmark, and as associate editor, editorial consultant, and reviewer for a number of
professional journals. His more than 100 publications include three edited textbooks,
a variety of co-authored texts, two single-authored books, sixteen book chapters, and
a range of journal articles on various aspects of communication disorders. In 2013 his
audiology counseling text, co-authored with Dr. Kristina English, was selected by the
American Academy of Audiology as one of the top twenty-five audiology texts written
in the past twenty-five years. His current research interests are within the areas of adult
audiologic rehabilitation, audiologic counseling, and animal audiology.
Dr. Clark’s professional career started with the Louisiana Department of Health
and Human Resources, where he served as audiologist for the Handicapped Children’s
Program and coordinator for the Geriatric Pilot Project in Communicative Disorders.
He was an Assistant Clinical Professor within the Department of Otolaryngology and
Maxillofacial Surgery at the University of Cincinnati Medical Center before embarking
on a successful private practice, which he left after fifteen years to serve as the Director
of Clinical Services of Helix Hearing Care of America. He later returned to private prac-
tice with his wife for a number of years before returning to the University of Cincinnati.
Currently, he is the Director of Audiology Education in Communication Sciences and
Disorders at the University of Cincinnati.
 Introduction
to Audiology
 PART    I

ELEMENTS OF
AUDIOLOGY
T he first part of this book requires no foreknowledge of audiology. Chapter 1
presents an overview of the profession of audiology, its history, and directions
for the future. Chapter 2 discusses the physics of sound and introduces the
units of measurement that are important in performing modern audiologic assessments. If
you have had a course in hearing science you may find little new information in Chapter 2
and may wish to use it merely as a review. If this material is new to you, its comprehension is
essential for understanding what follows in this text.

3
 CHAPTER
1
The Profession
of Audiology
LEARNING OUTCOMES

The purpose of this opening chapter is to introduce the profession of audi-

ology, from its origins, through its course of development, to its present
position in the hearing healthcare delivery system. At the completion of this
chapter, you should be able to:
1.1 Describe the evolution of audiology as a profession.
1.1 Discuss the differences between licensure and certification and why an
audiologist might choose to become certified.
1.1 Describe the reasons that speech-language pathologists may interact
closely with audiologists as they provide services within their chosen
professions.
1.2 Discuss the impact of hearing impairment on individuals and society.
1.2 List specialty areas within audiology and the employment settings within
which audiologists may find themselves.

T HE PROFESSION OF AUDIOLOGY has grown remarkably since its inception

only a little more than seventy years ago. What began as a concentrated effort to
assist hearing-injured veterans of World War II in their attempts to reenter civil-
ian life has evolved into a profession serving all population groups and all ages through
increasingly sophisticated diagnostic and rehabilitative instrumentation. The current stu-
dent of audiology can look forward to a future within a dynamic profession, meeting the
hearing needs of an expanding patient base.

4
 C H A P T E R 1 The Profession of Audiology 5

1.1 The Evolution of Audiology

Prior to World War II, hearing-care services were provided by physicians and commercial
hearing aid dealers. Because the use of hearing protection was not common until the lat-
ter part of the war, many service personnel suffered the effects of high-level noise expo-
sure from modern weaponry. The influx of these service personnel reentering civilian life
created the impetus for the professions of otology (the medical specialty concerned with
diseases of the ear) and speech pathology (now referred to as speech-language pathology)
to work together to form military-based aural rehabilitation centers (Figure 1.1).
These centers met with such success that, following the war, many of the profes-
sionals involved in the programs’ development believed that their services should be made
available within the civilian sector. It was primarily through the efforts of the otologists
that the first rehabilitative programs for those with hearing loss were established in com-
munities around the country, but it was mainly those from speech-language pathology,
those who had developed the audiometric techniques and rehabilitative procedures of the
military clinics, who staffed the emerging community centers (Henoch, 1979).
Audiology developed rapidly as a profession distinct from medicine in the United
States. While audiology continues to evolve outside the United States, most professionals
practicing audiology in other countries are physicians, usually otologists. Audiometric
technicians in many of these countries attain competency in the administration of hearing

FIGURE 1.1 Audiology had its genesis in the VA hospitals during WWII. Many veterans returning
with noise-induced hearing loss were issued body-level hearing aids (a) and received extensive
aural rehabilitation (b) to help them make use of their residual hearing to as great an extent as
possible. (Source: Walter Reed Army Hospital.)
6 P ART I ELEMENTS OF AUDIOLOGY

tests; however, it is the physician who dictates the tests to be performed and solely the
physician who decides on the management of each patient. Some countries have devel-
oped strong academic audiology programs and independent audiologists, like those in the
United States, but, with the exception of geographically isolated areas, most audiologists
around the globe look to American audiologists for the model of autonomous practice
that they wish to emulate.
The derivation of the word audiology is itself unclear. No doubt, purists are disturbed
that a Latin root, audire (to hear), was fused with a Greek suffix, logos (the study of), to
form the word audiology. It is often reported that audiology was coined as a new word in
1945 simultaneously, yet independently, by Drs. Raymond Carhart1 and Norton Canfield,
an otologist active in the establishment of the military aural rehabilitation programs. How-
ever, a course established in 1939 by the Auricular Foundation Institute of Audiology entitled
“Audiological Problems in Education” and a 1935 instructional film developed under the
direction of Mayer Shier titled simply Audiology clearly predate these claims (Skafte, 1990).
Regardless of the origin of the word, an audiologist today is defined as an individual who
has attained the education, training and license to provide an array of services for the iden-
tification, assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of those with auditory or vestibular impair-
ment, as well as the prevention of such disorders (American Academy of Audiology, 2004).

Academic Preparation in Audiology

In the United States, educational preparation for audiologists evolved as technology
expanded, leading to an increasing variety of diagnostic procedures and an expanded pro-
fessional scope of practice (American Academy of Audiology, 2004; American Speech-
Language-Hearing Association, 2004d). Audiology practices have grown to encompass
the identification of hearing loss, the differential diagnosis of hearing impairment, and
the non-medical treatment of hearing impairment and balance disorders. What began as a
profession with a bachelor’s level preparation quickly transformed into a profession with a
required minimum of a master’s degree to attain a state license, now held forth as the man-
datory prerequisite for clinical practice in most states. Nearly forty-five years ago, Raymond
Carhart, one of audiology’s founders, recognized the limitations imposed by defining the
profession at the master’s degree level (Carhart, 1975). Yet it was another thirteen years
before a conference, sponsored by the Academy of Dispensing Audiologists, set goals for the
profession’s transformation to a doctoral level (Academy of Dispensing Audiologists, 1988).
Beginning in 1994 with the establishment of the first professional doctorate in audi-
ology, academic programs transitioned to the professional doctorate for student prepara-
tion in audiology, designated as the doctor of audiology (Au.D.). At most universities,
the Au.D. comprises four years of professional preparation beyond the bachelor’s degree,
with heavy emphasis on didactic instruction in the early years gradually giving way to
increasing amounts of clinical practice as students progress through their programs. The
final (fourth) year consists of a full-time clinical placement, usually in a paid position.
Although the required course of study to become an audiologist remains somewhat
heterogeneous, coursework generally includes hearing and speech science, anatomy and
physiology, fundamentals of communication and its disorders, counseling techniques,
electronics, computer science, and a range of coursework in diagnostic and rehabilitative
services for those with hearing and balance disorders. Through this extensive background,
university programs continue to produce clinicians capable of making independent deci-
sions for the betterment of those they serve.
1
Dr. Raymond Carhart (1912–1975), largely regarded as the father of audiology.
 C H A P T E R 1 The Profession of Audiology 7

Licensing and Certification

As audiology evolved in the United States, like other professions, its practice has become
governed through license or registration in every state of the union and the District of
Columbia. Such regulation ensures that audiology practitioners have met a minimum level
of educational preparation and, in many states, that a minimum of continuing study is
maintained to help ensure competencies remain current. A license to practice audiology or
professional registration as an audiologist is a legal requirement to practice the profession
of audiology. Licensure and registration are important forms of consumer protection, and
loss or revocation of this documentation prohibits an individual from practicing audiol-
ogy. To obtain an audiology license, one must complete a prescribed course of study,
acquire approximately 2000 hours of clinical practicum, and attain a passing score on a
national examination in audiology.
In contrast to state licensure and registration, certification is not a legal require-
ment for the practice of audiology. Audiologists who choose to hold membership in the
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) are required by ASHA to hold
its Certificate of Clinical Competence in Audiology, attesting that a designated level of
preparation as an audiologist has been met and that documented levels of continuing
education are maintained throughout one’s career. Many audiologists select certification
from the American Board of Audiology as a fully voluntary commitment to the principles
of lifelong continuing education. ABA certification is an attestation that one holds him- or
herself to a higher standard than may be set forth by professional associations or in the
legal documents of licensure or registration.
The use of support personnel within a variety of practice settings is growing. The
responsibilities of these “audiologist’s assistants” have been delineated by the American
Academy of Audiology (1997; 2014). Licensing laws in nearly half of the states define
permitted patient care assignments for audiology assistants. Assistants can be quite valu-
able in increasing practice efficiency and meeting the needs of a growing population
with hearing loss. It is audiologists’ responsibility to ensure that their assistants have the
proper preparation and training to perform assigned duties adequately.

A Blending of Art and Science

Audiology is a scientific discipline based upon an ever-growing body of research on
the fundamentals of hearing and balance, the physiologic and psychosocial impacts of
disorders of these functions, and the technological aspects of both hearing and balance
diagnostics and pediatric and adult treatments. Over the years, some have cautioned
that audiology should avoid becoming mired in the technological aspects of service
delivery. Indeed, as Hawkins (1990) pointed out more than a quarter of a century ago,
the importance of the many technological advances seen in audiology may be of only
minor importance to the final success with patients when compared to the counseling
and rehabilitative aspects of audiological care.
The blending of the science of audiology with the art of patient treatment makes
audiology a highly rewarding profession. The humanistic side of professional endeavors
in audiology is what brings audiologists close to the patients and families they serve and
makes the outcomes of provided services rewarding for both the practitioner and the
recipient of care. All patients bring to audiology clinics their own life stories, personal
achievements, and recognized (and unrecognized) limitations. Audiologists must learn to
listen supportively, thus allowing patients to tell their own stories, so that both diagnostics CHECK YOUR
and rehabilitation may be tailored to individual needs effectively (Clark & English, 2014). UNDERSTANDING 1.1
8 P ART I ELEMENTS OF AUDIOLOGY

Clinical COMMENTARY
Speech-language pathologists often find that they work in close concert with audiolo-
gists. This may be true with children, whose hearing loss can have a direct impact
on speech and language development, as well as with older adults, who have a higher
incidence of age-related communication disorders. The frequent co-existence of hearing
disorders and speech and language problems has led the American Speech-Language-
Hearing Association to include hearing-screening procedures, therapeutic aspects of
audiological rehabilitation, and basic checks of hearing aid performance within the
speech-language pathologist’s scope of practice (ASHA, 2001, 2004b).

1.2 People and Places

Audiologists serve patients of all ages ranging from neonates to those at the end stages of
their lives. Those with hearing and balance disorders may be seen by audiologists within
different professional settings and by professionals who serve as general audiology prac-
titioners or who may have chosen to specialize primarily within a single area of audiol-
ogy practice. To support audiologists, several associations have been founded to provide
forums for information exchange in the broad field of audiology and its specialty areas.
Many of these associations offer continuing education opportunities for practitioners to
meet the requirements of licensure or voluntary certification.

Prevalence and Impact of Hearing Loss

Although the profession of audiology was formed under the sponsorship of the military, its
growth was rapid within the civilian sector because of the general prevalence of hearing loss
and the devastating impact that hearing loss has on the lives of those affected. The reported
prevalence of hearing loss (see Table 1.1) varies somewhat depending on the method of esti-
mation (actual evaluation of a population segment or individual response to a survey ques-
tionnaire), the criteria used to define hearing loss, and the age of the population sampled.

TABLE 1.1 Prevalence of Hearing Loss and Related Disorders

360 million (5.3%) persons in the world have a debilitating hearing loss
50 million (1.5%) Americans experience tinnitus (ear or head noises)
48 million (1.47%) Americans report some degree of hearing loss
30 million (0.9%) Americans are exposed to hazardous noise levels or ototoxic chemicals at work.
16 million (33%) Americans have a hearing loss at age 65 or older
14 million baby boomers (14.6%) have hearing problems
10 million (0.3%) Americans have some degree of permanent, noise-induced hearing loss
7 million (15%) school-aged children have some degree of hearing loss
6 million Generation Xers (7.4%) already have a hearing loss
5 out of 6 children (83%) in America experience ear infections by 3 years of age.
2-3 of every 1000 children (0.03%) in America are born with hearing loss in one or both ears
Sources: World Health Organization (www.who.int/pbd/deafness/WHO_GE_HL.pdf);Tinnitus Association of America (www.ata.org); Hearing Loss
Association of America (www.hearingloss.org/content/basic-facts-about-hearing-loss); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (www.cdc.
gov/niosh/topics/noise/stats.html); Better Hearing Institute (www.betterhearing.org); Hear It (www.hear-it.org) National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health (www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise); National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (vwww.nidcd.nih.gov/
health/statistics/quick-statistics-hearing; US Census Bureau (www.census.gov/popclock)
 C H A P T E R 1 The Profession of Audiology 9

Using audiometric data from a national health and nutrition survey combined with
population projection estimates for the United States, Goman, Reed, and Lin (2017)
estimated the prevalence of bilateral hearing loss in 2020 among adults twenty years of
age and older to be over 44 million (15 percent). This figure is projected to rise to over
73 million (22.6 percent of adults) by the year 2060. Increased hearing loss is greatest
among older adults with estimates in 2020 exceeding 55 percent of adults 70 years of
age and older. The number of children with permanent hearing loss is far lower than the
number of adults. However, the prevalence of hearing loss in children is almost stagger-
ing if we consider those children whose speech and language development and academic
performances may be affected by mild transient ear infections so common among chil-
dren. While not all children have problems secondary to ear pathologies, 75 percent of
children in the United States will have at least one ear infection before three years of age
(National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2010a).
For children with recurrent or persistent problems with ear infections, the devel-
opmental impact is uncertain. A variety of studies have shown that some children prone
to ear pathologies may lag behind their peers in articulatory and phonological develop-
ment, the ability to receive and express thoughts through spoken language, the use of
grammar and syntax, the acquisition of vocabulary, the development of auditory memory
and auditory perception skills, and social maturation (for review, see Clark & Jaindl,
1996). There is indication, however, that children with early history of ear infections,
while initially delayed in speech and language, may catch up with their peers by the
second year of elementary school (Roberts, Burchinal & Zeisel, 2002; Zumach, Gerrits,
Chenault & Anteunis, 2010). Other studies have shown very little or no associations
between recurrent otitis media and speech and language development for most children
(Roberts, Rosenfeld & Zeisel, 2004). Even so, a study reporting no significant differences
in speech understanding in noise between groups of third- and fourth-grade students with
and without histories of early ear infections did, however, find a much greater range in
abilities for those with a positive history of ear infections (Keogh et al., 2005).
The fact that many children with positive histories of ear infection develop no
speech, language, or educational delays suggests that factors additional to fluctuating
hearing abilities may also be involved in the learning process (Davis, 1986; Williams &
Jacobs, 2009), but this in no way reduces the need for intervention. The impact of more
severe and permanent hearing loss has an even greater effect on a child’s developing
speech and language and educational performance (Diefendorf, 1996) and also on the
psychosocial dynamics within the family and among peer groups (Altman, 1996; Clark
& English, 2014).
Often, the adult patient’s reaction to the diagnosis of permanent hearing loss is to
feel nearly as devastated as that of the caregivers of young children with newly diagnosed
hearing impairment (Martin, Krall & O’Neal, 1989). Yet the effects of hearing loss
cannot be addressed until the reason for the hearing loss is diagnosed. Left untreated,
hearing loss among adults can seriously erode relationships both within and outside the
family unit. Research has demonstrated that, among older adults, hearing loss is related
to overall poor health, decreased physical activity, and depression. Indeed, Bess, Lich-
tenstein, Logan, Burger, and Nelson (1989) demonstrated that progressive hearing loss
among older adults is associated with progressive physical and psychosocial dysfunction.
In addition to the personal effects and opportunity costs of hearing loss on the
individual, the financial burden of hearing loss placed upon the individual, and society
at large, is remarkable. The National Institute on Deafness and other Communication
Disorders (2010b) reports that the total annual costs for the treatment of childhood ear
infections may be as high as $5 billion in the United States. When one adds to this figure
10 PART I ELEMENTS OF AUDIOLOGY

the costs of educational programs and (re)habilitation services for those with perma-
nent hearing loss and the lost income when hearing impairment truncates one’s earning
potential, the costs become staggering. Northern and Downs (1991) estimate that for a
child of one year of age with severe hearing impairment and an average life expectancy
of seventy-one years, the economic burden of deafness can exceed $1 million.
A survey conducted by the Better Hearing Institute of over 44,000 American fami-
lies reported that those who are failing to treat their hearing problems are collectively
losing at least $100 billion in annual income (National American Precis Syndicated,
2007). While many people think of hearing loss as affecting mainly older individuals,
most people with hearing loss are in the prime of their lives, including one out of six
baby boomers ages forty-one to fifty-nine years. While the Better Hearing Institute study
reported that the use of hearing aids can reduce the effects of lost income by nearly 50
percent, only one in four with hearing problems seek treatment.

Audiology Specialties
Most audiology training programs prepare audiologists as generalists, with exposure and
preparation in a wide variety of areas. Following graduation, however, many audiologists
discover their chosen practice setting leads to a concentration of their time and efforts
within one or more specialty areas of audiology. In addition, many practice settings
and specialty areas provide audiologists with opportunities to participate in research
activities to broaden clinical understanding and application of diagnostic and treatment
procedures. When those seeking audiological care are young or have concomitant speech
or language difficulties, a close working relationship of audiologists with professionals in
speech-language pathology or in the education of those with hearing loss often develops.
The varied nature of the practice of audiology can make an audiology career stimu-
lating and rewarding. Indeed, the fact that audiologists view their careers as both interest-
ing and challenging has been found to result in a high level of job satisfaction within the
profession (Martin, Champlin & Streetman, 1997). In 2016, audiology was ranked as
the fourth most desirable profession in the United States out of 200 rated occupations,
based on five criteria including hiring outlook, income potential, work environment,
stress levels, and physical demand (CareerCast, 2016). The appeal of audiology as a
career choice is heightened by the variety of specialty areas and employment settings
available to audiologists.

Medical Audiology
The largest number of audiologists are currently employed within a medical environment,
including community and regional hospitals, physicians’ offices, and health maintenance
organizations. Audiologists within military-based programs, Veterans Administration
medical centers, and departments of public health often work primarily within the spe-
cialty of medical audiology. Many of the audiology services provided within this specialty
focus on the provision of diagnostic assessments to help establish the underlying cause
of hearing or balance disorders (see Figure 1.2). The full range of diagnostic procedures
detailed in this text may be employed by the medical audiologist with patients of all ages.
Results of the final audiological assessment are combined with the diagnostic findings of
other medical and nonmedical professionals to yield a final diagnosis. Medical audiolo-
gists may also work within newborn-hearing-loss-identification programs and monitor the
hearing levels of patients being treated with medications that can harm hearing. Additional
responsibilities frequently include nonmedical endeavors such as hearing aid dispensing.
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 2. That extra needles should be placed under chimney breasts,
should there be any in the wall which is to be supported. The same
applies where corbels, piers, &c. occur.
3. Sleepers and shores should be so placed that they do not
interfere with the proper construction of the new foundations or
portions of the building.
4. The inside shores should be carried freely through the floors
until a solid foundation is reached.
5. The removal of the shores after the alterations have been made
is one requiring great care. It should be remembered, that while the
work is new it cannot offer its greatest resistance to its intended load.
Time should therefore be given for the work to well set, and then the
timbers, eased gradually by the wedges being loosened, should be
finally taken out.
6. The raking shores, if used in conjunction with underpinning,
should be left to the last.
 CHAPTER IV

TIMBER

Classification and Structure.—A short study of the classification

and structure of wood will be useful, as it will enable the scaffolder to
use material free from the inherent defects of its growth.
The trees used by the scaffolder are known as the exogens or
outward-growing trees.
The cross section of an exogenous tree shows, upon examination,
that the wood can be divided into several parts. Near the centre will
be seen the pith or medulla, from which radiate what are known as
the medullary rays. These in the pine woods are often found full of
resinous matter.
Next will be noted the annual rings forming concentric circles
round the pith. They are so called because in temperate climates a
new ring is added every year by the rising and falling of the sap. As
the tree ages, the first-laid rings harden and become what is known
as duramen or heartwood. The later rings are known as alburnum or
sapwood. The distinction between the two is in most trees easily
recognised, the sapwood being lighter and softer than the
heartwood, which is the stronger and more lasting. The bark forms
the outer covering of the tree.

Defects in the living tree.—Shakes or splits in the interior of the

wood are the most common defects in the living tree, and are known
as star or radial and cup or ring shakes. The cause of these defects
is imperfectly understood. They are rarely found in small trees, say
those of under 10 inches diameter. Stevenson, in his book on wood,
puts forward the following reason, which, up to now, has not been
refuted by any practical writer. ‘In the spring, when the sap rises, the
sapwood expands under its influence and describes a larger circle
than in winter. The heartwood, being dead to this influence, resists,
and the two eventually part company, a cup or ring shake being the
result’ (see fig. 55, where the cup shake is shown in its commonest
form).

Fig. 55
 Fig. 56
The star or radial shake is a variant of the same defect. In this
case the cohesion between the sapwood and the heartwood is
greater than the expansive forces can overcome, the result being
that the heartwood breaks up into sections as shown in fig. 56.
The star shake may have two or more arms. More than one cup
shake, and sometimes both cup and star shakes are found in a
single tree. The radial shake is probably the most common.
The branches suffer in this respect in like manner as the trunk, the
same shakes being noticeable throughout
The development of these defects is the forerunner of further
decay in the tree, giving, as they do, special facilities for the
introduction of various fungi, more especially that form of disease
known as the rot. Wet rot is found in the living tree and occurs where
the timber has become saturated by rain.
Other authorities believe that these defects are caused by severe
frost, and their idea receives support from the fact that in timber from
warmer climates this fault is less often seen. This may be so for the
reason that it would not pay traders to ship inferior timber from a
great distance.
 Loose hearts: in the less resinous woods, as those from the White
Sea, the pith or medulla gradually dries and detaches itself,
becoming what is known as a loose heart. In the more resinous
woods, such as the Baltic and Memel, this defect is rare.
Rind galls are caused by the imperfect lopping of the branches,
and show as curved swellings under the bark.
Upsets are the result of a well-defined injury to the fibres caused
by crushing during the growth. This defect is most noticeable in hard
woods.
It will be of no practical use to follow the living tree further in its
steady progress towards decay, but take it when in its prime, and
study the processes which fit it for the purpose of scaffolding.

Felling.—The best time to fell timber, according to Tredgold, is

mid-winter, as the vegetative powers of the tree are then at rest, the
result being that the sapwood is harder and more durable; the
fermentable matters which tend to decay having been used up in the
yearly vegetation. Evelyn, in his ‘Silva,’ states that: ‘To make
excellent boards and planks it is the advice of some, that you should
bark your trees in a fit season, and so let them stand naked a full
year before felling.’ It is questionable if this is true of all trees, but it is
often done in the case of the oak. The consensus of opinion is that
trees should be felled in the winter, during the months of December,
January and February, or if in summer, during July. Winter felling is
probably the better, as the timber, drying more slowly, seasons
better.
The spruce from Norway and the northern fir are generally cut
when between 70 and 100 years old. When required for poles,
spruce is cut earlier, it having the advantage of being equally durable
at all ages. Ash, larch and elm are cut when between 50 and 100
years old.

Conversion.—By this is meant cutting the log to form balks,

planks, deals, &c. It is generally carried out before shipment. A log is
the trunk (sometimes called the stem or bole) of a tree with the
branches cut off.
 A balk is a log squared. Masts are the straight trunks of trees with
a circumference of more than 24 inches. When of less circumference
they are called poles.
According to size, timbers are classed as follow:—
Balks 12 in. by 12 inches to 18 in. by 18 inches
Whole timber 9 in. by 9 inches to 15 in. by 15 inches
Half timber 9 in. by 41⁄2 inches to 18 in. by 9 inches
Quartering 2 in. by 2 inches to 6 in. by 6 inches
Planks 11 in. to 18 inches by 3 in. to 6 inches
Deals 9 inches by 2 in. to 41⁄2 inches
Battens 41⁄2 in. to 7 inches by 3⁄4 in. to 3 inches
When of equal sides they are termed die square. In conversion the
pith should be avoided, as it is liable to dry rot.
When the logs are to be converted to whole timbers for use in that
size, consideration has to be given as to whether the stiffest or the
strongest balk is required. The stiffest beam is that which gives most
resistance to deflection or bending. The strongest beam is that which
resists the greatest breaking strain. The determination of either can
be made by graphic methods.
 Fig. 57
To cut the stiffest rectangular beam out of a log, divide the
diameter of the cross section into four parts (see fig. 57). From each
outside point, a and b, at right angles to and on different sides of the
diameter, draw a line to the outer edge of the log. The four points
thus gained on the circumferential edge, c, d, e, f, if joined together,
will give the stiffest possible rectangular beam that can be gained
from the log.
 Fig. 58
To cut the strongest beam:—In this case the diameter is divided
into three parts. From the two points a and b thus marked again
carry the lines to the outer edge as before. Join the four points c, d,
e, f, together, and the outline of the strongest possible rectangular
beam will result (see fig. 58).
Boards—a term which embraces planks, deals, and battens—
should be cut out of the log in such a manner that the annual rings
run parallel to the width of the board. This method of conversion
allows the knots, which are a source of weakness, to pass directly
through the board, as a, fig. 59, and not run transversely across as
other sections (b) allow.
 Fig. 59

Seasoning.—Poles and scantlings, after conversion, are next

prepared for seasoning.
The drying yard, where the timbers are seasoned, should give
protection from the sun and high winds, although a free current of air
should be allowed. It should be remembered that rapid drying tends
to warping and twisting of the timbers.
The ground on which the timbers are stacked should be drained
and kept dry.
The method of stacking is as follows: The timbers are laid upon
supports a few inches above the ground at sufficient intervals to
allow of a free circulation of air between them, and on these others
are laid at right angles. It is usual to put long strips of wood about 3⁄4
inch square between each row to prevent the timbers touching, as,
after a shower, the timbers cannot dry for a long time if one is resting
on the other.
Planks, deals, &c. can be stacked by laying them in one direction
throughout, provided that the space which is left between the boards
occurs in one layer immediately over the centre of the boards
beneath (see fig. 60).
In many cases very little drying takes place before shipment, but
the same methods of stacking should be observed whenever it takes
place.
 Stacking poles by placing them on end is not recommended, as
they may warp from insufficient support. This point is more important
when the poles are required for ladder sides.

Fig. 60
Timber may be considered to be sufficiently seasoned for rough
work when it has lost one-fifth of its weight by evaporation.

Fig. 61
The poles from St. Petersburg have a narrow strip of bark
removed in four equidistant longitudinal lines throughout their entire
length. This treatment assists drying, and tends to prevent dry rot.
Weather shakes sometimes form on the outside of the wood while
seasoning (see fig. 61).
They arise owing to the sapwood contracting more when drying
than the heartwood. Unless they extend to a considerable depth they
do not affect the quality of the wood. Balk timbers, where the
sapwood is uncut, and whole timbers principally suffer in this
manner.
 Water seasoning—that is, having the timbers completely
immersed in water for a short time before drying. This is a common
practice. It is frequently carried out at the docks, where the balks
may be seen floating about on the surface of the water. This is a bad
method, as the wood is at the same time under the influence of
water, sun and air.
Water seasoning may make the wood more suitable for some
purposes, but Duhamel, while admitting its merits, says: ‘Where
strength is required it ought not to be put in water.’

Description.—Pine or northern fir (Pinus sylvestris) is light and

stiff, and is good for poles and scaffolding purposes, but only the
commonest of the Swedish growths are used for this purpose. The
hardest comes from the coldest districts. It has large red knots fairly
regularly placed, inclined to be soft, and starting at acute angles. It
grows chiefly in Northern Europe.
White spruce or white fir (Abies excelsa).—The knots are small
and irregularly placed, are dark in colour, and start at an obtuse
angle, showing an absence of clean wood. It is used principally for
scaffold poles and ladder sides. It will snap under live loads, and is
not so strong as pine. It also chiefly grows in Northern Europe.
Larch (genus Larix) is imported from Northern Europe and
America. It is yellow in colour, tough, and is suitable for poles, very
durable, free from knots, but warps easily.
Elm (genus Ulmus) grows in the British Isles. The colour varies
from the reddish-brown of the heartwood to yellowish white of the
sapwood. It bears considerable pressure across the grain, and is
most useful in balks, as it is liable to warp when in smaller sizes. Is
suitable where bolts and nails have to be used.
Birch (Betula alba).—Light brown in colour, hard, even grain,
which enables it to be easily and readily split in the direction of its
length. It is not considered durable. It is used chiefly for putlogs. Is
exported from Europe and America.
Ash (Fraxinus excelsior).—Very light brown in colour, extremely
tough, and makes excellent rungs for ladders. It is found in Europe.
Oak (genus Quercus), also known as the common British oak, is a
native of all parts of Europe, from Sweden to the Mediterranean. The
wood has often a reddish tinge; and the grain is fairly straight, and
splits easily. It is generally free from knots, and is most suitable
where a stiff, straight-grained wood is desirable. It also offers
considerable resistance to pressure across the grain.

Selection.—The importation of scaffolding timber commences in

March. In June the Russian timbers are on the market, and the
arrivals continue until October.
Poles are selected from spruce, pine, and larch trees. Balk timbers
are of elm and fir and spruce. The putlogs are from the birch.
Poles are known in two qualities—‘prime’ and ‘brack.’ These terms
refer to their straightness of grain, freedom from knots, regularity of
taper, which should be slight, and condition as to seasoning.
Buyers take them usually unbarked, as they rise from the stack,
and sort them afterwards for their different purposes.
As soon as possible the bark should be removed, as it holds the
water and insects, and encourages the growth of a white fungus
which is the precursor of dry rot.
The St. Petersburg poles are the most generally used for
scaffolding. They are weaker than the Christiania poles, breaking
shorter under cross strains, are whiter in colour, have a smoother
bark, are straighter in grain, and therefore make better ladder sides.
Christiania poles are more yellow in colour, and break longer
under a cross strain than other poles. They are only to be obtained
early in the year, and are soon bought up when on the market.
To test a pole remove the bark, then prise across the grain with a
penknife. If the fibres break up short and brown, the pole is decayed
and useless.
To test a pole for any local weakness lift one end, leaving the other
on the ground. Two or three sharp jerks will cause undue bending at
any spot that may be seriously defective.
Balk timbers ring, if in a sound condition, when struck with a
hammer. A fresh-cut surface should be firm, shining, and somewhat
translucent. A dull, chalky, or woolly appearance is a sign of bad
timber.
Poles, unlike most converted timbers, are not branded. Those
known as prime should certainly be used for scaffolding purposes.
The brack are rough and irregular in growth.
Balk timbers and smaller scantlings are, in the finest qualities,
branded, the different countries from which they are exported being
Russia, Norway and Sweden.
Russian woods are generally hammer branded, no colour being
used.
Norwegian woods are marked a blue colour, and Swedish wood a
red colour.
Straight-grained timber should be chosen. Twisting, which may
occur to the extent of 45°, is not so apparent in young trees. The
beam is thereby weakened as regards tension and compression.
Large knots should be avoided. They weaken the beam for tension
and cross strains, but serve good purpose when in compression.
Sap in the wood is denoted by a blue stain, and betokens
inferiority as to strength and lasting qualities. This blueness is more
noticeable when the wood is wet. It must not be confounded with
dark weather stains.

The Decay of Timber.—Timber exposed to the constant changes

of weather tends to decay early. It has been noticed that wood when
dried after being exposed to dampness not only lost the moisture it
had absorbed, but also part of its substance. This loss occurs in a
greater degree when these changes take place a second time. It is
therefore apparent that scaffolding timber, exposed as it is to the
vicissitudes of the weather, without any protection such as would be
gained by painting, will soon from this cause show signs of decay.
Quicklime, when wet, has also a most destructive effect upon
timber; the lime, by abstracting carbon, helping the decomposition
materially. Scaffold boards suffer most in this respect from contact
with fresh mortar, the lime in which has not had time to become mild.
From a similar cause, the ends of putlogs which are inserted in a
newly built wall, as when used in a bricklayer’s scaffold, tend to
decay rapidly.
Scaffolding poles, when used as standards, have an increased
tendency to decay at their butt ends, owing to their being imbedded
in the ground to a distance of two or three feet.
 The presence of sap in improperly seasoned wood is also
conducive to early decay.

Preservation of Timber.—Scaffolding timber being comparatively

cheap has little attention paid to it in regard to preservation.
When out of use the poles should be stacked, and a free current of
air around each ensured, not laid carelessly on the ground, which is
too frequently the case. The same remarks apply to the care of
boards. Nails which have been driven into the timber should, after
use, be carefully drawn. When left in the wood they rust, and set up
a new source of decay.
As before noted, the butt ends of standards tend to decay early. A
fairly effective method of preventing this is to bore the butt end
upwards to a distance of about 2 feet. The bore, which should be
about 1⁄2 inch in diameter, should then be filled with pitch and
plugged. The pitch will find its way by capillarity into the pores of the
wood and tend to keep the dampness out. Coating the outsides of
the butts with pitch is also useful, and a combination of the two
would no doubt be effectual; this is especially recommended where
the standards have to remain in one place for a long time.
Ladders and fittings that are expensive are generally painted.

The Durability of Wood.—In Young’s ‘Annals of Agriculture’ it is

stated that experiments were made on some 11⁄2-inch planks of 30 to
45 years’ growth. They were placed in the weather for ten years, and
then examined, with the following result:
Larch—heart sound, sapwood decayed.
Spruce fir—sound.
Scotch fir—much decayed.
Birch—quite rotten.
This experiment, while useful to show the natural resistance of the
wood to the weather, does not take into account the effect of wear
and tear.
It is almost impossible, in fact, to arrive at any data from which the
life of scaffolding timbers can be gauged; but, roughly speaking,
poles may be expected to last from six to ten years according to the
care exercised. Balk timbers, being usually cut up after a time for
other purposes, have only a short life on a scaffold, and therefore
seldom decay while in use.

Fig. 62

The Use of Scaffolding Timber.—Poles vary up to 40 and 50 feet

in length and up to 8 inches in diameter at the butt end. As decay,
which usually commences at this end, sets in, the poles can be
shortened and made into sound puncheons or splicing pieces for the
ledgers. Balks are used up to 50 or 60 feet in length; and their period
of service on a scaffold is often an interval during which they become
well seasoned and suitable for other requirements. Putlogs are about
6 feet in length and 4 inches square in cross section, tapering
sharply to 21⁄2 by 31⁄2 inches at the ends where required for insertion
in the wall. Being of square section they are not liable to roll on the
ledgers. They should be split, not sawn, in the direction of their
length. The fibres are thus uncut and absorb moisture less easily.
This procedure it is found increases their durability. When treated in
this manner they are also stronger, as the fibres, being continuous,
give greater resistance to a load, the strength not depending wholly
on the lateral adhesion, but also upon the longitudinal cohesion.
When partly decayed they can be shortened and make good struts
for timbering excavations.
The boards are usually from 7 in. to 9 in. wide and 11⁄2 in. to 2 in.
thick. Their length averages up to 14 feet. The ends are sawn as fig.
62 and strapped with iron to prevent splitting. When decayed they
are a source of danger for which there is only one remedy—smash
them up.
 CHAPTER V

CORDAGE AND KNOTS

The fibres used for the ropes and cords for scaffolding purposes are
of jute and hemp. The strongest rope is made of the latter variety,
and the best quality is termed the Manilla.
The cords are generally tarred for preservation, but this process
has a bad effect upon the strength of the fibre, more especially if the
tar is impure. The process of tarring is as follows:—
The fibres before they are formed into strands are passed through
a bath of hot tar. Immediately afterwards, and while still hot, the
material is squeezed through nippers, by which means any surplus
tar is removed.
The ropes, as used in scaffolding, are known as shroud laid or
three strand.
A shroud-laid rope consists of three strands wound round a core,
each containing a sufficient number of fibres to make an equal
thickness. A three-strand rope is similar, but has no core.
The following gives the breaking weights of scaffold cords and falls
according to circumference2:—

Size Cwts. qrs. lbs.

Tarred hemp scaffold 2 inches in circumference 20 0 0
21⁄4 inches in
Cords 25 0 0
circumference

Tarred jute scaffold 2 inches in circumference 14 0 0

21⁄4 inches in
Cords 18 0 0
circumference

White Manilla scaffold 2 inches in circumference 32 0 0

Cord 21⁄4 inches in 39 0 0
circumference

21⁄2 inches in
44 0 0
circumference
White Manilla rope for 3 inches in circumference 70 0 0
pulleys and block 31⁄2 inches in
98 0 0
ropes circumference
4 inches in circumference 126 0 0
41⁄2 inches in
158 0 0
circumference

It should be noted that all these weights are the actual breaking
strains of the ropes tested to destruction. In practice, one sixth of the
breaking weights only should be allowed, in order to leave a
sufficient margin for safety.
The strength of a rope is the combined strength of each separate
yarn. Therefore, if the fibres are not carefully twisted together, so that
each bears an equal strain, the rope is unsafe. Care should be taken
when choosing a rope that the strands are closely, evenly and
smoothly laid.
The rope is strongest when the fibres are at an angle of 45
degrees to the run of the rope. When at a greater angle than this, the
fibres are apt to break, and when at a less angle, the friction
between the parts—upon which the strength of a rope greatly
depends—is lessened.
The durability of tarred ropes is greater than when untarred, but
not to such an extent if kept dry.
A splice weakens a rope about one eighth.
Ropes are adulterated by the admixture of rubbish fibre termed
‘batch.’ To test a rope as to condition, untwist it and notice whether
any short ends break upwards. If so, or if the tarring has decayed
internally, the rope must be viewed with suspicion.
 Hemp ropes, after four to six months’ wear, are often one fourth
weaker than new ones.
Scaffold cords are from 15 to 18 feet in length.
Moisture will cause a shrinkage of 6 inches in an 18-foot cord.
A good hemp rope is more reliable than an iron chain, as the latter
sometimes snaps on surgeing.
The following diagrams show the various knots used in
scaffolding, both in the erection of the scaffold and for attaching
materials to a hoist. They are shown in a loose condition as being
more useful for study by a pupil. Several knots are, however, too
intricate to explain by diagram, and in these cases an attempt has
been made, with but scant success, to instruct as to their method of
creation in the notes. It will, however, be found by the student that
half an hour with an expert scaffolder, preferably an old sailor, will
afford more instruction than hours spent in studying diagrams.
The art of knot making is governed by three principles. First, a
knot must be made quickly. Secondly, it must not jam, as this
prevents it being undone easily. Lastly, under strain, it should break
before slipping.