Oasis of Knowledge

DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF MECHANICHAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

Heat Transfer Module

February, 2022
DIRE DAWA, ETHIOPI
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Heat Transfer

Heat and Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance. It
is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and can be used to predict the direction of
heat transfer. The symbol for temperature is T. The common scales for measuring temperature are
the Fahrenheit, Rankine, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales.
Heat is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the molecular level as a result of
a temperature difference. Heat is capable of being transmitted through solids and fluids by
conduction, through fluids by convection, and through empty space by radiation. The symbol for
heat is Q. Common units for measuring heat are the British Thermal Unit (Btu) in the English
system of units and the calorie in the SI system (International System of Units).

Heat and Work

Both represent energy in transition. Work is the transfer of energy resulting from a force acting
through a distance. Heat is energy transferred as the result of a temperature difference. Neither
heat nor work are thermodynamic properties of a system. Heat can be transferred into or out of a
system and work can be done on or by a system, but a system cannot contain or store either heat
or work. Heat into a system and work out of a system are considered positive quantities. When a
temperature difference exists across a boundary, the Second Law of Thermodynamics indicates
the natural flow of energy is from the hotter body to the colder body. The Second Law of
Thermodynamics denies the possibility of ever completely converting into work all the heat
supplied to a system operating in a cycle. The Second Law of Thermodynamics, described by Max
Planck in 1903, states that: It is impossible to construct an engine that will work in a complete
cycle and produce no other effect except the raising of a weight and the cooling of a reservoir.
The second law says that if you draw heat from a reservoir to raise a weight, lowering the weight
will not generate enough heat to return the reservoir to its original temperature, and eventually the
cycle will stop. If two blocks of metal at different temperatures are thermally insulated from their
surroundings and are brought into contact with each other the heat will flow from the hotter to the
colder. Eventually the two blocks will reach the same temperature, and heat transfer will cease.
Energy has not been lost, but instead some energy has been transferred from one block to another.
Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat is always transferred when a temperature difference exists between two bodies. There are
three basic modes of heat transfer:
Conduction: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the
mechanism of inter-molecular interactions. Conduction is described by the Fourier Biot Law:
q = -k A T
where:
q = heat flow vector, (BTU/hr, or W)
k = thermal conductivity, a thermodynamic property of the material. (BTU/hr-ft-oF or W/m
K)
A = Cross sectional area in direction of heat flow. (ft2 or m2)
T = Gradient of temperature (oF/ft or K/m) = T/x i + T/y j + T/z k
Note: Since this is a vector equation, it is often convenient to work with one component of the
vector. For example, in the x direction:
qx = - k Ax dT/dx
In circular coordinates it may convenient to work in the radial direction:
qr = - k Ar dT/dr
Convection: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the
combined mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and bulk transport. Newton’s Law of
Cooling:
q = h As T
where:
q = heat flow from surface, a scalar, (BTU/hr, or W)
h = thermal convection coefficient, not a thermodynamic property of the material.
(BTU/hr-ft2-oF or W/m2 K)
As = Surface area from which convection is occurring. (ft2 or m2)
T = Temperature Difference between surface and coolant. (oF or K)
Radiation: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the
mechanism of photon emission or electromagnetic waves. Stefan-Boltzman Law:
Eb =  T4
where:
Eb = Gross heat emission by an ideal surface per unit area (BTU/hr-ft2, or W/m2)
σ = Steffan Boltzman constant (0.1714 x 10-8 BTU/hr ft2 oR4 or 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4)
T = Absolute temperature. (oR or K)
You may note that the Stefan Boltzman law describes a gross heat emission rather than heat
transfer. The rate of radiant heat transfer between an object and its surroundings as:
q = ε·σ·A·(Tobj4 - T4)

where: ε = Surface Emissivity

A= Surface Area
Tobj = Absolute temperature of surface. (oR or K)
Tj = Absolute temperature of surroundings. (oR or K)

Thermal Conductivity, (k)

As noted previously, thermal conductivity is a thermodynamic property of a material. Recall the
State Postulate from thermodynamics. For gases we find that thermodynamic properties of pure
substances are functions of two independent thermodynamic intensive properties, say temperature
and pressure. Thermal conductivity of real gases is largely independent of pressure and may be
considered a function of temperature alone. For solids and liquids, properties are largely
independent of pressure and depend on temperature alone.
k = k (T)

Table 1.Thermal Conductivities of Selected Materials at Room Temperature.

Material Thermal Conductivity, W/m K

Copper 401
Silver 429
Gold 317
Aluminum 237
Steel 60.5
Limestone 2.15
Bakelite 1.4
Water 0.613
Air 0.0263
It is important that the student gain a basic perspective of the magnitude of thermal conductivity
for various materials. The background for this comes from the introductory Chemistry courses.
Molecules of various materials gain energy through various mechanisms. Gases exhibit energy
through the kinetic energy of the molecule. Energy is gained or lost through collusions of gaseous
molecules as they travel through the medium. Solids, being are much more stationary, cannot
effectively transfer energy through these same mechanisms. Instead, solids may exhibit energy
through vibration or rotation of the nucleus.

Lattice vibration may be

Kinetic energy transfer transferred between molecules as
between gaseous molecules. nuclei attract/repel each other.
Another important mechanism in which materials maintain energy is by shifting electrons into
higher orbital rings. In the case of electrical conductors, the electrons are weakly bonded to the
molecule and can drift from one molecule to another transporting their energy with them. This is
an especially effective transport mechanism, so that materials which are excellent electrical
conductors are excellent thermal conductors.

QUESTIONS
1) For a given heat flow and for the same thickness, the temperature drop across the material will
be maximum for:
(a) Copper (b) Steel (c) Glass-wool (d) Refractory brick
2) Steady two-dimensional heat conduction takes place in the body shown in the figure below.
The normal temperature gradients over surfaces P and Q can be considered to be uniform. The
𝜕𝑇
temperature gradient at surface Q is equal to 10 k/m. Surfaces P and Q are maintained at
𝜕𝑥

constant temperatures as shown in the figure, while the remaining part of the boundary is insulated.
The body has a constant thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/m.K.
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
The values of 𝜕𝑥 and 𝜕𝑦 at surface P are:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
(a) = 20 K/m, 𝜕𝑦 = 0 K/m
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
(b) 𝜕𝑥 = 0 K/m, 𝜕𝑦 = 10 K/ m

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
(b) = 10 K/m, 𝜕𝑦 = 10 K /m
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
(c) = 0 K/m, 𝜕𝑦 = 20 K m
𝜕𝑥

3) A steel ball of mass 1kg and specific heat 0.4 kJ/kg is at a temperature of 60°C. It is dropped
into 1kg water at 20°C. The final steady state temperature of water is:
(a) 23.5°C (b) 300°C (c) 35°C (d) 40°C

4) In descending order of magnitude, the thermal conductivity of

a. Pure iron,
b. Liquid water,
c. Saturated water vapour, and
d. Pure aluminum can be arranged as

(a) a b c d (b) b c a d (c) d a b c (d) d c b a

5) A copper block and an air mass block having similar dimensions are subjected to symmetrical
heat transfer from one face of each block. The other face of the block will be reaching to the
same temperature at a rate:
(a) Faster in air block (b) Faster in copper block (c) Equal in air as well as copper block (d) Cannot
be predicted with the given information
𝜕𝑇
6) Consider the following statements: The Fourier heat conduction equation 𝑄 = −kA ,
𝜕𝑥

presumes
1. Steady-state conditions ,2. Constant value of thermal conductivity.,3. Uniform temperatures at
the wall surfaces ,4. One-dimensional heat flow. Of these statements:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (b) 1, 2 and 4 are correct (c) 2, 3 and 4 are correct (d) 1, 3 and 4 are
correct
7) A plane wall is 25 cm thick with an area of 1 m2, and has a thermal conductivity of 0.5 W/mK.
If a temperature difference of 60°C is imposed across it, what is the heat flow?
(a) 120W (b) 140W (c) 160W (d) 180W

8) A large concrete slab 1 m thick has one dimensional temperature distribution:

T = 4 – 10x + 20x2 + 10x3

Where T is temperature and x is distance from one face towards other face of wall. If the slab
material has thermal diffusivity of 2×10-3 m2/hr, what is the rate of change of temperature at the
other face of the wall?
(a) 0.1°C/h (b) 0.2°C/h (c) 0.3°C/h (d) 0.4°C/h
9) Thermal diffusivity of a substance is:
(a) Inversely proportional to thermal conductivity (b) Directly proportional to thermal conductivity
(c) Directly proportional to the square of thermal conductivity (d) Inversely proportional to the
square of thermal conductivity

10) Which one of the following expresses the thermal diffusivity of a substance in terms of thermal
conductivity (k), mass density (ρ) and specific heat (c)?
(a) 𝑘 2 𝜌𝑐 (b) 1/𝑘𝜌𝑐 (c) 𝑘/𝜌𝑐 (d) 𝜌𝑐/𝑘 2

11) A furnace is made of a red brick wall of thickness 0.5 m and conductivity 0.7 W/mK. For the
same heat loss and temperature drop, this can be replaced by a layer of diatomite earth of
conductivity 0.14 W/mK and thickness
(a) 0.05 m (b) 0.1 m (c) 0.2 m (d) 0.5 m

12) In which one of the following materials, is the heat energy propagation minimum due to
conduction heat transfer?
(a) Lead (b) Copper (c) Water (d) Air
 Chapter 2: General Conduction Equation
⋯
1 𝜕𝑇 𝑞
⋅ = 𝛻2𝑇 +
𝑎 𝜕𝜏 𝑘
The vector form of this equation is quite compact and is the most general form. However, we
often find it convenient to expand the del-squared term in specific coordinate systems:
Cartesian Coordinates
⋯
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞
⋅ = + + +
𝑎 𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘
Circular Coordinates
⋯
1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝑞
⋅ = (𝑟 ⋅ ) + 2 ⋅ 2 + 2 +
𝑎 𝜕𝜏 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝑘

Spherical Coordinates
⋯
1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 2𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑞
⋅ = 2 (𝑟 2 ⋅ ) + 2 ⋅ + ⋅ (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ⋅ ) +
𝑎 𝜕𝜏 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝑘

In each equation the dependent variable, T, is a function of 4 independent variables, (x,y,z,τ);

(r,𝜃,z,τ); (r,φ,θ,τ) and is a 2nd order, partial differential equation. The solution of such equations
will normally require a numerical solution. For the present, we shall simply look at the
simplifications that can be made to the equations to describe specific problems.
Steady State: Steady state solutions imply that the system conditions are not changing with time.
Thus 𝝏𝑻/𝝏𝝉 = 𝟎.
One dimensional: If heat is flowing in only one coordinate direction, then it follows that there is
no temperature gradient in the other two directions. Thus, the two partials associated with these
directions are equal to zero.
Two dimensional: If heat is flowing in only two coordinate directions, then it follows that there
is no temperature gradient in the third direction. Thus, the partial derivative associated with this
third direction is equal to zero.
⋯
No Sources: If there are no heat sources within the system then the term, 𝑞 = 0.
Note that the equation is 2nd order in each coordinate direction so that integration will result in 2
constants of integration. To evaluate these constants two additional equations must be written for
each coordinate direction based on the physical conditions of the problem. Such equations are
termed “boundary conditions”.
Example: Consider the two-dimensional, steady state heat transfer through the rectangle shown:
In order to specify the conditions at the surface of the control volume, 4 boundary conditions are

specified, 2 for each coordinate direction.

Bottom surface(0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, 𝑦 = 0): The surface is subject to convection. Heat conducted to the
edge cannot be stored and must be convected away:
𝑑𝑇
−𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑦 ⋅ | = ℎ ⋅ 𝐴𝑦 ⋅ (𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑥,0 )
𝑑𝑦 𝑥,0

Top surface (0⟨𝑥⟨𝐿, 𝑦 = 𝐻): The surface temperature is fixed at TH:

𝑇(𝑥, 𝐻) = 𝑇𝐻
Let Surface (𝑥 = 0, 0⟨𝑦⟨𝐻) .This surface is insulated since q=0. This condition may be
expressed from the Fourier Biot Law:
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
0 = 𝑞 = −𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑥 ⋅ | ⇒ | =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0
Right Surface (𝑥 = 𝐿, 0⟨𝑦⟨𝐻) This surface has a specified heat flow, q0 so that the temperature
condition may be expressed as:
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 −𝑞0
𝑞0 = −𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑥 ⋅ | ⇒ | =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿 𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑥
Initial conditions: If a hot block is dropped into a cold fluid, the block will cool with time; if a
cold block is dropped into a hot fluid, the block will heat up with time. The surrounding fluid
conditions are determined by the boundary conditions, but the initial block conditions must be
specified by the initial condition. The initial condition simply establishes the temperature
distribution through the system at the beginning of the temperature transient. 𝑇0 = 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 0)

QUESTIONS
1) A concrete wall has a surface area of 30 m2 and is 0.30 m thick. It separates warm room
air from cold ambient air. The inner surface of the wall is known to be at a temperature of
25 °C, while the outer surface is at –15 °C. The thermal conductivity of the concrete is 1.0
W/m∙K.
1. Describe the conditions that must be satisfied in order for the temperature distribution in
the wall to be linear. 2. What is the driving force for the transfer of heat? 3. What is the
heat loss through the wall?
1. steady-state heat transfer, and homogenous isotropic medium 2. ∆𝑻 = 𝟒𝟎°𝐂 3. 𝑸 =
𝟒 𝒌𝑾
2) A new 1-ft thick insulating material was recently tested for heat resistant properties. The
data recorded temperatures of 70 °F and 210 °F on the cold and hot sides, respectively. If
 the thermal conductivity of the insulating material is 0.026 Btu/ft∙hr∙°F, calculate the rate
of the heat flux, 𝑄̇ or 𝑄/𝐴 , through the wall in Btu/ft2 ∙hr. Resolve the problem in SI units.
𝑸 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟒 𝐁𝐭𝐮/ 𝒇𝒕𝟐 𝐡𝐫, and 𝑸̇ = 𝟗𝟖𝟔𝟑 𝐜𝐚𝐥 /𝐦𝟐 𝐡𝐫 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟔𝟑 𝐤𝐜𝐚𝐥/ 𝐦𝟐 𝐡𝐫
3) The wall of an oven consists of three layers of brick. The inside is built from 8 in. of
firebrick, k = 0.68 Btu/(hr∙ft2 ∙°F/ft), surrounded by 4 in. of insulating brick, k = 0.15
Btu/(hr∙ft2 ∙°F/ft), and an outside layer of 6 in. of building brick, k = 0.40 Btu/(hr∙ft2 ∙°F/ft).
The oven operates at 1600 °F. It is anticipated that the outer side of the wall can be
maintained at 125 °F by the circulation of air. How much heat will be lost per square foot
of surface area and what are the temperatures at the interfaces of the layers?
𝑸 = 𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝐁𝐭𝐮/ 𝐡𝐫, and 𝑻𝟏 = 1275°F, 𝑻𝟐 = 537°F.
4) A 3-in. outside diameter steel pipe is covered with a 0.5-in. layer of asbestos (a), which in
turn is covered with a 2-in. layer of glass wool (b). Determine the steady-state heat transfer
per foot of pipe, L, if the pipe outer surface temperature is 500 °F and the glass wool outer
temperature is 100 °F and calculate the outer asbestos temperature, 𝑇𝑖 (i.e., the interfacial
temperature between the asbestos and glass wool). Assume an asbestos-glass wool
interfacial temperature of 300 °F, an average asbestos (a) temperature of 200 °F, and glass
wool (b) temperature of 400 °F. Based on a literature review, asbestos and glass wool
thermal conductivity values have been estimated to be: 𝑘𝑎 = 0.120 Btu /hr ft °F (200°F)
and 𝑘𝑏 = 0.0317 Btu /hr ft °F (400°F).
𝑸̇ = 𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟓 𝐁𝐭𝐮/ 𝐡𝐫 𝐟𝐭, and 𝑻𝒊 =139.5°F
Chapter 3: One dimensional, Steady State Conduction

In a Cartesian System the 1-D, SS problem without heat sources (generation) and for constant
thermal conductivity may be written by simplifying the General Heat Conduction Equation:
⋯
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞
⋅ = 2 + 2 + 2 +
𝑎 𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑘

Or, SS 1-D 1-D NG

𝜕2𝑇
=0
𝜕𝑥 2
for cylindrical coordinate system

1𝑑 𝑑𝑇
(𝑘𝑟 ) = 0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
In a Cartesian System the 1-D, SS problem with heat sources (generation) and for constant thermal
conductivity the General Heat Conduction Equation:
⋯
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞
⋅ = + + +
𝑎 𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘
SS 1-D 1-D
Or,
⋯
𝜕2𝑇 𝑞
+𝑘 =0
𝜕𝑥 2

Integration of without heat sources (generation) equation gives us

𝑑𝑇 𝐶
= = 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥 𝑘

𝑇(𝑥) = 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2

Similarly for cylindrical coordinate system Integration of without heat sources (generation)
equation gives us

𝑇(𝑟) = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛( 𝑟) + 𝐶2

The constants C1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions.

Thermal resistance (electrical analogy):
Physical systems are said to be analogous if that obey the same mathematical equation. The above
relations can be put into the form of Ohm’s law:

. 𝑑𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝑅
𝑘𝐴
. 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝐿
⇒𝑄= ,𝑅 =
𝑅 𝑘𝐴
Where R is called thermal resistance.
Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding transfer rate, the
conduction thermal resistance can be written as,
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝐿
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = . =
𝑄 𝑘𝐴
For electrical conduction in the same system, Ohm’s law provides an electrical resistance of the
form
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 = =
𝐼 𝜎𝐴

We can also write a thermal resistance for convection heat transfer from Newton’s Law of cooling
. . (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = =
1 𝑅
ℎ𝐴
And the convection thermal resistance is
𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ 1
𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = . =
𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 ℎ𝐴

The thermal resistance concept is more appropriate for heat transfer problems with composite
materials in series or parallel as shown in Fig. 2.5.

The heat transfer rate for this system may be expressed as

. 𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4 𝛥𝑇
𝑄= =
𝛴𝑅 𝛴𝑅
 . 𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4
𝑄=
1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 1
+ 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 +
ℎ1 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴 ℎ4 𝐴
Alternatively,

. 𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇2 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑠,4 𝑇𝑠,4 − 𝑇∞,4

𝑄= = = = =
1 𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝐶 1
ℎ1 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴 ℎ4 𝐴
In terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient,
.
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴𝛥𝑇
Where ΔT is the overall temperature difference.
𝛥𝑇
𝑄=
= 𝑈𝐴𝛥𝑇
𝛴𝑅
1
= 𝑈𝐴
𝛴𝑅
1 1
𝑈= =
𝐴𝛴𝑅 1 𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝐶 1
+ + + +
ℎ1 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶 ℎ4
In general, we may write
1 𝛥𝑇
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝛴𝑅 = = .
𝐴𝑈 𝑄
Assuming heat transfer only in the radial direction, equation (2.18) can be used to obtain an
expression for the thermal resistance.
. 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 𝛥𝑇
𝑄= 𝑟 =
𝑙𝑛 (𝑟2 ) 𝑅
1
2𝑘𝜋𝐿
conduction thermal resistance in cylindrical coordinate system is given by
𝑟
𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
𝑟1
𝑅=
2𝑘𝜋𝐿
For the hollow cylinder shown in Fig. 2.6, the total thermal resistance can be written as
𝑟
1 𝑙𝑛 (𝑟2 ) 1
1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = + +
ℎ1 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿 2𝑘𝜋𝐿 ℎ2 2𝜋𝑟2 𝐿
= 𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣,𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑 + 𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣,𝑜𝑢𝑡

Critical Thickness of Insulation

When a plane surface is covered with insulation, the rate of heat transfer always decreases.
However, the addition of insulation to a cylindrical or spherical surface increases the conduction
resistance but reduces the convection resistance because of the increased surface area. The critical
thickness of insulation corresponds to the condition when the sum of conduction and convection
resistances is a minimum. The rate of heat transfer from the insulated pipe to the surrounding air
can be expressed as (Fig. 2.8)
. 𝑇1 − 𝑇∞
𝑄= 𝑟2
𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟1 1
+
2𝑘𝜋𝐿 2𝜋ℎ𝑟2 𝐿

The variation of with the outer radius of the insulation r2 is plotted in Fig. 2.9. The value of r2 at
which reaches a maximum is determined from the requirement that. Solving this for r2 yields the
critical radius of insulation for a cylinder to be and similarly the critical radius of insulation for a
sphere is given by
𝑘 2𝑘
𝑟𝑐𝑟 = ℎ , 𝑟𝑐𝑟 = ℎ

From Fig. 2.8 it can be seen that insulating the pipe may actually increase the rate of heat transfer
from the pipe instead of decreasing it when r2<rcr .
USE OF HEAT SINKS FOR ELECTRICAL COOLING
The term “heat sink” can be used in the general sense of a cool object that absorbs or dissipates
heat without a significant rise in temperature. In the case of cooling of electronic equipment, a
“heat sink” is usually taken to mean a metal plate onto which electronic components are mounted
and which is “finned” to increase the surface area. Commercial heat sinks are rated in terms of
their thermal resistance [oC/W]. This resistance includes BOTH the conduction resistance through
the metal (usually aluminum) and the convection resistance from the metal surfaces to the air.
There are as many different types of heat sink available as there are situations where electronics
require cooling.

Figure 4. Example of transistor cooling.

HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT USING FINS

We use a fin on a solid object to increase convective heat transfer by increasing surface area. The
fin must be made of a good thermal conductor. Examples of this type of heat transfer enhancement
include:
• Heat sinks on electrical equipment
 • Satellite cooling panels
• Radiator panels and oil coolers on power transformers
• Fins on the outside of motors
We are seeking to decrease the total resistance to heat flow when surface convection/radiation
presents the dominant resistance i.e. by INCREASING THE SURFACE AREA.

Figure 5. Increasing the surface area by adding fins in low heat transfer coefficient situation.

➢ Some innovative fin designs are shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Some innovative fin designs.

To determine the heat transfer rate associated with a fin, we must first obtain the temperature
distribution along the fin. The following assumptions in determining the temperature distribution:
• one-dimensional conduction in the x direction,
• Steady-state conditions,
• Constant thermal conductivity,
• Negligible radiation from the surface,
 • heat generation effects are absent, and
• Convection heat transfer coefficient h is uniform over the surface.

Fig. 2.12 Fin element used for analysis

Applying the conservation of energy requirement to the differential element of Fig.2.12, we obtain
. . .
𝑄𝑥 = 𝑄𝑥+𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
Then it becomes,
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑(−𝑘𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑥 )
−𝑘𝐴𝑐 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 + 𝑑𝑥 + ℎ(𝑑𝐴𝑠 )(𝑇 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
or
𝑑 𝑑𝑇 ℎ 𝑑𝐴𝑠
(𝐴𝑐 ) − ( )(𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
For fins with constant cross-section Ac, the element surface area dAs = Pdx (where P is fin
perimeter) and equation (2.44) becomes,
𝑑2 𝑇 ℎ𝑃
− (𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘𝐴𝑐
Let (x)=(T(x)-T∞) then since T∞ is constant. Equation (2.45) becomes,
𝑑 2 𝜃 ℎ𝑃
− 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘𝐴𝑐
𝑑2 𝜃
− 𝑚2 𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
Where

ℎ𝑃
𝑚=√
𝑘𝐴𝑐

The general solution of differential equation is

𝜃(𝑥) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 (2.47)
The constants C1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions.
A. Boundary condition at fin base is specified temperature condition. This temperature is
usually assumed to be known.
𝜃(𝑥 = 0) = 𝜃𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞
𝜃𝑏 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 (2.49)
B. The boundary condition at fin tip has three options
I. Infinitely long fin (L→∞, Ttip=T∞)
(x=L) = Ttip-T∞=0=C1emL+C2e-mL
But as L→∞, e-mL=0 and C1=0 and C2=b (from equation (2.49))
So, for an infinitely long fin equation (2.47) becomes
ℎ𝑃
−√ 𝑥
𝜃(𝑥) = 𝜃𝑏 𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 = 𝜃𝑏 𝑒 𝑘𝐴𝑐

Or
𝜃(𝑥) ℎ𝑃
−√ 𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑘𝐴𝑐
𝜃𝑏
The heat removed by the fin at base is
. 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝜃
𝑄𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 | = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 |
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0

. ℎ𝑃
𝑄𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑘𝐴𝑐 𝜃𝑏 𝑚 = 𝑘𝐴𝑐 𝜃𝑏 √
𝑘𝐴𝑐
.
𝑄𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝜃𝑏 √ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴𝑐
II. Negligible heat loss from fin tip
𝒅𝜽
( | = 𝟎)
𝒅𝒙 𝒙=𝑳
𝑑𝜃
| = 𝑚(𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝐿 − 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝐿 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
The heat loss from fin base is
.
𝑄𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝜃𝑏 √ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ( 𝑚𝐿)
III. Convection from fin tip

. 𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = ℎ𝐴𝑐 (𝑇|𝑥=𝐿 − 𝑇∞ ) = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 |
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
𝑑𝜃
ℎ𝐴𝑐 𝜃|𝑥=𝐿 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 |
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
The corresponding heat loss from fin base will be,
. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ( 𝑚𝐿) + (ℎ/𝑚𝐾) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ( 𝑚𝐿)
𝑄𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝜃𝑏 √ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ( 𝑚𝐿) + (ℎ/𝑚𝑘) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ( 𝑚𝐿)
Fin Effectiveness
The performance of fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement in the heat transfer relative to
the no-fin case. The performance of fins expressed in terms of the fin effectiveness efin is defined
as (Fig. 2.13)

Heat transfer rate from . .

the fin of base area Ab Qfin Qfin
εfin = = . =
Heat transfer rate from Q hAb (Tb − T∞ )
nofin
the surface of area Ab

Fig. 2.13 Fin Effectiveness

In any rational design the value of efin should be as large as possible, and in general, the use of fins

may rarely be justified unless efin 2.

Fin Efficiency
Another measure of fin thermal performance is provided by the fin efficiency, fin. The maximum
driving potential for convection is the temperature difference between the base (x = 0) and the
fluid, b=Tb-T∞. Hence the maximum rate at which a fin could dissipate energy is the rate that
would exist if the entire fin surface were at the base temperature. However, since any fin is
characterized by a finite conduction resistance, a temperature gradient must exist along the fin and
the above condition is an idealization. A logical definition of fin efficiency is therefore,
.
𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛
𝜂𝑓𝑖𝑛 = .
. 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℎ𝐴𝑓𝑖𝑛 (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞ )
Where Afin is the surface area of the fin.
Proper Length of Fin

The temperature of a fin drops along the fin exponentially and reaches the environment
temperature at some length. The part of the fin beyond this length does not contribute to the heat
transfer. Designing such an extra-long fin results in material waste, excessive weight and increased
size and cost.
To get the sense of the proper length of a fin, we compare the heat transfer from a fin of finite
length to the heat transfer from an infinitely long fin with the same conditions.
.
𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 √ℎ𝑝𝑘𝐴𝑐 (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞ ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ( 𝑚𝐿)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = . = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ( 𝑚𝐿)
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑓𝑖𝑛 √ℎ𝑝𝑘𝐴𝑐 (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞ )
This ratio becomes unity for mL2.5 as can be seen from Fig. 2.15. Therefore, gives proper length
of a fin and the designer should make proper compromise between heat transfer performance and
fin size.
Conduction with thermal energy generation

Fig. 2.16 Conduction in plane wall with uniform energy generation

Consider a one-dimensional heat flow through plane wall. For constant thermal conductivity k,
equation is reduced to,
.
𝑑2𝑇 𝑞
+ =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘
The general solution is
.
𝑞
𝑇(𝑥) = − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
2𝑘
Where C1 and C2 are the constants of integration obtained from boundary conditions. The
temperature distribution becomes,
.
𝑞 𝐿2 𝑥2 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑥 𝑇𝑠,2 + 𝑇𝑠,1
𝑇(𝑥) = (1 − 2 ) + +
2𝑘 𝐿 2 𝐿 2

QUESTIONS
1) A long hollow cylinder has its inner and outer surfaces maintained at temperatures Tb and
Ta, respectively. The inner and outer radii are b and a, respectively. Calculate the
temperature profile in the solid section of the cylinder and determine the flux at both
surfaces. Comment on the results. Assume steady-state conditions.
𝑻𝒂 − 𝑻𝒃 𝒓
𝑻 = 𝑻𝒃 + [ ] 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝒍𝒏(𝒂/𝒃) 𝒃

𝑻𝒂 −𝑻𝒃 𝟏 𝑻𝒂 −𝑻𝒃 𝟏
𝑸̇|𝒓=𝒂 = −𝒌 [𝒍𝒏(𝒂/𝒃) ] 𝒍𝒏 (𝒂), and 𝑸̇|𝒓=𝒃 = −𝒌 [𝒍𝒏(𝒂/𝒃) ] 𝒍𝒏 (𝒃)
Although the fluxes are not equal, one can easily show that the rate of energy transfer, Q, at both
surfaces are equal.

2) The steady-state temperature distribution in a one–dimensional wall of thermal

conductivity 50W/m.K and thickness 50 mm is observed to be T(℃)= a+bx2 , where a=200
℃, B=-2000 ℃/ m2 , and x in meters. (a) What is the heat generation rate in the wall? (b)
Determine the heat fluxes at the two wall faces. (c) In what manner are these heat fluxes
related to the heat generation rate?

𝐪(𝐋)−𝐪(𝟎) 𝟏𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐖/ 𝐦𝟐 −𝟎
(a) 𝐪̇ 𝐱 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐖 / 𝐦𝟑 ,(b) 𝐪(𝐋) = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐖/ 𝐦𝟐 and (c) 𝐪̇ 𝐱 = = =
𝐋 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝐦

𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐖 / 𝐦𝟑

3) The wall of a building is a composite consisting of a 100-mm layer of common brick, a

100-mm layer of glass fiber (paper faced. 28kg/m2), a 10-mm layer of gypsum plaster
(vermiculite), and a 6-mm layer of pine panel. If the inside convection coefficient is
10W/m2.K and the outside convection coefficient is 70W/m2 .K, what are the total
resistance and the overall coefficient
for heat transfer?

𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟑 𝐦𝟐 . 𝐊/𝐖 and 𝑼=

𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟏 𝐖/𝐦𝟐 . 𝐊

4) The composite wall of an oven consists of three materials, two of which are known thermal
conductivity, kA=20 W/m.K and kC=50 W/m.K, and known thickness, LA= 0.30m and LC=
0.15 m. The third material, B, which is sandwiched between materials A and C, is of known
thickness, LB= 0.15 m, but unknown thermal conductivity kB. Under steady-state operating
conditions, measurements reveal an outer surface temperature of Ts,0= 20 ℃, an inner
surface temperature of Ts,i= 600 ℃ and an oven air temperature of
T =800 ℃. The inside convection coefficient h is known to be 25 W/m2.K. What is the
value of kB?
kB = 1.53 W/m.K
 5) A long, circular aluminium rod attached at one end to the heated wall and transfers heat
through convection to a cold fluid. (a) If the diameter of the rod is triples, by how much
would the rate of heat removal change? (b) If a copper rod of the same diameter is used in
place of aluminium, by how much would the rate of heat removal change?
a) 520 % increase in heat transfer and b) 29 % increase in the heat transfer rate
Comments: (1) because fin effectiveness is enhanced by maximum P/Ac = 4/D. the use of
a larger number of small diameter fins is preferred to a single large diameter fin. (2) From
the standpoint of cost and weight, aluminum is preferred over copper.
6) Determine the percentage increase in heat transfer associated with attaching aluminium
fins of rectangular profile to a plane wall. The fins are 50 mm long, 0.5 mm thick, and are
equally spaced at a distance of 4mm (250 fins/m). The convection coefficient affected
associated with the bare wall is 40 W/m2.K, while that resulting from attachment of the
fins is 30 W/m2.K.
Percentage increases in heat transfer is 1416%

Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Most of the practical problems encountered in engineering involve:

• Complicated geometries,
• Complex boundary conditions, and
• Variable properties.
Since such problems cannot be solved analytically, the need for numerical solution methods,
especially in cases of multidimensional problems, is inevitable. Here the two-dimensional, steady
state heat conduction will be treated. Again the two major objectives in conduction analysis is
determining the temperature field, T(x,y) and then the heat transfer. For two-dimensional steady-
state conduction with no generation and constant k, the PDE to be solved is
𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇
0= +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Methods of solving include
analytical, graphical, and numerical (finite difference, finite-element, or boundary element)
approaches.
The analytical gets the exact solution of the PDE for only a restricted set of simple geometries and
boundary conditions. Often the solutions are in series form. The method of separation of variables
will be used for this solution. Graphical and numerical solutions give approximate results at
discrete points. Graphical solution is restricted to two-dimensional problems involving adiabatic
and isothermal boundaries.
NUMERICAL METHODS
Finite difference equations
Large number of two-dimensional problems involve geometries and/or boundary conditions which
makes analytical solutions impossible. The best alternative, in such cases is to use numerical
technique such as finite difference, finite element or boundary element method. A numerical
solution enables determination of the temperature at only discrete points. Due to its ease of
application, finite difference method will be treated. Because of its ease of application, the finite-
difference method is well suited for treatment of numerical techniques.
The first step in any numerical analysis must, therefore, be to select these points. This is done by
subdividing the medium of interest into a number of small regions and assigning to each a reference
point that is at its center. The reference point is frequently termed as nodal point (or simply a nod),
and the aggregate of points is termed a nodal network, grid, or mesh. The nodal points are
designated by a numbering scheme that, for a two-dimensional system, may take the form shown
in Fig.2.21. The x and y locations are designated by the m and n indices, respectively. The
temperature of node (m, n) is assumed to be the average of the surrounding shaded area. The
accuracy of a numerical analysis is increased by increasing the number of nodes (fine nodes). But
the increased number of nodes requires more computing time and capacity.

Fig. 2.21 Nodal network of two-dimensional conduction

The finite-difference equation for a node can be obtained by applying conservation of energy to a
control volume about the nodal region. Since the actual direction of heat flow (into or out of the
node) is often unknown, it is convenient to formulate the energy balance by assuming that all the
heat flow is into the node. For steady-state conditions with no generation,
.
∑ 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 0

There are different finite difference equations for interior and boundary nodes.
1. For interior node (m, n) of Fig. 2.22, the finite difference equation can be obtained, assuming
unit depth, as
. . . .
𝑄(𝑚,𝑛+1)→(𝑚,𝑛) + 𝑄(𝑚,𝑛−1)→(𝑚,𝑛) + 𝑄(𝑚+1,𝑛)→(𝑚,𝑛) + 𝑄(𝑚−1,𝑛)→(𝑚,𝑛) = 0
𝑇(𝑚,𝑛+1) − 𝑇(𝑚,𝑛) 𝑇(𝑚,𝑛−1) − 𝑇(𝑚,𝑛) 𝑇(𝑚+1,𝑛) − 𝑇(𝑚,𝑛)
𝑘𝛥𝑥. 1 ( ) + 𝑘𝛥𝑥. 1 ( ) + 𝑘𝛥𝑦. 1 ( )
𝛥𝑦 𝛥𝑦 𝛥𝑥
𝑇(𝑚−1,𝑛) − 𝑇(𝑚,𝑛)
+ 𝑘𝛥𝑦. 1 ( )=0
𝛥𝑥
for x=y, the above equation simplifies to
𝑇(𝑚,𝑛+1) + 𝑇(𝑚,𝑛−1) + 𝑇(𝑚+1,𝑛) + 𝑇(𝑚−1,𝑛) − 4𝑇(𝑚,𝑛) = 0
 Fig. 2.22 Different finite difference equations for interior and boundary nodes
Solution of the finite difference equations
The equations obtained for each type of node reduce the heat transfer problem to solving of system
of linear equations, which can be written in matrix notation as,
[𝐴]{𝑇} = {𝐶}
Where [A] is coefficient matrix, {T} is vector of nodal temperatures and {C} is vector of constants
obtained from boundary conditions.
𝑎11 𝑎12 . . . . 𝑎1𝑛 𝑇1 𝐶1
𝑎21 𝑎22 . . . . 𝑎2𝑛 𝑇2 𝐶2
... . .
[𝐴] = {𝑇} = {𝐶} =
... . .
... . .
[𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 . . . . 𝑎𝑛𝑛 ] {𝑇𝑛 } {𝐶𝑛 }
The Equation can be solved using either the matrix inversion or the iterative methods. In the matrix
inversion method, the nodal temperatures will be obtained from
{𝑇} = [𝐴]−1 {𝐶}
Gauss-Seidel Iteration method is one of the methods for solving linear system of equations, the
steps are
a) Solve each equation for one of the variables (one with larger coefficient) in terms of other
variables,
b) Make initial guess for each unknown,
c) Using equations from step 1, find new values for each unknown,
d) Repeat step 3 until a desired convergence criterion is satisfied.
Graphical Method: Conduction Shape Factor
This approach applied to 2-D conduction involving two isothermal surfaces, with all other
surfaces being adiabatic. The heat transfer from one surface (at a temperature 𝑇1 ) to the other
surface (at 𝑇2 ) can be expressed as: 𝑞 = 𝑆𝑘(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) where k is the thermal conductivity of
the solid and 𝑆 is the conduction shape factor. The shape factor can be related to the thermal
resistance:
𝑞 = 𝑆𝑘(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )/(1/𝑆𝑘) = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )/𝑅𝑡

where 𝑅𝑡 = 1/(𝑘𝑆) is the thermal resistance in 2D. Note that 1-D heat transfer can also use
the concept of shape factor. For example, heat transfer inside a plane wall of thickness L is
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴(∆𝑇/𝐿), where the shape factor 𝑆 = 𝐴/𝐿 .Common shape factors for selected
configurations can be found in Table 4.1.
 QUESTIONS
1) A two-dimensional rectangular plate is subjected to the uniform temperature boundary
conditions shown. Using the results of the analytical solution for the heat equation,
calculate the temperature at the midpoint (1, 0.5) by considering the first five nonzero terms
of the infinite series that must be evaluated. Assess the error from using only the first three
terms of the infinite series.

θ(1, 0.5) = 2/ π [0.755 +0.063 +0.008 +0.001 +0.000]

and
θ(1, 0.5) =0.446 that is, there is less than a 0.2% effect.

2) A long power transmission cable is buried at a depth (ground to cable centerline distance)
of 2m. The cable is encased in a thin walled pipe of 0.1 m diameter, and to render the cable
superconducting (essentially zero power dissipation), the space between the cable and pipe
is filled with liquid nitrogen at 77 K. If the pipe is covered a super
insulator(ki=0.005W/m.K) of 0.05 m thickness and the surface of the earth (kg=1.2 W/m.K)
is at 300K, what is the cooling load in W/m which must be maintained by a cryogenic
refrigerator per unit pipe length.

𝒒̇ = 𝟗. 𝟗 𝐖/𝐦,

Comments: the heat gain is small and the dominant

contribution to the thermal resistance is made by
the insulation.
3) Two parallel pipelines spaced 0.5 m apart are buried in soil having a thermal conductivity
of 0.5W/m.K. the pipes have outer-diameters of 100 and 75 mm with surface temperatures
of 175℃ and 5℃, respectively. Estimate the heat transfer rate per unit length between the
two pipe lines.
 The shape factor S for this configuration is
given as

𝒒̇ = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝐖/𝐦

4) A furnace of cubical shape, with external dimensions of 0.35m, is constructed from a

refractory brick (fireclay). If the wall thickness is 50mm, the inner surface temperature is
600°C, and the outer surface temperature is 75°C, calculate the heat loss from the furnace.
Properties, fireclay brick (T = (T1 +T2) / 2 = 610 K): k ≈ 1.1 W/m.K

The heat rate in terms of the shape factor is

𝒒̇ = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟎 𝐖/𝐦

5) Consider nodal configuration below. Derive the finite-difference equation under steady-
state conditions for the following situations. (a) The upper boundary of the external corner
is perfectly insulated and the side boundary is subjected to the convection process (T∞, h)
(b) Both boundaries of external corner are perfectly insulated.

Tm, n-1 +Tm−1, n − 2Tm, n = 0

 Chapter 5: TRANSIENT CONDUCTION
Practical problems in heat transfer, in general, involve the variation of temperature with position
(x,y,z) and Time (t). Analysis of transient heat conduction is more complicated than that of steady
state conduction and making simplifying assumptions is more appropriate. Lumped capacitance
method and one-dimensional assumptions.
Lumped Capacitance System
The temperature variations within some bodies remain essentially uniform at a given time during
a heat transfer process (Fig. 2.18). Such bodies are said to act like a ‘lump’. Consider a hot metal
forging that is initially at a uniform temperature Ti and is quenched by immersing it in a liquid of
lower temperature T∞<Ti (Fig.2.18). The essence of the lumped capacitance method is the
assumption that the temperature of the solid is spatially uniform at any instant during the transient
process (T=f(t)).

Fig. 2.18. Cooling of a hot metal forging

The variation of temperature of the hot metal with time can be obtained by applying energy balance
within a time interval of dt.
Heat transfer from the body during dt =
decrease in the energy content of the body in dt

. . 𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝐸𝑂𝑢𝑡 =ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ) = −𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑡

Rearranging the equation and noting that dT=d(T-T∞), since T∞ is constant, we obtain
𝑑𝑇 −ℎ𝐴
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 − 𝑇∞ 𝑚𝐶𝑝
Integration of the equation gives us
−ℎ𝐴
𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇∞ 𝑚𝐶𝑝
𝑡
=𝑒
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞
The temperature of the metal gradually decreases and eventually equals the ambient air
temperature. The maximum amount of heat transfer is,
.
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇∞ − 𝑇i ) = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇i − 𝑇∞ )
Validity of lumped capacitance method
The lumped capacitance analysis gives us a simple and convenient way of analyzing transient heat
transfer problems. But this method is ideal since it assumes uniform temperature distribution
within a body at an instant and it is better to know when to use it. Before establishing a criterion
for the validity of the method, it is worthy to define the terms known as characteristic length, Lc,
and Biot number, Bi.
𝑉 ℎ𝐿𝑐
𝐿𝑐 = , 𝐵𝑖 =
𝐴 𝑘
The Biot number can also be expressed as

ℎ∆𝑇 Convection Heat Transfer at theSurface of the Body

𝐵𝑖 = 𝑘 = or
∆𝑇 Conduction Heat Transfer within the Body
𝐿𝑐

𝐿𝑐 /𝑘 Conduction resistance within the body

𝐵𝑖 = =
1/ℎ Convection resistance at the Surface of the Body
The lumped capacitance analysis assumes uniform temperature distribution within the body. This
is true when the conduction resistance within the body is zero, which is in turn true only when the
Biot number is zero. Therefore, the lumped capacitance analysis is exact only when B i=0 and
approximate when Bi>0. From experience the lumped capacitance method is, in general,
acceptable if Bi≤0.1.
Transient heat conduction in large plane walls, long cylinders and spheres
A more realistic assumption than lumped capacitance method is the case where temperature varies
with time and position in one dimension, T(x, t) or T(r, t), which is applicable for large plane walls,
long cylinders and spheres (Fig. 2.19).If heat transfer takes place between the environment (h and
Ti>T∞) and the large plane wall (initially at Ti ) of Fig. 2.19(a) by convection, the temperature at
the surface of the wall drops.
 (a) Large plane wall (b) Long cylinder (c) Sphere
Fig. 2.19 Bodies where one-dimensional temperature variation can be assumed

For the large plane wall the diffusion equation becomes,

∂ ∂𝑇 ∂𝑇
(𝑘 ) = 𝜌𝑐𝑝
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑡
∂2 𝑇 1 ∂𝑇
=
∂𝑥 2 𝛼 ∂𝑡
The solution results in infinite series which are inconvenient and time consuming to evaluate.
Therefore, the solutions are presented in tabular or graphical form. Before presenting the solutions
graphically, some parameters need to be nondimensionalized to reduce number of parameters

𝑇(𝑥, 𝑡) − 𝑇∞
𝜃(𝑥, 𝑡) = Dimensionless temperature
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞
𝑥
𝑋= Dimensionless distance from center
𝐿
ℎ𝐿
𝐵𝑖 = Biot number (Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient)
𝑘
𝛼𝑡
𝜏= 2 Fourier number (Dimensionless time)
𝐿
For Fourier number, the infinite series solutions can be approximated by taking only the first terms
of the series. These solutions are given below,
𝑇(𝑥, 𝑡) − 𝑇∞ 2 𝜆1 𝑥
𝜃(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) , 𝜏 > 0.2
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝐿
𝑇(𝑟, 𝑡) − 𝑇∞ 2 𝜆1 𝑟
𝜃(𝑟, 𝑡)𝑐𝑦𝑙 = = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝜏 𝐽𝑜 ( ) , 𝜏 > 0.2
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝑟𝑜
𝜆 𝑟
𝑇(𝑟, 𝑡) − 𝑇∞ 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑟1 )
𝑜
𝜃(𝑟, 𝑡)𝑠𝑝ℎ = = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝜏 , 𝜏 > 0.2
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜆1 𝑟
𝑟𝑜
The constants A1 and 1 are obtained from table. The function J0 is the zeroth-order Bessel function
of the first kind whose value can be determined from Table. The temperature of the body changes
from Ti to T∞ at the end of the transient heat conduction. The maximum amount of heat transfer
during this process can be obtained by
.
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇∞ − 𝑇i ) = 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝 (𝑇∞ − 𝑇i )
The fraction of heat transfer within time t is obtained by the following equations for the large wall,
long cylinder and sphere.
𝑄 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜆1 )
( ()𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 1 −𝜆1 𝜏
)
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜆1

𝑄 2 𝐽1 (𝜆1 )
( ()𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 1 −𝜆1 𝜏 )
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜆1

𝑄 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜆1 ) − 𝜆1 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜆1 )
( ()𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 1 −𝜆1 𝜏 )
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜆13
 Chapter 6 and 7: Convection Heat Transfer

Convection heat transfer takes place between a surface and a moving fluid, when they are at
different temperatures. In a strict sense, convection is not a basic mode of heat transfer as the heat
transfer from the surface to the fluid consists of two mechanisms operating simultaneously. The
first one is energy transfer due to molecular motion (conduction) through a fluid layer adjacent to
the surface, which remains stationary with respect to the solid surface due to no-slip condition.
Superimposed upon this conductive mode is energy transfer by the macroscopic motion of fluid
particles by virtue of an external force, which could be generated by a pump or fan (forced
convection) or generated due to buoyancy, caused by density gradients (free convection).
When fluid flows over a surface, its velocity and temperature adjacent to the surface are same as
that of the surface due to the no-slip condition. The velocity and temperature far away from the
surface may remain unaffected. The region in which the velocity and temperature vary from that
of the surface to that of the free stream are called as hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers,
respectively.
Figure 7.2 show that fluid with free stream velocity 𝑈∞ flows over a flat plate. In the vicinity of
the surface as shown in Figure 7.2, the velocity tends to vary from zero (when the surface is
stationary) to its free stream value 𝑈∞ . This happens in a narrow region whose thickness is of the
order of (𝑅𝑒𝐿 )−0.5 (𝑅𝑒𝐿 = 𝑈∞ 𝐿/𝑣) where there is a sharp velocity gradient. This narrow region
is called hydrodynamic boundary layer. In the hydrodynamic boundary layer region, the inertial
terms are of same order magnitude as the viscous terms. Similarly, to the velocity gradient, there
is a sharp temperature gradient in this vicinity of the surface if the temperature of the surface of
the plate is different from that of the flow stream. This region is called thermal boundary layer, 𝛿𝑡
whose thickness is of the order of (𝑅𝑒𝐿 𝑃𝑟 )−0.5, where Pr is the Prandtl number, given by:
𝐶𝑝,𝑓 𝜇𝑓 𝑣𝑓
𝑃𝑟 = =
𝑘𝑓 𝛼𝑓

In the expression for Prandtl number, all the properties refer to the flowing fluid.
In the thermal boundary layer region, the conduction terms are of same order of magnitude as the
convection terms.
 Fig. 7.2. Velocity distribution of flow over a flat plate

The momentum transfer is related to kinematic viscosity ν while the diffusion of heat is related to
thermal diffusivity α hence the ratio of thermal boundary layer to viscous boundary layer is related
to the ratio ν/α, Prandtl number. From the expressions for boundary layer thickness, it can be seen
that the ratio of thermal boundary layer thickness to the viscous boundary layer thickness depends
upon Prandtl number. For large Prandtl numbers 𝛿𝑡 < 𝛿 and for small Prandtl numbers, 𝛿𝑡 > 𝛿. It
can also be seen that as the Reynolds number increases, the boundary layers become narrow, the
temperature gradient becomes large and the heat transfer rate increases.
Since the heat transfer from the surface is by molecular conduction, it depends upon the
temperature gradient in the fluid in the immediate vicinity of the surface, i.e.
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐴 𝑘𝑓 |
𝑑𝑦 𝑦=0

Since temperature difference has been recognized as the potential for heat transfer it is convenient
to express convective heat transfer rate as proportional to it, i.e.
𝜕𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐴 𝑘𝑓 | = 𝐴ℎ𝑐 (𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ )
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

The above equation defines the convective heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑐 .This equation is also
referred to as Newton’s law of cooling [𝑄 = 𝐴ℎ𝑐 (𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ )]From the above equation it can be
seen that the convective heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑐 is given by:
−𝑘𝑓 𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑦|𝑦=0
ℎ𝑐 =
𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞
The above equation suggests that the convective heat transfer coefficient (hence heat transfer by
convection) depends on the temperature gradient 𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑦|𝑦=0 near the surface in addition to the
thermal conductivity of the fluid and the temperature difference. The temperature gradient near
the wall depends on the rate at which the fluid near the wall can transport energy into the
mainstream. Thus, the temperature gradient depends on the flow field, with higher velocities able
to pressure sharper temperature gradients and hence higher heat transfer rates. Thus, determination
of convection heat transfer requires the application of laws of fluid mechanics in addition to the
laws of heat transfer.

Table 7.2 Typical order-of magnitude values of convective heat transfer coefficients
Type of fluid and flow Convective heat transfer coefficient 𝒉𝒄 , (W/m2 K)
Air free convection 6 – 30
Water free convection 20 – 100
Air or superheated steam, forced convection 30 – 300
Oil, forced convection 60 – 1800
Water, forced convection 300 – 18000
Synthetic refrigerants, boiling 500 - 3000
Water, boiling 3000 – 60000
Synthetic refrigerants, condensing 1500 - 5000
Steam, condensing 6000 – 120000

Traditionally, from the manner in which the convection heat transfer rate is defined, evaluating the
convective heat transfer coefficient has become the main objective of the problem. The convective
heat transfer coefficient can vary widely depending upon the type of fluid and flow field and
temperature difference. Table 7.2 shows typical order-of-magnitude values of convective heat
transfer coefficients for different conditions.
Convective heat transfer resistance: Similar to conduction and radiation, convective heat transfer
rate can be written in terms of a potential and resistance, i.e.,
𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞
𝑄 = 𝐴ℎ𝑐 (𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ ) =
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
1
where the convective heat transfer resistance, 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝐴ℎ
𝑐

Important Definitions
Boundary layer: A region of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where strong
gradients of velocity (and, potentially, other variables such as temperature) occur. Outside the
boundary layer, the fluid has little to no awareness of the bounding surface. Note that the vertical
shear caused by the surface generates turbulence, which then promotes mixing. Outside the
boundary layer, fluid often mixes only very slowly because turbulence is relatively uncommon.
Outer layer: The region outside of the inertial sublayer.
Inertial sublayer: The region of the boundary with the strongest gradients in velocity (and,
therefore, temperature, moisture, etc.). Typically, the surface layer is ∼10% of the thickness of the
boundary layer.
Viscous sublayer: The region of the boundary where viscous diffusion dominates turbulent
diffusion.
No-slip condition: The requirement that the relative velocity between a fluid and solid is zero at
the fluid /solid interface.
Determination of convective heat transfer coefficient:
Evaluation of convective heat transfer coefficient is difficult as the physical phenomenon is quite
complex. Analytically, it can be determined by solving the mass, momentum and energy equations.
However, analytical solutions are available only for very simple situations, hence most of the
convection heat transfer data is obtained through careful experiments, and the equations suggested
for convective heat transfer coefficients are mostly empirical. Since the equations are of empirical
nature, each equation is applicable to specific cases. Generalization has been made possible to
some extent by using several non-dimensional numbers such as Reynolds number, Prandtl number,
Nusselt number, Grashoff number, Rayleigh number etc.
Physical Interpretation of Convective Correlation
The Reynolds number is a familiar term to all of us, but we may benefit by considering what the
ratio tells us. Recall that the thickness of the dynamic boundary layer, δ, is proportional to the
distance along the plate, x.
𝑈∞ 𝐿𝜌 𝑈∞ 𝛿𝜌 𝑈∞ 2 𝜌
𝑅𝑒𝐿 ≡ ∝ ∝
μ μ μ𝑈∞
𝛿
The numerator is a mass flow per unit area times a velocity; i.e., a momentum flow per unit area.
The denominator is a viscous stress, i.e., a viscous force per unit area. The ratio represents the ratio
of momentum to viscous forces. If viscous forces dominate, the flow will be laminar; if momentum
dominates, the flow will be turbulent.
Physical Meaning of Prandtl Number
The Prandtl number was introduced earlier.
If we multiply and divide the equation by the fluid density, ρ, we obtain:
𝐶𝑝,𝑓 𝜇𝑓 𝑣𝑓
𝑃𝑟 ≡ =
𝑘𝑓 𝛼𝑓
𝑘𝑓 𝜇𝑓 𝑣𝑓
𝑃𝑟 = =
𝜌𝐶𝑝,𝑓 𝜌 𝛼𝑓
𝑣 = μ/𝜌
The Prandtl number may be seen to be a ratio reflecting the ratio of the rate that viscous forces
penetrate the material to the rate that thermal energy penetrates the material. As a consequence,
the Prandtl number is proportional to the rate of growth of the two boundary layers:

𝛿
= 𝑃𝑟 1/3
𝛿𝑡
Physical Meaning of Nusselt Number
The Nusselt number may be physically described as well.
ℎ𝑐 𝑥
Nu𝑥 ≡
𝑘𝑓
If we recall that the thickness of the boundary layer at any point along the surface, δ, is also a
function of x then
𝛿
ℎ𝑐 𝑥 ℎ𝑐 𝛿 𝑘𝑓 𝐴
Nu𝑥 ∝ ∝ ∝
𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑓 1
ℎ𝑐 𝐴
We see that the Nusselt may be viewed as the ratio of the conduction resistance of a material to
the convection resistance of the same material.
Students, recalling the Biot number, may wish to compare the two so that they may distinguish the
two.

ℎ𝑐 𝑥 ℎ𝑐 𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝑥 ≡ 𝐵𝑖𝑥 ≡
𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑠

The denominator of the Nusselt number involves the thermal conductivity of the fluid at the
solid-fluid convective interface; the denominator of the Biot number involves the thermal
conductivity of the solid at the solid-fluid convective interface.
Reynolds Analogy
In the development of the boundary layer theory, one may notice the strong relationship between
the dynamic boundary layer and the thermal boundary layer. Reynolds’s noted the strong
correlation and found that fluid friction and convection coefficient could be related. This refers
to the Reynolds Analogy.
𝐶𝑓
𝑃𝑟 = 1 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 2

Conclusion from Reynolds’s analogy: Knowing the frictional drag, we know the Nusselt
Number. If the drag coefficient is increased, say through increased wall roughness, then the
convective coefficient will increase. If the wall friction is decreased, the convective coefficient is
decreased. Some of the most important and commonly used correlations are given below:
Heat transfer coefficient inside tubes, ducts etc.:
When a fluid flows through a conduit such as a tube, the fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics
at the entrance region will be different from the rest of the tube. Flow in the entrance region is
called as developing flow as the boundary layers form and develop in this region. The length of
the entrance region depends upon the type of flow, type of surface, type of fluid etc. The region
beyond this entrance region is known as fully developed region as the boundary layers fill the
entire conduit and the velocity and temperature profiles remain essentially unchanged. In general,
the entrance effects are important only in short tubes and ducts. Correlations are available in
literature for both entrance as well as fully developed regions. In most of the practical applications
the flow will be generally fully developed as the lengths used are large. The following are some
important correlations applicable to fully developed flows:
a) Fully developed laminar flow inside tubes (internal diameter D):
Constant wall temperature condition:
ℎ𝑐 𝐷
Nusselt number, Nu𝐷 = = 3.66
𝑘𝑓

Constant wall heat flux condition:

ℎ𝑐 𝐷
Nusselt number, Nu𝐷 = = 4.364
𝑘𝑓

b) Fully developed turbulent flow inside tubes (internal diameter D):

Dittus-Boelter Equation:
ℎ𝑐 𝐷
Nusselt number, Nu𝐷 = = 0 023 𝑅𝑒𝐷0.8 𝑃𝑟 𝑛
𝑘𝑓
where n = 0.4 for heating (𝑇𝑆 > 𝑇𝑓 ) and n = 0.3 for cooling (𝑇𝑆 < 𝑇𝑓 ). The Dittus-Boelter equation
is valid for smooth tubes of length L, with 0.7<Pr<160,𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 104 and (L/D) > 60.
Petukhov equation: This equation is more accurate than Dittus-Boelter and is applicable to rough
tubes also. It is given by:
𝑅𝑒𝐷 Pr 𝑓 𝜇𝑏 𝑛
Nu𝐷 = ( )( )
𝑋 8 𝜇𝑠
𝑓 1/2
Where, 𝑋 = 1.07 + 12.7 (Pr 0.4 − 1) (8)

n = 0.11 for heating with uniform wall temperature

n = 0.25 for cooling with uniform wall temperature, and
n = 0 for uniform wall heat flux or for gases
‘f’ in Petukhov equation is the friction factor, which needs to be obtained using suitable
correlations for smooth or rough tubes. 𝜇𝑏 and 𝜇𝑠 are the dynamic viscosities of the fluid evaluated
at bulk fluid temperature and wall temperatures respectively. Petukhov equation is valid for the
following conditions:
0.5<Pr<2000,

104 <𝑅𝑒𝐷 <5 ∗ 106 and

𝜇𝑏
0.08< ( ) <40
𝜇𝑠

c) Laminar flow over a horizontal, flat plate (𝑹𝒆𝒙 <𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟓 ):

Constant wall temperature:

1
ℎ𝑐 𝑥
Local Nusselt number, Nu𝑥 = = 0.332𝑅𝑒𝑥0.5 𝑃𝑟 3
𝑘𝑓

Constant wall heat flux:

1
ℎ𝑐 𝑥
Local Nusselt number, Nu𝑥 = = 0.453𝑅𝑒𝑥0.5 𝑃𝑟 3
𝑘𝑓

The average Nusselt number is obtained by integrating local Nusselt number from 0 to L and
dividing by L.

d) Turbulent flow over horizontal, flat plate (𝑹𝒆𝒙 >𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟓 ):

Constant wall temperature:
 ̅̅̅̅ 1
ℎ 𝐿
Average Nusselt number, ̅̅̅̅̅
Nu𝐿 = 𝑘𝑐 = (0.037𝑅𝑒𝐿0.8 − 850) 𝑃𝑟 3
𝑓

e) Free convection over hot, vertical flat plates and cylinders:

Constant wall temperature:
ℎ 𝐿 ̅̅̅̅
Average Nusselt number, ̅̅̅̅̅
Nu𝐿 = 𝑘𝑐 = 𝑐(𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑅𝑎𝐿n
𝑓

1 1
where 𝑐 and 𝑛 are 0.59 and 4 for laminar flow (104 < 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟 < 109 ) and 0.10 and 3 for turbulent

flow (109 < 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟 < 1013 ). 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟 is Rayleigh number (𝑅𝑎). [ 𝑹𝒂 = 𝑮𝒓𝑳 𝑷𝒓]

𝑅𝑎 < 109 , 𝐥𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧, and 𝑅𝑎 > 1013 , 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐛𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

In the above equation, 𝐺𝑟𝐿 is the average Grashoff number given by:
gβ(𝑇𝑆 −𝑇∞ )𝐿3
Average Grashoff Number, 𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 𝑣2

where g is the acceleration due to gravity, β is volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion, 𝑇𝑆 and
𝑇∞ are the plate and the free stream fluid temperatures, respectively and ν is the kinematic
viscosity.
Constant wall heat flux, 𝑞𝑆 :
ℎ𝑐 𝑥
Local Nusselt number, Nu𝑥 = = 0.60(𝐺𝑟𝑥 ∗ 𝑃𝑟)1/5
𝑘𝑓

gβ𝑞𝑆 𝑥 4
𝐺𝑟𝑥 ∗ =
𝑘𝑓 𝑣 2
The above equation is valid for 105 < 𝐺𝑟𝑥 ∗ 𝑃𝑟 < 1011
f) Free convection over horizontal flat plates:
ℎ 𝐿 ̅̅̅̅
Average Nusselt number, ̅̅̅̅̅
Nu𝐿 = 𝑘𝑐 = 𝑐(𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟)𝑛
𝑓

In the above free convection equations, the fluid properties have to be evaluated at a mean
temperature defined as 𝑇𝑚 = 𝑇𝑆 − 0.25(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ ). The values of c and n are given in Table 7.3 for
different orientations and flow regimes.
Table 7.3 Values of c and n
Orientation of plate Range of c n Flow
𝑮𝒓𝑳 𝑷𝒓 regime
105 to 2*107 0.54 1/4 Laminar
Hot surface facing up or cold surface facing down,
2*107 to 0.14 1/3 Turbulent
constant 𝑻𝑺
3*1010
Hot surface facing down or cold surface facing up, 3*105 to 0.27 1/4 Laminar
constant 𝑻𝑺 3*1010
< 2*108 0.13 1/3
Hot surface facing up, constant 𝒒𝑺
5*108 to 1011 0.16 1/3
Hot surface facing down, constant 𝒒𝑺 106 to 1011 0.58 1/5

QUESTIONS
1) Air at 20˚C at atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. If the plate is
1 m wide and 80˚C, calculate the following at x = 300 mm.

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness. 2. Thermal boundary layer thickness, 3. Local

friction coefficient, 4. Average friction coefficient, 5. Local heat transfer coefficient, 6.
Average heat transfer coefficient, 7. Heat transfer.

1,𝜹 = 𝟔. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐦, 2, 𝜹𝒕 = 𝟕. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐦 3, 𝑪𝒇 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 4, ̅̅̅

𝑪𝒇 =
𝟐. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 5, 𝐍𝐮𝒙 = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟗, 𝒉𝒄 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟎𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲, 6, 𝒉 = 𝟐 × 𝟔. 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟒𝟏 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲,
and 7, Q = 223.38W

2) The heat flux rate incident on a vertical plate at 110 °C is 800 W/m2 . The plate is 2 m wide
and 3.5 m high and is well insulated on the backside. The ambient air temperature is 30 °C.
All the incident radiation (800 W/m2) on the plate is absorbed and dissipated by free convection
to the ambient air at 30 °C. Determine the Grashof and Rayleigh numbers.

𝑮𝒓𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 , 𝑹𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏

3) The glass window of area 3.0 m2 has a temperature at the outer surface of 10 C. The
conductivity of the glass is 1.4 W/m K. The convection coefficient (heat transfer coefficient)
 of the air is 100 W/m K2 . The heat transfer is 3.0 kW. Calculate the bulk temperature of the
fluid.
TM = 273 K = 0 C
4) Identify the following three dimensionless groups:
1. hfL /kf (subscript f refers to fluid)
2. hfL /ks (subscript s refers to solid surface)
3. (Reynolds number) (Prandtl number), i.e., (Re)(Pr)

1.Nusselt number Nu, 2. Biot number Bi and 3. Peclet number Pe

5) Calculate the free convection heat transfer coefficient and the heat loss for a plate 6 ft high and
8 ft wide at 120 °F that is exposed to nitrogen at 60 °F.
𝒉𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟓𝑩𝒕𝒖/𝒉𝒓 , Q = 1944Btu/hr
6) Calculate the heat transfer from a 100-W light bulb at 113 °C to 31 °C ambient air.
Approximate the bulb as a 60 mm diameter sphere.
Q =33.4W

Chapter 8: Radiation Heat Transfer

Radiant heat transfer is thermal energy transferred by means of electromagnetic waves or particles.
Thermal Radiation
Radiant heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to
the temperature of a body. Most energy of this type is in the infra-red region of the electromagnetic
spectrum although some of it is in the visible region. The term thermal radiation is frequently used
to distinguish this form of electromagnetic radiation from other forms, such as radio waves, x-rays,
or gamma rays. The transfer of heat from a fireplace across a room in the line of sight is an example
of radiant heat transfer.
Radiant heat transfer does not need a medium, such as air or metal, to take place. Any material
that has a temperature above absolute zero gives off some radiant energy. When a cloud covers the
sun, both its heat and light diminish. This is one of the most familiar examples of heat transfer by
thermal radiation.
Black Body Radiation
A body that emits the maximum amount of heat for its absolute temperature is called a black body.
Radiant heat transfer rate from a black body to its surroundings can be expressed by the following
equation.
Q=σAT4 (8-1)
where:
Q˙ = heat transfer rate (Btu/hr)
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant (0.174 Btu/hr-ft2-°R4)
A = surface area (ft2)
T = temperature (°R)
Two black bodies that radiate toward each other have a net heat flux between them. The net flow
rate of heat between them is given by an adaptation of Equation 8-1.
Q˙= σA(T14-T24)
where:
A = surface area of the first body (ft2)
T1 = temperature of the first body (°R)
T2 = temperature of the second body (°R)
All bodies above absolute zero temperature radiate some heat. The sun and earth both radiate heat
toward each other. This seems to violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that
heat cannot flow from a cold body to a hot body. The paradox is resolved by the fact that each
body must be in direct line of sight of the other to receive radiation from it. Therefore, whenever
the cool body is radiating heat to the hot body, the hot body must also be radiating heat to the cool
body. Since the hot body radiates more heat (due to its higher temperature) than the cold body, the
net flow of heat is from hot to cold, and the second law is still satisfied.
Emissivity
Real objects do not radiate as much heat as a perfect black body. They radiate less heat than a
black body and are called gray bodies. To take into account the fact that real objects are gray
bodies, Equation 8-1 is modified to be of the following form.
Q˙ = εσAT4
where:
ε = emissivity of the gray body (dimensionless)
Emissivity is simply a factor by which we multiply the black body heat transfer to take into account
that the black body is the ideal case. Emissivity is a dimensionless number and has a maximum
value of 1.0.
Radiation Configuration Factor
Radiative heat transfer rate between two gray bodies can be calculated by the equation stated
below.
Q˙= fa fe σA(T14-T24)
where:
fa = is the shape factor, which depends on the spatial arrangement of the two objects
(dimensionless)
fe = is the emissivity factor, which depends on the emissivities of both objects
(dimensionless)
The two separate terms fa and fe can be combined and given the symbol f. The heat flow between
two gray bodies can now be determined by the following equation:
Q˙= fσA(T14-T24) (8-2)
The symbol (f) is a dimensionless factor sometimes called the radiation configuration factor, which
takes into account the emissivity of both bodies and their relative geometry. The radiation
configuration factor is usually found in a text book for the given situation. Once the configuration
factor is obtained, the overall net heat flux can be determined. Radiant heat flux should only be
included in a problem when it is greater than 20% of the problem.
Chapter 9: Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchangers
The transfer of thermal energy between fluids is one of the most important and frequently used
processes in engineering. The transfer of heat is usually accomplished by means of a device known
as a heat exchanger. Common applications of heat exchangers in the nuclear field include boilers,
fan coolers, cooling water heat exchangers, and condensers.
The basic design of a heat exchanger normally has two fluids of different temperatures separated
by some conducting medium. The most common design has one fluid flowing through metal tubes
and the other fluid flowing around the tubes. On either side of the tube, heat is transferred by
convection. Heat is transferred through the tube wall by conduction.
Heat exchangers may be divided into several categories or classifications. In the most commonly
used type of heat exchanger, two fluids of different temperature flow in spaces separated by a tube
wall. They transfer heat by convection and by conduction through the wall. This type is referred
to as an "ordinary heat exchanger," as compared to the other two types classified as "regenerators"
and "cooling towers."
An ordinary heat exchanger is single-phase or two-phase. In a single-phase heat exchanger, both
of the fluids (cooled and heated) remain in their initial gaseous or liquid states. In two-phase
exchangers, either of the fluids may change its phase during the heat exchange process. The steam
generator and main condenser of nuclear facilities are of the two-phase, ordinary heat exchanger
classification.
Single-phase heat exchangers are usually of the tube-and-shell type; that is, the exchanger consists
of a set of tubes in a container called a shell (Figure 8). At the ends of the heat exchanger, the tube-
side fluid is separated from the shell-side fluid by a tube sheet. The design of two-phase exchangers
is essentially the same as that of single-phase exchangers.

Parallel and Counter-Flow Designs

Although ordinary heat exchangers may be extremely different in design and construction and may
be of the single- or two-phase type, their modes of operation and effectiveness are largely
determined by the direction of the fluid flow within the exchanger.
The most common arrangements for flow paths within a heat exchanger are counter-flow and
parallel flow. A counter-flow heat exchanger is one in which the direction of the flow of one of
the working fluids is opposite to the direction to the flow of the other fluid. In a parallel flow
exchanger, both fluids in the heat exchanger flow in the same direction.
Figure 9 represents the directions of fluid flow in the parallel and counter-flow exchangers. Under
comparable conditions, more heat is transferred in a counter-flow arrangement than in a parallel
flow heat exchanger.

The temperature profiles of the two heat exchangers indicate two major disadvantages in the
parallel-flow design. First, the large temperature difference at the ends (Figure 10) causes large
thermal stresses. The opposing expansion and contraction of the construction materials due to
diverse fluid temperatures can lead to eventual material failure. Second, the temperature of the
cold fluid exiting the heat exchanger never exceeds the lowest temperature of the hot fluid. This
relationship is a distinct disadvantage if the design purpose is to raise the temperature of the cold
fluid.
The design of a parallel flow heat exchanger is advantageous when two fluids are required to be
brought to nearly the same temperature.
The counter-flow heat exchanger has three significant advantages over the parallel flow design.
First, the more uniform temperature difference between the two fluids minimizes the thermal
stresses throughout the exchanger. Second, the outlet temperature of the cold fluid can approach
the highest temperature of the hot fluid (the inlet temperature). Third, the more uniform
temperature difference produces a more uniform rate of heat transfer throughout the heat
exchanger.
Whether parallel or counter-flow, heat transfer within the heat exchanger involves both conduction
and convection. One fluid (hot) convectively transfers heat to the tube wall where conduction takes
place across the tube to the opposite wall. The heat is then convectively transferred to the second
fluid. Because this process takes place over the entire length of the exchanger, the temperature of
the fluids as they flow through the exchanger is not generally constant, but varies over the entire
length, as indicated in Figure 10. The rate of heat transfer varies along the length of the exchanger
tubes because its value depends upon the temperature difference between the hot and the cold fluid
at the point being viewed.

Non-Regenerative Heat Exchanger

Applications of heat exchangers may be classified as either regenerative or non-regenerative. The
non-regenerative application is the most frequent and involves two separate fluids. One fluid cools
or heats the other with no interconnection between the two fluids. Heat that is removed from the
hotter fluid is usually rejected to the environment or some other heat sink (Figure 11).
Regenerative Heat Exchanger
A regenerative heat exchanger typically uses the fluid from a different area of the same system for
both the hot and cold fluids. An example of both regenerative and non-regenerative heat
exchangers working in conjunction is commonly found in the purification system of a reactor
facility. The primary coolant to be purified is drawn out of the primary system, passed through a
regenerative heat exchanger, non-regenerative heat exchanger, demineralizer, back through the
regenerative heat exchanger, and returned to the primary system (Figure 12).
In the regenerative heat exchanger, the water returning to the primary system is pre-heated by the
water entering the purification system. This accomplishes two objectives. The first is to minimize
the thermal stress in the primary system piping due to the cold temperature of the purified coolant
being returned to the primary system.

The second is to reduce the temperature of the water entering the purification system prior to
reaching the non-regenerative heat exchanger, allowing use of a smaller heat exchanger to achieve
the desired temperature for purification. The primary advantage of a regenerative heat exchanger
application is conservation of system energy (that is, less loss of system energy due to the cooling
of the fluid.

Cooling Towers
The typical function of a cooling tower is to cool the water of a steam power plant by air that is
brought into direct contact with the water. The water is mixed with vapor that diffuses from the
condensate into the air. The formation of the vapor requires a considerable removal of internal
energy from the water; the internal energy becomes "latent heat" of the vapor. Heat and mass
exchange are coupled in this process, which is a steady-state process like the heat exchange in the
ordinary heat exchanger.
Wooden cooling towers are sometimes employed in nuclear facilities and in factories of various
industries. They generally consists of large chambers loosely filled with trays or similar wooden
elements of construction. The water to be cooled is pumped to the top of the tower where it is
distributed by spray or wooden troughs. It then falls through the tower, splashing down from deck
to deck. A part of it evaporates into the air that passes through the tower. The enthalpy needed
for the evaporation is taken from the water and transferred to the air, which is heated while the
water cools. The air flow is either horizontal due to wind currents (cross flow) or vertically upward
in counter-flow to the falling water. The counter-flow is caused by the
chimney effect of the warm humid air in the tower or by fans at the bottom (forced draft) or at the
top (induced flow) of the tower. Mechanical draft towers are more economical to construct and
smaller in size than natural-convection towers of the same cooling capacity.
Log Mean Temperature Difference Application To Heat Exchangers
In order to solve certain heat exchanger problems, a log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
must be evaluated before the heat removal from the heat exchanger is determined.