BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

 Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for classification. He also divided animals
into two groups, those which had red blood and those that did not.
 Linnaeus introduced two Kingdom systems, the system did not distinguish between eukaryotes and
prokaryotes, unicellular and multi cellular organisms and photosynthetic (green algae) and non-
photosynthetic (fungi) organisms.

Characters Five Kingdoms

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell wall Non cellulosic Present in Present Present Absent

(Polysaccharide some with chitin (cellulose)
+ amino acid)
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Cellular Cellular Multiceullar/ Tissue/ Tissue/organ/
organisation loose tissue organ organ system
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
nutrition (chemosynthetic, Photosynthetic and Saprophytic Photosynthetic Holozoic Saprophytic
photosynthetic) Heterotrophic Parasitic
and Heterotrophic
(saprophytic/
parasitic)

 R.H. Whittaker proposed a Five Kingdom Classification named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia.
 In earlier classification system bacteria, blue green algae, fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and the
angiosperms under ‘Plants.
 All prokaryotic organisms were grouped together under Kingdom Monera and the unicellular eukaryotic
organisms were placed in Kingdom Protista. Kingdom Protista brought together Chlamydomonas,
Chlorella and with Paramoecium and Amoeba.

KINGDOM MONERA
 Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera most abundant micro organism. also
live in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow also live on other organism as
parasites.
 Round shape (Spherical cocci), Rod shape (Bacillus) , Coma Shape ( Vibrium), spiral
Spirillum (spirilla). bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity. Some of
the bacteria are autotrophic (Photosynthetic Autotrophic or Chemosynthetic Autotrophic).
 Majority of bacteria’s are heterotrophic ( Depend on other organism).

Archaebacteria
 Live in harsh habitat. Salty areas (Halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles), and marshy
areas (methanogens). Different from bacteria in terms of cell wall structure. Methanogens
present in gut of ruminant animals.
Eubacteria
 Is called true bacteria, presence of rigid cell wall and flagellum. Cyanobacteria (Unicellular,
Filamentous such as Blue Green Algae) have Chlorophyll α similar to green plants are
photosynthetic autotrophs. Responsible for bloom in polluted water.
 Can fix atmospheric N2 in specialized cell called heterocysts (Anabena & Nostoc).
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidize nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use released
energy to produce ATP. Played great role in recycling nutrients like Nitrogen, Iron, Sulphur,
Phosphorus.
 Heterotrophic Bacteria (Decomposers) used in making curd, N2 fixation in legume plats,
production of Antibiotics. Bacteria mainly produced by Fission but sometime produced
spores. Mycoplasma smallest living cell, lack cell wall, survives without O2.

KINGDOM PROTISTA
 Single cell Eukaryotes, may be photosynthetic include (Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates,
Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans).
 Primarily aquatic , forms link with plants, animals and fungi.
 Being eukaryotes have well defined nucleus, and other membrane bound organelles.
 Produced sexually as well as asexually, cell fusion and zygote formation.

Chrysophytes
 Include Diatoms and golden algae (Fresh & Marine water) planktons (Photosynthetic).
 Diatoms have silica cell wall, and they left behind large amount of cell wall deposits called
“Diatomaceous earth” (used in polishing, filtration of olis)
 Diatoms are chief producers of ocean.

Dinoflagellates

 Marine photosynthetic appear blue, green, yellow, red, brown

 Cell wall has thick cellulose plates.

Euglenoids

 Fresh water organism, Found in stagnant water, have protein reach layer called pellicle which
make their body flexible.
 They are photosynthetic but when they deprived of sun light behave like heterotrophy. Eg.
Euglena.

Slime Moulds

 Saprophytic protest, under suitable condition they form an aggregation called plasmodium
which may grow several feet.
 They are extremely resistant and can survive under adverse condition.

Protozoans

 All are heterotrophs, lived as predators or parasites. Amoeboid protozoan’s live in fresh,
marine water as well as in soil.
 They hunt predators using pseudopodia (Amoeba). The flagellated protozoa cause disease
such as sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma).
 Some protozoan’s have thousands of cilia for movement, have cavity that opens to the outside
of the cell surface. Most notorious is plasmodium cause malaria.
KINGDOM FUNGI
 Heterotrophic organism, yeast is a unicellular fungi. Fungi cause disease in animals and
plants.
 Wheat rust caused by Puccinia. Source of antibiotic such as penicillium.
 Fungi’s are cosmopolitan occurred in air, water, soil and on animal and plants. Prefer to grow
on worm and humid climate.
 Body consists of long slender thread like structure called hyphae. Network of hyphae is
known as mycelium.
 Cell wall made of chitin and polysaccharide. Fungi’s are saprophytes (absorb soluble matter
from organic substance).
 They can lives “symbionts with lichen” and with plant roots as “mycorrhiza”
 Reproduction occurred as vegetative means (fragmentation, budding, fission).
 Asexual reproduction is by spores is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
 Sexual cycle involves 1) Plasmogamy (two motile and non motile gamets). 2) Karyogamy
(Fusion of two nuclei). 3) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.

Phycomycetes

 Found in aquatic habitat and in decaying wood, moist dump places. Asexual reproduction by
zoospores. Common example mucor, Rhizopus (bread mould), Albugo (parasitic fungi on
mustard).

Ascomycetes (sac fungi)

 Mostly multicellular (penicillium) , rarely unicellular (yeast).

 They are saprophytic, decomposers parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung).
 Sexual spores are called ascospores produced endogenously in sac like asci.

Deuteromycetes

 Commonly known as imperfect fungi. Mycelium is separated and branched

 Some members are saprophyte as well as parasites and large numbers of them are
decomposers, helps in mineral cycling e.g Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

KINGDOM PLANTAE
 All eukaryotic chlorophyll containing organisms and few of them partially heterotrophic such
as insectivores (bladderwort and venus fly trap are insectivores).
 Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
 Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid sporophyticand the haploid
gametophytic.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
 By heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms multicellular, their cells lack cell walls.
 Digest their food in an internal cavity. Store food as glycogen or fat. Mode of nutrition is
holozoic (ingestion of food).
VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND LICHENS
 In the five kingdom classification of Whittaker there is no mention of lichens and some
acellular organisms like viruses, viroids and prions.
 Viruses (non cellular) did not find a place in classification since they are not considered truly
‘living’.
 Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain microbes as causal organism of the mosaic
disease of tobacco.
  W.M. Stanley showed that viruses could be crystallised and crystals consist largely of
proteins.
 A virus is a nucleoprotein. Virus that infect plants have single standard RNA but in case of
animals the virus contain either single or double standard DNA or RNA.
 Bacteriophage is double standard DNA, its protein coat is called caspid.
 T.O denier discovered viroid which lack protein coat.
 Prions is a protein which cause infectious neurological diseases such as Mad cow disease
(bovine spongiform encephalopathy. And analogues Cr–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.
 Lichens are symbiotic association of algae and fungi. The algal component known as
phycobiont and fungal component is mycobiont.

PLANT KINGDOM
 Classification for flowering plants was given by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton
Hooker.
 Cytotaxonomy that is based on (chromosome number, structure, behavior),
chemotaxonomy based on (chemical constituents of the plant to resolve confusions).

ALGAE
 Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic (fresh
& marine), occurred in moist stones, soils and wood.
 Colonial form algae Volvox and filamentous form like Ulothrix and Spirogyra.
 reproduce by vegetative, asexual (by zoospores) and sexual (fusion of two gametes
“isogamous) methods. Fusion of two dissimilar size of gametes is called
anisogamous.
 Helped in CO2 fixation by photosynthesis and increase the level of oxygen.
 Algae are primary producers as well as maintain food cycle in aquatic bodies.
 Species uses as food porphyra, Laminaria, Sargassum.
 Algin (brown algae), carrageen (red algae). Agar obtained from Gelidium and
Gracilaria used in preparing ice cream and jelly. Chlorella (unicellular) used as
supplement by space travelers.
Chlorophyceae
 Commonly called green algae, because dominance of chlorophyll “A” and “B”.
 Most of them have one or, more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in
chloroplast.
 Have rigid cell wall, outer layer called pectose and inner layer made of cellulose.
 Reproduction takes place through Vegetative as well as spore formation. Sexual
reproduction takes place through sex cell by means of isogamous, anisogamous or
oogamous.
 Commonly found green algae Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and
Chara.
Phaeophyceae

 Primarily found in marine habitats. They range from simple branched, filamentous
forms can reach a height of 100 meters.
 They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls. They varies colours due
to presence xanthophylls pigments.
 Food is stored as complex carbohydrates in form of laminarin or mannitol.
Rhodophyceae
 Commonly red algae due to presence of r- phycoerythrin. Usually marine and found
in warm water. Found In great depths where light cannot enter.
 Food stored as floridean starch which is very similar to amylopectin and glycogen in
structure.
 Produce sexually by non motile gamets and asexually by non motile spoors.
 Common members are Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilariaand Gelidium.
BRYOPHYTES
 Includes various mosses and liverworts. Found in moist, dump shades areas. Also call
amphibian of plant kingdom.
 Depend on water for sexual reproduction. They lack true roots, leaves and stem.
 Main body of the bryophyte is haploid, produce gametes hence called gametophyte.
 Male sex organ is known as antheridium and female sex organ is called archegonium
 Species of bryophyte “sphagnum” provide peat used as a fuel and packing material.
They decompose rock and make it suitable for growth of higher plant.

Liverworts

 Grow usually in moist, shady habitats. plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchantia.
 sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule

Mosses

 Life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte consists of two stages. first stage is the protonema
and second stage is the leafy stage.
 Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation and budding in sexual reproduction, the sex organs
antheridia and archegonia are produced at the apex of the leafy shoots.
 Common examples of mosses are Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum.
PTERIDOPHYTES
 Used for medicinal purpose and for soil binders frequently grown as ornamentals.
 First terrestrial plants to possess xylem and phloem.
 Plant body is saprophyte differentiated into true roots, leaves and stem. Possess well defined
vascular tissue.
 Gametophyte require cool, dump, shady place to grow. The gametophytes bear male and
female sex organs called antheridia and archegonia, respectively.
 Water is required for transfer of antherozoids male gametes released from the antheridia.
 In pteridophytes all the spores are of similar kinds; such plants are called homosporous .
GYMNOSPERMS
 The ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall both before and after fertilization (Naked
seeds).
 Giant red wood (gymnosperms) tallest tree species roots are generally tap roots.
 Cycas have small specialize roots called coralloids roots associated with N2 fixing bacteria.
 Leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to withstand extremes of temperature, humidity and
wind.
 In conifers, the needle-like leaves reduce the surface area, Their thick cuticle and sunken
stomata help to reduce water loss.
 Gymnosperms are heterotropes.
ANGIOSPERMS
 Flowering plants have developed ovule. Seeds are enclosed in fruit.
 They provide us food, fodder, fuel, medicine.
 They are divided into two categories dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
 ANIMAL KINGDOM
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
 Arrangement of cells, body symmetry, nature of coelom, patterns of digestive, circulatory or
reproductive system.
Levels of Organization

 All members of Animalia are multi cellular.

 In sponge cells are loosely arranged exhibit cellular level organization.
 In coelenterates cells called tissue level of organization.
 Platyhelminthes shows organ level is exhibited.
 In animals like Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates have organ
system level of organization.
 Digestive system in Platyhelminthes has only a single opening (as anus and mouth) hence
incomplete.
Symmetry

 Sponges are asymmetrical,

 when a plane passing through the central axis of the body divides the organism into two
identical halves called redial symmetry e.g. (Coelenterates, ctenophores and echinoderms)
 Animals like annelids, arthropods body divided into identical left and right called bilateral
symmetry.

Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation

 Coelenterates are diploblastic because their skin has two layers external (ectoderm) internal
(endoderm).
 Those animals who have mesoderm a third layer between ectoderm and endoderm called
triploblastic. (platyhelminthes to cordates) .

Coelom

 Body cavity which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom. annelids, molluscs, arthropods,
echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates are coelomates.
 Animal in which body cavity is absent is called acoelomates (platyhelminthes).

Segmentation

 Body is externally and internally divided into segments is called metameric segmentation e.g.
Earthworm.

Notochord

 Mesodarmal origin, rod like structure on dorsal side during embryonic development. The
animals that posse’s notochord is called chordates and who don’t posses notochord are called
non- chordates E.g. porifera to echinoderms.
.
Phylum – Porifera

 Commonly known as sponge (mostly marine, asymmetrical and have cellular level
organization) has water transport and canal system.
 Digestion is intracellular, body skeleton is made up of spicules or sponging fibers.
 Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite). Reproduce asexually by spores and sexually by
gametes. Internal fertilization and larval stage of development. E.g. Sycon (Scypha),
Spongilla (Fresh water sponge) and Euspongia (bath sponge) .
Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

 Aquatic, marine, free swimming, radically symmetrical animal.

 Have cnidoblasts to anchor, defense and capture pray. Have gastro vascular cavity with single
opening mouth.
 Corals have skeleton of calcium carbonate.
 Cnidaria have two body forms (polyp – cylindrical shape like Hydra, Adamsia) and (Medusa
– umbrella shape like jelly fish, Aurelia)
 Examples of Cnidaria (Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (Sea anemone),
Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia (Sea-fan) and Meandrina (Brain coral).

Phylum – Ctenophora

 Commonly sea walnuts and comb jelly (marine, radical symmetry, Diploblastic)
 Digestion (extra and intracellular), they are bioluminescence.
 Reproduction sexual (internal fertilization). Examples: Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.

Phylum – Platyhelminthes

 Dorso ventrally flattened body (flatworms). Mostly endoparasitic.

 Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and acoelomate with organ level body
organization.
 Absorb nutrient directly from body surface. Flame cell helps in osmoregulation and excretion.
 Internal fertilization, larval stage. Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke).

Phylum – Aschelminthes

 Circular cross section body (Roundworm). May be free living, aquatic, parasitic.
 Organ system level body organization bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and
pseudocoleomate.
 Excretory canal is well developed, sexes are separate (dioecious). Fertilization is internal.
 Examples: Ascaris (Roundworm), Wuchereria (Filaria worm), Ancylostoma (Hookworm).

Phylum – Annelida

 Aquatic (marine or fresh water) or terrestrial free living. Organ system level body
organization bilaterally symmetrical. Body surface marked out into segments hence called
Annelida.
 Aquatic annelids like Nereis posses lateral appendages, parabolia which helps in swimming.
 Nephridia helps in osmoregulation and excretion.
 Reproduction is sexual Nereis, Pheretima (Earthworm) and Hirudinaria (Blood sucking
leech).

Phylum – Arthropoda

 Largest phylum of animilia include insect. Organ system level body organization bilaterally
symmetrical, triploblastic.
 Body covered by chitinous exoskeleton, consist of head, thorax and abdomen. Respiratory
organs gill, book gill, trachea and book lung. Open circulatory system.
 Statocysts or balancing organs are presents, presence of malpighian tube for excretion. Mostly
oviparous.
 Economically important - Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac insect),
Vectors – Anopheles, Culex and Aedes (Mosquitoes) Living fossil – Limulus (King crab).

Phylum – Mollusca

 Second largest animal phylum, bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate animal.

 Distinct head, muscular foot and visceral hump. The mouth contains a file-like rasping organ
for feeding, called Radula. Usually dioecious and oviparous.
  Examples: Pila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl oyster), Sepia(Cuttlefish), Loligo (Squid),
Octopus (Devil fish), Aplysia (Seahare),Dentalium (Tusk shell) and Chaetopleura (Chiton).

Phylum – Echinodermata

 Have endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles.

 All are marine, have complete digestive system mouth on ventral side and anus on dorsal side.
 Water vascular system helps in locomotion, capture and transport food and respiration.
(excretory system absent)
 Reproduction sexual fertilization external.
 Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Echinus (Sea urchin), Antedon (Sea lily), Cucumaria (Sea
cucumber) and Ophiura (Brittle star).

Phylum – Hemichordata

 Placed in phylum chordate. They are worm like marine animals bilaterally symmetrical,
triploblastic and coelomate.
 The body is cylindrical composed of an anterior proboscis, a collar and a long trunk. Respire
through gills. Excretory organ is proboscis gland. Fertilization external and development is
internal.
 Examples: Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.

Phylum – Chordata

 The presence of a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits.
 Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate. Posses a post canal tail and closed
circulatory system.
 Chordata is divided into three sub phyla ; “Urochordata & cephalochordate” exclusively
marine. And “vertebrata” posses notochord in embryonic stage and in adult stage notochord
replaced by vertebral column.
 Have 2/3/4 chambered heart, kidney for excretion and osmoregulation.

Sl. No. Chordates Non-chordates

1. Notochord present. Notochord absent.
2. Central nervous system is dorsal, hallow and Central nervous system is ventral, solid and double.
single.
3. Pharynx perforated by gill slits Gill slits are absent.
4. Heart is ventral. Heart is dorsal (if present)
5. A post-anal part (tail) is present. Post-anal tail is absent.

Subphylum Vertebrata is further divided as follows

Class – Cyclostomata

 Ectoparasites on some fishes, gill sits for respiration

 Sucking circular mouth without jaw, vertebral column are cartilaginous, close type
circulation.
 Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).

Class – Chondrichthyes

 Cartilaginous endoskeleton, mouth is located ventrally, notochord is present.

 Gills for respiration are there but without cover (operculum). Tough skin due to placoid
scales.
 Bladders are absent, 2 chambered heart, have electrical organs (torpedo), posses poisonous
sting (Trygon), cold blooded (piokilothermous) animals.
 Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish),Carcharodon (Great white shark), Trygon
(Sting ray)
Class – Osteichthyes

 Marine and fresh water, bony endoskeleton, four pairs of gills covered by operculum. Air
bladder present.
 Heart is two chambered, cold blooded animals, sexes are separate, external fertilization and
mostly viviparous.
 Examples: Marine – Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Sea horse); Freshwater – Labeo
(Rohu), Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur); Aquarium – Betta (Fighting fish), Pterophyllum
(Angel fish).

Class – Amphibia

 2 pairs of limbs, body divisible into head and trunk, have eyelids, tympanum is present in ear.
 Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open into a common chamber called cloaca.
 Three chambered heart, cold blooded and fertilization external, oviparous and development is
indirect.
 Examples: Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog), Salamandra (Salamander),
Ichthyophis (Limbless) amphibian.

Class – Reptilia

 Mostly terrestrial animal, body covered by cornified skin, do not have external ear openings,
Tympanum represents.
 Heart generally 3 chambered exception crocodile (4 chambered). Reptiles are poikilotherms.
Fertilization internal and oviparous.

Class – Aves

 Presence of feathers, forelimbs is modified into wings, Skin is dry without glands, and
endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony). With air cavities (pneumatic). They are worm blooded
(homoiothermous). Oviparous development is direct.

STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

THE ROOT
 In dicotyledonous plants, the direct elongation of the radical leads to the formation of primary
root. Primary roots and its branches constitutes the taproot system.
 In monocotyledonous plants primary roots originates from base of the stem and constitute
fibrous root system (wheat plant).
 In grass and banyan tree roots arises from parts of the plants other than radicals called
adventitious roots.
 Function of roots is absorption of water, minerals, reserve foods and synthesis of plant growth
regulators.

Regions of the Root

 Root is covered at the apex by root cap. Root cap is the region of meristematic activity, this
region of the root has dense protoplasm, responsible for growth of roots.
THE STEM
 Stem is the ascending part of the axis bearing branches, leaf, flower, fruit. Stem developed
from embryo of a germinating seed. Stem bear buds which may be auxiliary.
 Stem conducts water, minerals and photosynthates.
 Stem Store food, provide support and help in vegetative propagation.

THE LEAF
 Develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. Axillari buds later developed into branch.
 Leaf consists of three parts leaf base, petiole, and lamina. Leaf base bears small leaf like
structure called stipules.
 Lamina and leaf blades contain veins and veinlets.

Venation

 When veinlets forms a network it is called reticulate. Leaves of dicotyledonous plants posses
reticulate venation.

Phyllotaxy

 Phyllotaxy is the pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or branch.

 If more than two leaves arise at a node and form a whorl, it is called whorled, as in Alstonia.

THE INFLORESCENCE
 Flower is a modified shoot, The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as
inflorescence.
 Inflorescence are two types racemose and cymose. Racemose type Inflorescence continue to
grow and in cymose Inflorescence growth is limited.

THE FLOWER
 Reproductive unit of angiosperm. The swollen end of the stalk or pedicel, called thalamus or
receptacle.
 Calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. Calyx and corolla are accessory organs, while
androecium and gynoecium are reproductive organs.
 Plant having androecium and gynoecium called bisexual plant. When a flower divided into
two equal radical halves it said to be actinomorphic (e.g., mustard, datura, chilli) and when a
plant is divided into two similar halves the plant is called zygomorphic (pea, gulmohur, bean,
Cassia).
 A flower is asymmetric if cannot be divided into two similar halves.

Parts of a Flower

 Normally have four whorls.

Calyx
 Outermost whorl of flower (sepals), generally green, leaf like, protect flower in bud
stage.
Corolla
 Composed of petals, bright colour to attract insects for pollination. Corolla may be
tubular, bell shaped or funnel shaped.
 The arrangement of the sepals or petals in flower bud is called Aestivation.
Androecium

 Composed of stamens. Stamens are male reproductive part of flowers consisting of stalk or
filament and anther. A sterile stamen is called staminode.
 Stamens may be united into one bunch or one bundle (monoadelphous) as in china rose, or
two bundles (diadelphous) as in pea.
Gynoecium
 Female reproductive part, made up of one or more carpels. Carpel consist of ovary (basal
part), style (connect ovary to stigma), stigma (reproductive surface for pollen grains).
 Ovary bares one or more ovules attached to a flattened cushion like placenta.
 After fertilization ovule developed into seeds and ovary into fruit.

THE FRUIT
 It is a mature and ripen ovary. If fruit developed without fertilization of ovary is called
parthenocarpic fruit.
 Fruit consist of pericarp and seeds. Pericarp outer part (epicarp), middle part (mesocarp),
inner part (endocarp).
 In mango and coconut the fruit is called drupe. In coconut mesocarp is fibrous.

Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed

 Seed coat has two layers outer (testa) & inner (tegmen). With hilum the developing seeds are
attached to the fruit.
 In seed coat embryo consist of embryonic axis and cytyledons. cytyledons are often fleshy
and reserves food materials.
 In castor the endosperm forms as a result of double fertilization. Endosperm is a food storing
tissue for seeds.
 In bean, gram and pea endosperm is not present .

Structure of Monocotyledonous Seed

 Seeds are endospermic or non-endospermic, bulky endosperm store foods, aleurone a protein
layer separated embryo and endosperm.

SOLANACEAE
 Commonly called as potato family found in tropic, sub tropic and temperate zone.
 Plant consist mostly herbs, shrubs and small trees.
 Stem herbaceous rarely woody, aerial; erect, cylindrical, branched, solid or hollow, hairy or
glabrous, underground stem in potato (Solanum tuberosum).

ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

THE TISSUE SYSTEM
 On the basis of structure and location plant tissues are of three types such as epidermal,
ground or fundamental and vascular or conducting tissue system.
Epidermal Tissue System
 Epidermal tissue forms outer most covering of plant body comprise epidermal cell, stomata, tricomes
and hairs.
 Epidermis usually single layered, epidermal cells are parenchymatous with small amount of
cytoplasm and a large vacuole. Epidermis often covers with cuticles prevent water loss. roots
lack cuticles. Stomata present on epidermal cells and helps in transpiration and gaseous
exchange.
  Each stomata composed of guard cells, the guard cells posses chlorophyll and regulate
opening and closing of stomata. Epidermal cells bare root hairs which help in absorption of
water and minerals.

Ground Tissue System

 All tissue except epidermis & vascular bundle. This tissue system contains simple tissue such
as parenchyma, collenchymas and sclerenchyma. Parenchyma present in cortex, primary
stems and roots.
 In green leaves ground tissue contains thin walled chloroplast containing cells called
mesophyll.

Vascular Tissue System

 Consist of complex tissues phloem and xylem. In dicotyledonous stems, cambium is present
between phloem and xylem.
 Because presence of cambium, possess ability to form secondary phloem and xylem hence
called open vascular bundle.
 Conjoint vascular bundle present in steam and leaves.

Dicotyledonous Root

 Outer most layers is epiblema. Cortex consists of thin walled parenchyma cells.
 The innermost layer of cortex is called endodermis. The cell wall of epidermal cell has a
water impermeable, waxy material suberin in form of casparian strip.
 The parenchymatose cell that lies between xylem and phloem is known as conjunctive tissue.
 Tissues inside endodermis such as pericycle, vascular bundle and pith constitute stele.

Monocotyledonous Root

 Have epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular bundles and pith. Monocot roots has
more xylem bundle, pith is large and well developed. Do not undergo secondary growth.

Dicotyledonous Stem

 Epidermis is the outermost protective layer of the stem covered with thin cuticle.
 Outer layer of Dicotyledonous Stem is hypodermis consist of chollenchymatose cell
providing mechanical strength to young stem.
 Innermost layer of cortex is called “endodermis” rich in starch grains also called starch
sheath.

Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf

 Vertical section of a dorsiventral leaf shows three main parts, namely, epidermis, mesophyll
and vascular system.
 Tissue between upper and lower epidermis called mesophyll. Mesophyll possess chloroplast
and made up of parenchyma.
 The vascular bundles are surrounded by a layer of thick walled sheath cells.

Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf

 In an isobilateral leaf, the stomata are present on the both surface of the epidermis and
mesophyll is not differentiated.
 In grass adaxial epidermal cells modify themselves into large, empty, colourless cells called
bulliform cells.
 CELL: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE

 Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Anton Von
Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell. Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus.

CELL THEORY

 In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined a large number of plants and
observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of cells which form the tissues of the
plant.
 Theodore Schwann studied and reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today
known as the‘plasma membrane.
 Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory. Rudolf Virchow first explained
that cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells.

AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
 Nucleus contains the chromosome which in turn contains the genetic materials DNA. Cells
that have membrane bound nuclei are eukaryotic and those who don’t called prokaryotic. In
both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells a semi fluid matrix is present called cytoplasm occupies
the volume of the cells.
 Cytoplasm is the main area of cellular activity of both plant and animals. Besides nucleus
eukaryotic cells have ER, mitochondria, golgi body and vacuole, prokaryotic lack this
organelles.
 Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in all eukaryotic and prokaryotic.
Ribosomes not only found in cytoplasm but also in chloroplast, mitochondria and ER. Animal
cells have centrosom helps in cell division.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 Prokaryotic cells found in bacteria, blue green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO (Pleuro
Pneumonia). They are smaller than eukaryotic cell and can multiply rapidly. four basic shapes
of bacteria are bacillus (rod like), coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma shaped) and spirillum
(spiral).
 Prokaryotic cells have cell membrane except mycoplasma. The fluid filled in the cells is
cytoplasm. Genetic materials are generally naked. Many bacteria have small circular DNA on
outside of generic DNA called plasmid. Plasmid DNA can resist antibiotic. Eukaryotic cells
have nuclear membrane. Organelles in eukaryotic and prokaryotic are not same except
Ribosome. Mesosome found in prokaryotic.

Cell Envelope and its Modifications

 Cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three layered structure outermost glycocalyx.
Bacteria are two types germ positive and negative. Plasma membrane is selectively
permeable in nature.
 In prokaryotic mesosome is formed by extension of plasma membrane in cell in form of
vesicles, tubules and lamellae, they helped in cell wall formation, DNA formation and
distribution to daughter cells.
 Mesosome also helped in respiration, secretion process and increases the surface area of
plasma membrane.
 In motile bacteria flagella helped in locomotion. Flagella consist of filament hook and basal
body. Besides flagella bacterial cell was has pili and fimbriae. Fimbriae helps to attached
bacteria with host tissue.
Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies

 In prokaryotic ribosome associated with plasma membrane. Made of two subunits 30S and
50S. ribosome may attached to mRNA and form polyribosome or polysome (translate mRNA
into protein).
 Reverse material in prokaryotic cell stores in cytoplasm. Not bound by any membrane and lie
free in cytoplasm. Gas vacuole found in blue green and purple and green bacteria.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 Include all protists, plant, animal and fungi. Compartmentalization of cytoplasm through
presence of membrane bound organelles. Possess organize nucleus and nuclear envelop.
 Plant and animal cells are different in cell wall, plastid and large central vacuole (absent in
animal cell) centriol absent in plants but present in animals.

Individual cell organelles

Cell Membrane

 Cell membrane mainly composed of lipids (phospholipids) and proteins. Later biochemical
investigation clearly revealed that cell membrane posses carbohydrate. In human erythrocytes
have 52% protein and 40% lipids.
 Membrane proteins are two types peripheral protein lies on the surface of the membrane and
integral protein buried in membrane.
 Fluid mosaic model improved by singer and Nicholson. Important function of cell membrane
is transport of molecules across it. The molecules does not require any energy for movement
called passive transport. Movement of natural solutes with in cell membrane by the way of
diffusion and water by diffusion process called osmosis.
 Molecules are transported from lower to higher concentration it is a energy dependent process
(ATP is used and Active Transportation).

Cell Wall

 Cell wall forms plasma membrane form outer covering of plants and fungi. Algae have cell
wall made of cellulose, galactants, mannans and calcium carbonate. Plants cell walls have
cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin and protein.
 Middle lamella mainly of calcium pactate which hold different neighboring cells together.

Endomembrane System

 Endo membrane system include ER, galgi complex, lysosome and vacuols. Mitochondria and
chloroplast is not the part of endomembrane system.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 A network of tubular structure scattered in cytoplasm called (ER). ER which bare ribosome
on its surface if called (RER). Absence of ribosome (SER). RER involve in protein synthesis
and secretion. SER site for synthesis of lipids.

Golgi apparatus

 Consist of flat, disk shaped sacs, perform the function of packaging materials, to be delivered
either to the intracellular targets or secreted outside the cell. Galgi apparatus is the important
site of formation of glycolipids and gycoproteins.
Lysosomes

 Formed by the process of packaging in the galgi apparatus. All types of hydrolytic enzyme
optimally active at the acidic pH. Capable of digesting proteins, fats, carbohydrate and
nucleic acids.
Vacuoles

 Found in cytoplasm, contain water, sap, excretory product. Vacuoles bound by a membrane
called tonoplst. Tonoplst facilitate transportation of ions against the concentration gradient of
the vacuole.
 In amoeba contractile vacuole is important for osmoregulation.

Mitochondria

 Not easily visible under microscope. Typically sausage or cylindrical shape having diameter
(0.2-1.0 µm). double membrane bound structure. Inner compartment filled with homogenous
substance (Matrix) .
 Mitochondria is the site of aerobic respiration, produce energy in form of ATP. The matrix
also posses single circular DNA molecule, ribosome (70S), synthesis of proteins.
Mitochondria divided by fission.

Plastids

 Found in all plant cells and euglenoides. Based on the type of the pigments classified into
chloro, chromo and luco (Plasts).
 Chloroplast contain chlorophyll and carotenoids responsible for trapping lights. Chromoplast
fat soluble carotenoids like carotene, xanthophylls give plants yellow, red and green colour.
Leucoplast colour less pigments stored nutrients. Amyloplast store carbohydrates. Elaioplast
store oil and fats and aleuroplast store proteins.
 Chloroplast found in mesophyll cells off plants, like mitochondria they also double membrane
bound. Thylakoids present on stroma. Stroma lamella connect Thylakoids of different grana.
 Stroma of chloroplast contain enzyme required for synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.
Chlorophyll pigments are present in the Thylakoid.

Ribosomes

 Ribosomes first observed by George Palade, they are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
and proteins. Eukaryotic Ribosomes are 80S and Prokaryotic Ribosomes are 70S. 80S
ribosomes has two sub units 60S and 40S. while sub units of 70S ribosomes is 50S and 30S.
Here ‘S’ (Svedberg’s Unit)

Cytoskeleton

 Filamentous pretentious structure consists of microtubules, microfilaments present in the

cytoplasm called cytoskeleton. Involve in mechanical support ,motility and maintaining the
shape of the cell.

Cilia and Flagella

 Hair like outgrowth of cell membrane. Work like oars, causing the movement of either the
cell or the surrounding fluid. Flagella are comparatively longer than cilia responsible for cell
movement.
 Cilia and flagella are bounded by plasma membrane.

Centrosome and Centrioles

 Centrosome containing two cylindrical structure called centrioles. Made up of peripheral

fibrils of tubulin protein.
Nucleus

 First discovered by robert brown. Later the material of the nucleus stained by the basic dyes
was given the name chromatin by Flemming.
 Interphase nucleus highly extended and elaborated nucleoprotein fibers called chromatin.
Nuclear matrix and one or more spherical bodies called nucleoli.
 Perinuclear space acts as a barrier between nucleus and cytoplasm.
 Some mature cells lack nucleus e.g erythrocytes of mammals and sieve tube cells of vascular
plants. Nuclear matrix or nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromatin. It is a site for
active ribosomal RNA synthesis. Nucleoli present in the cell actively carrying out protein
synthesis.
 Interphase nucleus contain loose and indistinct network of nucleoprotein called chromatin.
Chromatin contain DNA and histone protein and also RNA. Each chromosome has
chromatins.
 Chromosomes can be classified into metacentric (in middle form two identical parts), sub
meta centric ( away from middle two short and long arm) , acrocentric (close to end
extremely short and extremely long) and telocentric (terminal).

BIOMOLECULES
 All the carbon compounds that we get from living tissues can be called ‘biomolecules’. Ash
contain inorganic compound like calcium, magnesium etc. inorganic compounds like
phosphate , sulphate seen in acid soluble fraction. Elemental analysis give elemental
composition of living tissue in form of hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine and carbon etc.
 From biological point of view we classified functional groups into amino acids, nucleotide
base, fatty acids. Amino acids are organic groups and an acidic group as substituted on the
same carbon , called α- amino acids. There are four substituent groups hydrogen, carboxyl
and amino.
 Amino acids occur in protein are twenty types. Rgroup in the proteinaceous amino acids
could be a hydrogen (glycine), methyl (alanine), hydroxyl methyl (serine).
 Chemical and physical properties of amino acids are essentially amino, carboxyl and R
functional groups. Acidic amino acid (glutamic acid), basic (lysine), neutral (valine).
Aromatic amino acids (tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan). Amino acids are ionizable nature
– NH2 and – COOH group.
 Lipids are generally insoluble in water, simple fatty acids has a carboxyl group attatched to R
group (Ethyl or methyl). Fatty acids could be unsaturated (without double bond ) or
unsaturated (1 or more carbon double bond). Phospholipids found in cell membrane lecithin
are an example.
 In some living organism carbon compound have heterocyclic ring. Some of these are
nitrogenous adenine, guanine, uracil and thiamin.

BIOMACROMOLECULES
 Acid insoluble fraction has only four types of organic compound i.e protein, nucleic acid,
polysaccharides and lipids. Biomolecules found in living organism are two types, those who
have molecular weight less than one thousand Dalton called bio-micro-molecule and who
possess more than that called bio-macromolecule.
 When we grind a tissue the cell membrane and other membrane are broken into peace and
form vesicles which are not water soluble. The acid soluble pool represents roughly the
cytoplasmic composition.
 Component Total mass
in terms of
percentage
Water 70-90
Protein 10-15
Carbohydrate 3
Lipids 2
Nucleic acid 5-7
Ions 1

PROTEINS
 Proteins are polypeptides, linier chain of amino acids. There are 20 types of amino acids
(alanine, cysteine, proline, tryptophan etc.). protein is a heteropolymer not homopolymer.
 Dietary proteins are the source of essential amino acids. Proteins carries out several functions
such as nutrient transportation, fight infections, act as hormones and enzymes.
 Collagen is most abundant protein in the animal world and Ribulose bisphosphate
Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is most abundant protein in the whole of the biosphere.

POLYSACCHARIDES
 Are long chain of sugars, contains different monosaccharides as building blocks. Cellulose is
polymeric polysaccharides consisting of only one type of monosaccharide i.e glucose. Starch
is also a variant present as stored food in plants. Starch forms secondary helical structure can
hold I2 molecule. Starch I2 is blue in colour
 Animals have other variant called glycogen. Insulin is a polymer of fructose.
 Paper made from plant pulp and cotton fiber is cellulosic. These are complex polysaccharides
in nature. Exoskeleton of arthropods made up of chitin, these are complex polysaccharides
mostly homopolymer.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
 A type of macromolecule found in the acid soluble fraction of any living tissue these are
polynucleotide. Together with polysaccharides and polypeptides they comprise true
macromolecular fraction of any living tissue.
 Nucleic acid has three distinct components heterocyclic compound, monosaccharides,
phosphoric acid. Heterocyclic compounds in nucleic acids are nitrogen based adenine,
guanine, thiamine, cytosine and uracil. Adenine and guanine are substituted purines while the
rest substituted by pyrimidine. Sugar found in polynucleotides is either ribose or deoxyribose.

STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
 Proteins are heteropolymers containing strings of amino acids. in inorganic chemistry
structure invariably refers to molecular formulae (NaCl, MgCl2 ) and in organic chemistry
representing the structure of molecule (benzene, naphthalene). The first amino acids also
known as N-terminal amino acids.
 Adult human haemoglobin consist of 4 subunits two “α” type and two “β” type.

ENZYMES
 Almost all enzymes are proteins, some nucleic acid behaves like enzymes called ribosomes.
Inorganic catalysts work efficiently at high temperatures and high pressures, while enzymes
get damaged at high temperatures (say above 40°C). However, enzymes isolated from
organisms who normally live under extremely high temperatures (e.g., hot vents and sulphur
springs), are stable and retain their catalytic power even at high temperatures (upto 80°-90°C).
Chemical Reactions

 Chemical compounds undergo two types of changes first change in shape without breaking
the bond and second is change in state of matter.
 Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + 2H2O (inorganic chemical reaction). Similarly
hydrolysis of starch into glucose is a organic chemical reaction.
 Rate of physical and chemical process are influence by temperature. For every 10 degree
change in temperature can double or halve the reaction in either direction. Catalysed reactions
proceed at rates vastly higher than that of uncatalysed one.
 In the process of forming carbonic acid carbonic anhydrase is used as catalyst which increases
the rate of reaction tremendously. Enzyme has accelerated the reaction rate by 10 million
times.
 A multistep chemical reaction is that when in each stapes of catalysation, same or different
types of enzymes is used is called metabolic path. C6H12O6 + O2 2C3H4 O3 + 2H2O
(Glucose 2 Pyruvic acid).
 In our skeletal muscle under anaerobic condition lactic acid is formed and under normal
aerobic condition pyruvic acid is formed.
 Temperature, pH can effect enzyme reaction rate. Enzyme generally functions in a narrow
range of temperature and pH. Low temperature preserves in a temporary inactive state
whereas high temperature destroy enzymatic activity because proteins are denatured by heat.
 In peroxidase and catalase, which catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to water and
oxygen, haem is the prosthetic group and it is a part of the active site of the enzyme.
reactions. The essential chemical components of many coenzymes are vitamins, e.g.,
coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and NADP contain the vitamin niacin.
 Catalytic activity is lost when the co-factor is removed from the enzyme.

CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

CELL CYCLE
 The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesises the other
constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.
Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a continuous process.

Phases of Cell Cycle

 Eukaryotic cell divide once in 24 hrs. Yeast for example can progress through the cell cycle in
only about 90 munities.
 Cell cycle is divided into two phases interphase and M phase (mitosis phase). M phase
represents actual cell division or mitosis and interphase represent phase between two
successive M phase.
 24 hours average duration of cell cycle of a human cell. Cell division lasts for only one hour.
Interphase lasts more than 95 % of the cell cycle.
 M phase starts with nuclear division, separation of daughter chromosome (karyokinesis) ends
with division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis). Interphase called resting phase in this phase cell
preparing for division and undergoes cell growth and DNA replication.
 Interphase is divided into three more phase “G1 phase” interval between mitosis and initiation
of DNA replication. In G1 phase cell is metabolically active but does not undergo DNA
replication. “S Synthesis phase” DNA synthesis and replication takes place, amount
of DNA getting double from 2C to 4C. chromosome number does not increase during this
phase.
 In animals during “S phase” DNA replication began in nucleus and centriol duplicates in the
cytoplasm. In “G2 phase” proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis along with
continuous cell growth. Cells which do not exhibit division (heart cells).
 In animals mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cell. Exception of this is
male honey bee that has (haploid cells). but against this plant can show mitotic division in
both haploid and diploid cells.
M PHASE
 Number of chrosomes is same in parent and daughter cells also called equational division.
Mitosis divided into four stage of nuclear division (karyokinesis).
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Prophase is the first stage of karyokinesis of mitosis follows the S and G2 phase of
interphase. Prophase is marked by the initiation of condensation of chromosomal material.
Centrosome undergone duplication during S phase of interphase began to move towards pole.
Chromosomal material condense to form compact mitotic chromosome. Centrosomes
undergone duplication and move towards opposite pole. Cells at the end of prophase do not
show golgi complex, ER, nucleolus, and nuclear envelop.
 Metaphase complete disintegration of nuclear envelop, start of second phase of mitosis,
hence chromosome spread through the cytoplasm of cell. Condensation of chromosome is
completed. In this stage morphology of chromosomes is most easily studied. At this stage
metaphase chromosome made up of two sister chromatids. Small disc like structure in at the
surface of centromeres are called kinetochores (site of attachment of spindle fiber). In
metaphase chromosomes moved to spindle equator.
 Anaphase in which chromosome arranged at metaphase plate split simultaneously and two
daughter chromatids now known as daughter chromosomes migrated towards opposite poles.
 Telophase is the final stage of karyokinesis. The chrosomes at poles decondense and lose
their individuality.

Cytokinesis

 In cytokinesis the cell itself divided into two daughter cells by the separation of cytoplasm
called cytokinesis. At the time of cytoplasmic division organelles such as mitochondria and
plastid get distributed between two daughter cells. in some organism ksryokinesis not
followed by cytokinesis as a result of which multinucleate condition arise leading to
formation of “syncytum (liquid endosperm of coconut)”.

Significance of Mitosis

 Mitosis or equatorial division usually restricted to diploid cells but in some lower plants and
insects haploid cells also divided by mitosis. Mitosis results production of diploid daughter
cells with identical genetic complement. Growth of multi-cellular organism is due to mitosis.
 A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair. Mitotic division in meristematic
tissues – the apical and lateral cambium, results in continuous growth of plant through their
life.

MEIOSIS
 Production of offspring through sexual reproduction includes fusion of two gametes. Gametes
produced from specialized diploid cell. In meiosis division chromosome number reduced by
half as a result haploid daughter cells is formed.
 Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
 In Meiosis I parental chromosomes replicated to produce identical sister chromatids.
 In Mitosis II four haploid cells are formed.

MEIOSIS 1
 Prophase I meiosis division is longer and more complex than prophase of mitotic division.
Division of prophase I is further sub divided into four stage. “leptotene” in which
chromosome became visible under microscope. “zygotene” in which chromosomes start
pairing together and this process is called synapsis. “Pachytene” chromatids of each
 chromosomes became distinct and appeared clearly, in this stage crossing over occurs
between non sister chromatids. Crossing over is exchange of genetic material between two
homologues chromosomes, it is a enzyme-mediated process and the enzyme involved is
called “recombinase”. “Diakinesis” in this phase chromosomes are fully condensed and
prepare for separation of homologous chromosomes. at the end nucleolus and nuclear envelop
disappear.
 Metaphase I and Anaphase I is not important.
 Telophase I nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear. No replication of DNA. The stage
between two meiotic division is called interkinesis

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
 In Meiosis conservation of specific chromosome number in each species is achieved.
Meiosis increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms from one
generation to next.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

 MELVIN C ALVIN proposed that plants change light energy to chemical energy by transferring
an electron in an organised array of pigment molecules and other substances.
 Joseph Priestly performed series of experiment that reviled essential role of air in growth of
plants.
 T.W. Engelmann experimented using a prism, when light split into spectral component and
illuminated green algae “Cladophora” and he observed that the bacteria detected the site of
evolution of O2 and the bacteria accumulated in the region of blue and red spectra.
 Cornelius De Niel studied the purple and green bacteria and demonstrate that photosynthesis
is a light dependent reaction in which H2 oxidized to reduce CO2 to form Carbohydrates.
 In green plants H2O is hydrogen donor and is oxidized to O2. When H2S is the hydrogen
donor in purple and green sulphur bacteria then the oxidation product is Sulphur and sulphate.
O2 evolved from green plants comes from H 2O.
 The O2 released from water can be proved by using Radio Isotope Technique.

W HERE DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKE PLACE?

 Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplast. Chloroplast align themselves along the walls of
mesophyll cells. in chloroplast there is a membranous system consisting of grana, stroma. The
membrane system is responsible for trapping the light energy and also for the synthesis of
ATP and NADPH. In stroma enzymatic reactions synthesis sugar, which in turn forms starch.
The latter are not directly light driven but are dependent on the products of light reactions
(ATP and NADPH).

HOW MANY TYPES OF PIGMENTS ARE INVOLVED IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 The colour we see in leaves is due to four pigments. Chlorophyll a (Bright or blue green),
chlorophyll b (yellow green), xanthophylls (yellow), carotenoids (yellow to yellow – orange).
Chlorophyll a can absorb light of different wavelength. Chlorophyll a shows maximum
absorption of blue and red spectrum of light hence it is cleared that chlorophyll a is the chief
pigment associated with photosynthesis.
 Chlorophyll is the major pigment responsible for trapping light, other thylkaoid pigments like
chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids which are called assessory pigments, this
pigments also helped in protecting chlorophyll a from photo oxidation.

W HAT IS LIGHT REACTION

 Light reaction or photochemical phase includes light absorption, water split, oxygen release
and formation of ADP & NADPH. Light harvesting system comprises of pigment molecules
 bound to proteins. Each photo system has all pigments (except molecule of chlorophyll a)
forming a light harvesting system called antennae.
 In photosynthesis I chlorophyll a absorb light wavelength 700, hence called P700. While in
photosynthesis II absorption maximum at wavelength 680, hence P680.

THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT

 In photosystem II the reaction centre chlorophyll a absorbs 680 nm wavelength of red light
causing electrons to become excited and jump into an orbit farther from the atomic nucleus.
These electrons are picked up by an electron acceptor which passes them to an electrons
transport system consist of cytochromes the movement of reaction is downhill in terms of
oxidation – reduction or redox potential case.

Splitting of Water

 The splitting of water is associated with the PS II: water is split into 2H + ,O and electron. This
creates oxygen one of the net products of photosynthesis.

Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photo-phosphorylation

 Living organisms have the capability extracting energy from oxidizable substances and stored
this in form of bond energy. The process by which ATP is synthesis by mitochondria or
chloroplast is called phosphorylation.
 Photo phosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate in
presence of light. The two photo systems are connected through an electron chain system
known as Z sheme. Cyclic photophosphorylation also occurs when light of wavelength
beyond 680 nm are available for extraction.

Chemiosmotic Hypothesis

 Like in respiration, in photosynthesis too, ATP synthesis is linked to development of a proton

gradient across a membrane. In respiration, protons accumulate in the intermembrane space of
the mitochondria when electrons move through the ETS .
 In splitting of water proton or hydrogen ion is produced in lumen of thylkaoid. NADP
reductase enzyme is located in located on the stroma side of the membrane. Within the
chloroplast, protons in the stroma decrease in number, while in the lumen there is
accumulation of proton.

W HERE ARE THE ATP AND NADPH USED

 Product of light reactions are ATP, NADPH, and O2. O2 diffuses out of chloroplast while
ATP and NADPH used to drive the process leading to synthesis of food, this is the
biosynthetic phase. In the process of photosynthesis CO2 and H2O combine to produce sugar
(CH2O)n.
 Melvin and Calvin use 14C in algal photosynthesis and discovered that first CO2 fixation
product was a 3- carbon organic acid which is 3- phosphoglyceric acid (called calvin cycle).
 At the conclusion, those plant in which first product of CO2 fixation is a C3 acid (PGA) and
those in which the first product was C4 (Oxaloacetic Acid).

The Calvin Cycle

 Calvin pathway occur in all photosynthetic plants, whether C 3 or C4 plants. Calvin cycle can
be described under three stages. Carboxylation – fixation of CO2 into a stable organic
intermediate, and most crucial step of calvin cycle where CO2 is utilized for Carboxylation of
RuBP (Sugar Ribulose biphosphate). In carboxylation RuBP is catalyst. Reduction – in this
phase 2 ATP molecule used for phosphorylation and 2 NADPH for reduction of CO2
molecule. Regeneration – every CO2 molecule entering the calvin cycle required 3 molecule
 of ATP and 2 molecule of NADPH. To make one mole of glucose 6 turns of calvin cycle is
required.

THE C4 PATHWAY
 Plant of dry tropical region have C4 pathway. These plants have the C4 oxaloacetic acid as the
first CO2 fixation product. C4 plant have special type of leaf anatomy, they tolerate high
temperature, response to high light intensities, lack process of photorespiration, and have
greater productivity of biomass.
 Vascular bundle of C4 plants is called bundle sheath cells which have vast number of
chloroplast and leaves have Kranz anatomy. Example of C4 plant is maize and sorghum.
Presence of bundle sheath would help you identifying C4 plants.
 Primary CO2 acceptor in C4 plant is a three carbon molecule named phosphenol pyruvate
present in mesophyll cells. also forms other four carbon compound e.g. malic acid or aspartic
acid in mesophyll cells. the calvin cycle occurs in all C3 plants in its mesophyll cell but in C4
plants it occurred in bundle sheath cells.

PHOTORESPIRATION
 RuBisCO has much greater affinity for CO2 when CO2 : O2 are equal. In photorespiratory
pathway there is neither synthesis of sugar nor of ATP or NADPH. In C4 plants
photorespiration does not occur because they have a mechanism that increases the CO2
concentration at the enzyme site. Yield and productivity is more than other plants in C4 plants
because lack photorespiration.

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 Photosynthesis is under the influence of several factors both internal and external. The plant
factor includes number, size, age and orientation of leaves, mesophyll cells and chloroplast,
internal CO2 concentration and the amount of chlorophyll. External factors such as sunlight,
temperature, CO2 concentration and water.
 Blackmans limiting factors states that – if a chemical is affected by more than one factors,
then its rate will be determined by factor which is nearest to its minimal value: it is the factor
which directly affects the process if its quantity is changed.

Light

 There is a linier relationship between incident of light and CO2 rate at low light intensities. At
higher light intensities gradually the rate does not show further increase as another factors
become limiting. Light saturation occurs at 10 % of the full sunlight.
 Hence light is a rarely limiting factor in nature. Increase in incident light beyond a point can
breakdown of chlorophyll and damage photosynthesis.

Carbon dioxide Concentration

 Increase in concentration upto 0.005 % can cause an increase in CO 2 fixation rates: beyond
this the levels can become damaging over long period of time. At high light concentration
both C4 and C3 plants show increase in the rates of photosynthesis and vice versa. C3 plants
responds to higher CO2 concentration by increased rate of photosynthesis leading to more
production e.g. tomato and bell pepper .

Temperature

 Dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature controlled. C4 plants respond to higher
temperature and show higher rate of photosynthesis while C3 plants have much lower
temperature optimum. Tropical plants have higher temperature optimum than temperate
plants.
Water

 Water stress caused the stomata to close hence reducing the CO2 availability. Besides, water
stress also makes leaves wilt, thus reducing the surface area of the leaves and their metabolic
activity as well.

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
 Only green plants and cyanobactera bacteria can prepare food of their own by photosynthesis.
They trap light and converted it into chemical energy that is stored in glucose, sucrose and
starch. Animals are heterotrophic obtain food directly from plants (herbivorous) and
indirectly form (carnivorous). Saprophytes like fungi are dependent on dead and decaying
matter. Photosynthesis takes place within the chloroplast (in eukaryotes), whereas breakdown
of complex molecule to yield energy takes place in cytoplasm and in mitochondria. Braking
of C-C bonds through oxidation, leading to release of considerable amount of energy is
called oxidation. Not only carbohydrates oxidized to produce energy but even proteins, fats
and organic acids used as respiratory substance.

DO PLANTS BREATHE
 Unlike animals plants does not have any specialized for gaseous exchange except stomata and
lenticels. Plant roots, stems and leaves respire at lower rate than an animal, only during
photosynthesis large volume of gaseous exchange takes place. Lenticels beneath the bark are
dead cells they only provide mechanical support.
 The complete combustion of glucose which produces CO2 and H2O as end product yield
energy most of which is given out of heat. C6H12O6 + 6CO2 Cenergy.
During respiration oxygen is utilized and carbon dioxide, water and energy released as by
product. The combustion reaction required oxygen. All living organism retain the enzymatic
machinery to partly oxidized the glucose without help of oxygen. This breakdown of glucose
into pyruvic acid called glycolysis.

GLYCOLYSIS
 The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Myerhof and J. Parnas called
EMP pathway. In anaerobic pathway it is the only way of respiration. Glycolysis occurs in
cytoplasm of all living cells. in this process glucose undergoes partial oxidation to form two
molecule of pyruvic acid.
 In plants glucose drives form sucrose. Sucrose is converted into glucose and fructose by the
enzyme invertase and these two mono saccharides readily enter the glycolytic pathway.
Glucose and fructose are phosphorylated to give rise to glucose-6- phosphate by enzyme
hexokines.
 ATP is utilized in conversion of glucose into glucose-6- phosphate and conversion of
fructose-6- phosphate into fructose 1,6- bisulphate. Pyruvit acid is the key product of
glycolysis. Three ways are there to produce pyruvic acid from glycogen. Lactic acid
formation, alcoholic fermentation, aerobic respiration. Some organism adopts krebs cycle as
aerobic respiration this require O2 supply.

FERMENTATION
 Incomplete oxidation of glucose under anaerobic condition in which pyruvic acid is converted
to CO2 and ethanol. Pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase works as catalyst
in this reaction. In muscle during exercise when oxygen is inadequate for cellular respiration
pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid by lactate dehydrogenase.
 In fermentation of lactic acid and alcohol, less energy is produced if compared with normal
glucose breakdown as well as the process is hazardous.
  Aerobic respiration process leads to complex oxidation of organic substance in presence of
O2 and releases CO2, H2O and water and large amount of energy.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
 Takes place in mitochondria, the final product of glycolysis is pyruvate. it transported form
cytoplasm to mitochondria .
 Complete oxidation of pyruvate and removal of all H2 atoms leaving 3 molecules of CO2.
The first process takes place within mitochondria and second process located in inner
membrane of mitochondria.
 Pyruvate formed by the glycolytic catabolism of carbohydrate in cytosol. During this process
two molecules of NADH produced from two molecule of pyruvic acid (produced from
glucose during glycolysis).
 Glucose has been broken down to release CO2, eight molecules of NADH + H+.

Electron Transport System (ETS) and Oxidative Phosphorylation

 The process utilise the energy stored in NADH+H+. The metabolic pathway through which the
electron passes from one carrier to another is called (ETS). Present in the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
 When electron passes form one carrier to another the electron transport chain coupled to ATP
synthesis for the production of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
 Number of ATP molecule synthesized is depending on nature of electron donor. Oxidation of
NADH molecule gives rise to 3 ATP molecules.
 Presence of O2 is essential, since it drives the whole process by removing hydrogen from the
system. O2 act as a final H2 acceptor.
 It is mentioned earlier that energy released during electron transport system utilise in
synthesizing ATP with the help of ATP synthesizer.

RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET

 Orderly pathway function glycolysis-TCA cycle- ETS. The NADH synthesized in glycolysis
is transferred into the mitochondria and undergoes oxidative phosphorylation. Only glucose is
being respired no other alternative substrates are entering in the pathway at any of the
intermediary way.
 There can be a gain of 38 ATP molecules during aerobic respiration of one molecule of
glucose.
 Fermentation only accounts for a partial breakdown of glucose whereas in aerobic respiration
it is completely degraded to CO2 and H2O. In fermentation NADH is oxidized to NAD+
slowly, but in aerobic respiration reacts vigorously.

AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY
 All carbohydrates first converted into glucose before they are used for respiration. Fats need
to breakdown into glycerol and fatty acids first. If fatty acids were to be respired they would
first be degraded into acetyle CoA and enter the pathway.
 Since respiration involves brake down of substrates, the respiratory process has traditionally
been considered a catabolic process and respiratory pathway as catabolic pathway.
 Breaking down process of living organism is catabolism and synthesis is anabolism.
Respiratory pathway is involved in both anabolism and catabolism therefore the process is
called ampibolic pathway.

RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
 During aerobic respiration O2 is consumed and CO2 is released. Ration of the volume of CO2
evolve and ratio of O2 consumed is call respiratory quotient. When carbohydrate is used as
substrate and completely oxidized the respiratory quotient is 1. When fat is used in
 respiration the respiratory quotient is less than 1. When protein is used in respiration the
quotient is 0.9.

PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

GROWTH
 Growth is accompanied by metabolic process (both anabolic and catabolic).
 Plant grows through their life due to the presence of meristems in certain locations in their
body. Cells of such meristems have the capacity to divide and self-perpetuate. Root apical
meristems and shoot apical meristems responsible for primary growth of plants.
 In dicotyledonous plants and gymnosperms lateral meristems, cork-cambium appears in later
life. These are the meristems that cause the increase in girth of the organism.

Growth is Measurable

 Growth is principally a consequence of increase in the amount of protoplasm. Growth is

measured by various parameters e.g. increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area,
volume and cell number.
 Growth of pollen tube is measured in terms of its length, an increase in surface area denotes
the growth in a dorsiventral leaf.

Phases of Growth

 Period of growth divided into three phases meristematic, elongation and maturation. Both the
root apex and shoot apex present the meristematic phase of growth because rich in
protoplasm. The cell walls primarily thin and cellulosic with abundant plasmodesmatal
connections. The cell proximal to the maristematic zone represents the phase of elongation.
Increase cell vacuolation, cell enlargement and new cell wall deposition are the characteristics
of the cell in this phase.

Conditions for Growth

 The plant cells grow in size by cell enlargement which in turn required water. Turgidity of
cells helped in extension growth. Oxygen helps in releasing metabolic energy essential for
growth activities. Nutrients are required by plants for the synthesis of protoplasm and act as
source of energy.
 Optimum temperature range best suited for its growth. An environmental signal such as light
gravity also affects certain phase of growth.

DIFFERENTIATION, DEDIFFERENTIATION AND REDIFFERENTIATION

 During differentiation cell undergoes few to major structural changes in both their cell wall
and protoplasm. Living differentiated cells have lost their capacity to divide can regain the
capacity of division under certain condition, this phenomenon termed as dedifferention.

DEVELOPMENT
 Plants follow different pathway in response to environment or phase of life to form different
kinds of structure this ability is called plasticity. E.g. heterophyll in cotton, coriander and
larkspur. In such plants leaves of juvenile plants are different from mature plants.
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
Characteristics

 Plant growth regulator could be indole compound (IAA), adenine compounds (purine,
kinetin) , derivatives of carotenoids (absecisic acid, ABA), terpenes (Gibberellic acid GA3)
or gases (ethylene C2H4). One group involves in growth promoting activities such as cell
division, cell enlargement, pattern formation, tropic growth, flowering, fruiting and seed
formation e.g. auxin, gibberelline, cytokinine. They are involves in growth inhibiting
activities. Gaseous ethylene largely inhibitor of growth activities.

The Discovery of Plant Growth Regulators

 Auxin was isolated by F.W.Went from tips of coleoptiles of oat seeding. The bakanae (foolish
seeding) disease of rice was caused by a fungal pathogen Gibberella Fujikoroi.

Physiological Effects of Plant Growth Regulators

Auxins

 Auxins first isolated from human urine. The term auxin is applied to the indole-3-acetic-acid.
Auxin generally produced by growing apices and stem and roots. IAA and IBA (indole
butyric acid) has been isolated from plant. NAA (Naphthalene acetic acid) and 2, 4-D (2, 4-
dicholorophenoxyacetic) Are synthetic auxins.
 Auxins helps in initiate rooting in stem cutting, promote flowering in pineapples, helps in
fruit and leafs drop at early stage,
 In higher plants the growing apical buds inhibits the growth of lateral buds this phenomenon
is known as apical dominance.
 Auxins also induce parthenocarpy in tomatoes, widely used as herbicides, used to killed
dicotyledonous weeds, used to prepare weed free lawns by gardeners also controls xylem
differentiation and cell growth.

Gibberellins

 Gibberellins denoted as GA1, GA2, GA3. All Gibberellins are acidic. Can increase length of
grapes stalks, helps fruit like apple to elongated and improve its shape, they also decay
senesces of fruit thus can stay fresh for long time. GA3 also used to speed up the malting
process in brewing industry. Spraying gibberellins in sugarcane crop increase the length of
the stem, used to early seed production. And also promote bolting in beets and cabbage.

Cytokinins

 Not naturally occurred in plants, isolated form zeatin from corn-kernels and coconut milk.
Natural cytokinins synthesized in regions where rapid cell division occurs e.g. root apices,
developing shoot buds, young fruits. Helps in production of new leaves, chloroplast in
leaves, lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation. Cytokinins helps overcome the
apical dominance.

Ethylene

 Influence of ethylene on plants includes horizontal growth of seeding. Ethylene promotes

senescence and abscission of plant organs especially of leaves and flowers. Highly effective
in fruit ripening it enhance respiration rate during ripening of the fruit. Ethylene break seed
and bud dormancy, initiate seed germination in peanut seeds, sprouting of potatoes. Also
promotes root grown and root hair formation thus helping the plants to increase their
 absorption surface. Ethylene initiate flowering in pineapple and mango. Promotes female
flower in cucumbers thereby increasing the yields.

Abscisic acid

 Act as a general plant growth inhibitor and inhibitor of plant metabolism. Inhibit seed
germination, stimulate closure of stomata and increases the tolerance of plant to various kinds
of stresses. Also called as stress hormone. ABA helps seeds to withstand desiccation and
other factor unfavourable for growth. Sometimes ABA act against GA.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

RESPIRATORY ORGANS
 Lower invertebrate like sponge, coelenterates, and flatworms exchange O2 with CO2 by
simple diffusion over their entire body surface. Earthworms use their cuticles and insects use
tracheal tubes to transport atmospheric air within the body. Gills used by most arthropods and
molluses. Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals respire through lungs. Frogs can respire through skins (cutaneous respiration).

Human Respiratory System

 The nasal chamber opens into pharynx which is the common passage for food and air.
pharynx opens through larynx region into trachea. larynx a cartilaginous box helps in sound
production. During swallowing, glottis can be covered by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap
called epiglottis. Trachea extended up to mid thoracic cavity. Each terminal bronchiole give
rise alveoli. Lung covered by pleurae with pleural fluid which reduce friction on the lung
surface.
 Air exchanging part is the site of actual diffusion of O2, CO2 between blood and atmospheric
air. Lungs are situated between thoracic chamber. thoracic chamber formed by vertebrate
column, sternum and ribs.
 Steps involves in respiration :- 1) breathing, air is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air is
released out. 2) Diffusion of gases in alveolar region. 3) diffusion of O2 and CO2 between
blood and tissue. 4) utilization of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release
of CO2.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING
 Inspiration during which atmospheric air is drawn in and expiration by which alveolar air is
release out. Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the lungs is less than atmospheric
pressure. Expiration takes place when the intra pulmonary pressure is higher than atmospheric
pressure. Inspiration initiated by contraction of diaphragm. On an average a healthy human
breath 12-16 times in a minute. Breathing movements can be estimated by spirometer which
helps in clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.

EXCHANGE OF GASES
 Alveoli primary site of gaseous exchange, also occurs between blood and tissue. O2 and CO2
exchanged by simple diffusion based on pressure/concentration gradient. Solubility of gases
and thickness of the membranes involves in diffusion.
 Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times more than O2. Diffusion of CO2 is much higher as compare
with O2. Diffusion membrane is made up of squamous epithelium, endothelium and alveolar
capillaries.
TRANSPORT OF GASES
 Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2. About 97% of O2 is transported by RBC
in the blood. Remaining 3% O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the plasma. Nearly 20-
25 % of CO2 transported by RBC whereas 70 % of it is carried as bicarbonate.

Transport of Oxygen

 O2 can bind with hemoglobin in a reversible manner to form oxyhemoglobin. Each

hemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of O2. Pressure of CO2,
hydrogen ion concentration and temperature are the factors which can interfere binding.
Sigmoid curve also called oxygen dissociation carve, highly effective in studying effect of
factors like pCO2, H+ concentration on binding O2 with hemoglobin. O2 bounds to
hemoglobin in the lung surface and get dissociated at the tissue. 100 ml of blood delivered 5
ml of O2 under normal physical condition.

Transport of Carbon dioxide

 CO2 carried out by hemoglobin as carbamino – hemoglobin, pO2 is a major factor which
could affect this binding. When pCO2 is high and pO2 is low in tissue, more binding of CO2
is occurred and vise versa. RBC contains high concentration of enzyme and carbonic
anhydrase. At the tissue site where pressure of CO2 is high is due to catabolism. Co2 diffuse
in blood and forms HCO3 -. CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level. Every 100 ml of
deoxygenated blood delivers 4ml of CO2 to alveoli.

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
 A specialize centre present in the medulla region of the brain called respiratory rhythm centre
is primarily responsible for this regulation. Another centre present in the pons region of the
brain called pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of respiratory rhythm centre. The
chemosensitive area situated in adjacent to rhythm centre which is highly sensitive to Co2 and
H2O ions.

DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Asthama is due to inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles. Emphysema a chronic disorder
in which alveolar walls are damaged due to which respiratory surface decreased and the major
cause is cigarette smoking. Occupational respiratory disorder in industries specially in
grinding stone or cement industries give rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis proliferation
of fibrous tissue.

BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

BLOOD
 A special connective tissue consisting of fluid matrix and plsma. Plasma a viscous fluid
comprises 55 percent of the blood. Water and protein concentration in plasma is 92 % and 6-
8% respectively. Fibrinogen, globulin and albumins (proteins) present in plasma. Fibrinogen
needed for blood clotting, globulin for defensive mechanism and albumin helps in maintain
osmotic balance. Plasma contain small amount of Na+, Ca++,Mg++, HCO3-, Cl-. Factors for
coagulation present in plasma in inactive form. Plasma without clotting factor is called serum.
Formed Elements

 Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets they collectively constitute 45 % of the blood.

Erythrocytes (RBC) most abundant of all cells in blood 5.5 million RBC in mm-3. RBC
devoid of nucleus in most mammals and are biconcave in shape. RBC are red due to presence
of Haemoglobin. A healthy individual have 12-16 grams of haemoglobin in every 100 ml of
blood.
 Leucocytes (WBC), they have nucleus. Concentration in blood is 6000-8000 WBC in mm-3.
Have two main categories – granulocytes and agranulocytes. Neutrophils,eosinophil and
basophile are different types of granulocytes while lymphocytes and monocytes are
agranulocytes. In WBC Neutrophils are abundant and basophils are least. Neutrophils and
helps in destroying foreign organism in our body.
 Basophile secretes histamine, serotonin, heparin involved in inflammatory reactions.
Eosinophil associated with allergenic reactions and lymphocyte ‘B’ and ‘T’ responsible for
immune response of the body.
 Platelets also called thrombocytes, produced form megakaryocytes of bone marrow. Helps in
blood clotting, reduction in platelets cause not clotting of blood.

Blood Groups

 ABO and Rh. ABO grouping based on presence or absence of two surface antigens on RBC
namely ‘A’ and ‘B’. similarly plasma of different individuals contain to natural antibodies.

Table on blood and donor compatibilities

Blood Group Antigen on RBCs Antibodies in plasma Donor’s Group
A A Anti - B A&O
B B Anti - A B&O
AB A,B NIL AB, A, B, O
O NIL Anti – A & B O

 Group ‘O’ blood can be donated to person with any other blood group hence called universal
donor. AB is universal exceptor.

Rh grouping

 Rh antigen observed on the surface of RBCs of majority of humans, such individuals called
(Rh positive) and in those in whom the antigen is absent called Rh negative. In case of
subsequence pregnancies the Rh antibody from the mother (Rh –ve) can leak into the blood of
the foetus (Rh + ve) and destroy foetus RBC, this could cause severe anemia and jaundice to
the baby, this condition is known as erythroblastosis foetalis.

Coagulation of Blood

 We observe a dark reddish brown scum is formed at the site of a cut or injury over a period of
time it is a clot formed mainly of network of threads called fibrins in which dead and
damaged formed elements of blood are trapped. Fibrins are formed by conversion of inactive
fibrinogens in the plasma by the enzyme thrombins formed from prothrombins., an enzyme
complex thrombokinase is required for the above reaction. Calcium ions play a vital role in
clotting of blood.

LYMPH (TISSUE FLUID)

 Lymph (tissue fluid) is also known as interstitial fluid, has the same mineral distribution as
that in plasma. Exchange of gases and nutrients between the blood and the cells always occur
through this fluid. Lymph is colourless fluid containing specialized lymphocytes which are
responsible for immune response of the body. Fats are absorbs through lymph in the lacteals
present in the intestinal villi.
CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
 Circulatory pathways are of two types ‘open’ present in arthropods and molluscs whereas
annelids and chordates have a closed circulatory system (more advantageous and precisely
regulated). All vertebrate possess a muscular chambered heart. Fishes have two chambered
heart with an atrium and ventricle. Amphibians and reptiles have three chambered heart with
two atrium and one ventricle. Whereas crocodile, birds and mammals has four chambered
hearts. Two atrium and two ventricle.
 In amphibians and reptiles left atrium receives oxygenated blood from gills/lungs/skins and
right atrium gets the deoxygenated blood form the body. In birds and mammals oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood received by the left and right atria respectively passes on to the
ventricles of the same side. Ventricles pumps it out without mixing , hence this have double
circulation.

Human Circulatory System

 Heart mesodermally derived organ, situated in thoracic cavity, protected by double walled
membranous bag pericardium. Our heart has 4 chamber small upper chambers called atria and
2 large lower chambers called ventricles. A muscular cell wall separate right and left atria is
called “atrial septum”. And left and right ventricle separated by “inter-ventricular septum”.
The atrium and ventricles of the same side is also separated by “atrio – vascular septum”.
 The opening between the right atrium and right ventricle guarded by a valve known as
“tricuspid valve”. Whereas bicuspid and mitral valve guards the opening between the left
atrium and left ventricle. opening of right and left ventricles into the pulmonary artery and
the aorta are provided with the semilunar valves. The valves allows the flow of blood only in
one direction (atria to ventricles and ventricles to pulmonary artery or aorta). This valve
prevents backflow of blood.
 Walls of ventricle are much thicker than atria. A specialized cardiac musculature called nodal
tissue distributed in heart. A patch of this tissue is present in right upper corner of right atrium
called sino-atrial node (SAN) another tissue is seen in the lower left corner of the right atrium
is called atrio – ventricular node (AVN). These branches give rise to minute fibres throughout
the ventricular musculature of the respective sides and are called purkinje fibres
 The sino-atrial node (SAN) can generate the maximum number of action potential responsible
for initiating and maintaining the rhythmic contractile activity of the heart hence called
“pacemaker”.

Cardiac Cycle

 As the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open, blood from thep ulmonary veins and vena cava
flows into the left and the right ventricle respectively through the left and right atria. The
semilunar valves are closed at this stage. SAN now undergo a simultaneous contraction the
atrial systole This increases the flow of blood into the ventricles. action potential conducted to
the ventricular by AVN and AV bundle from where the bundle of His transmits the entire
ventricular musculature.
 Ventricular systole increases the ventricular pressure causing the closure of tricuspid and
bicuspid valves due to attempted backflow of blood into the atria. semilunar valves prevents
the backflow of blood into the ventricles. Duration of cardiac cycle is 0.8 second. Each
ventricle pumps out approximately 70mL of blood which is called stoke volume. stroke
volume multiplied by the heart rate gives the cardiac output. Sound “lub” associated with
closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valve where “dub” associated with closure semilunar valve.

Electrocardiograph (ECG)

 To obtain a standard ECG patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads (one
to each wrist and to the left ankle) that continuously monitor the heart activity. ECG is
identified with a letter from P to T. P-wave represents the electrical excitation of the atria
 which leads to contraction of both the atria. T-wave represents the return of the ventricles
from excited to normal state (repolarisation). The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole.
QRS complex represents the depolarisation of the ventricles.

DOUBLE CIRCULATION
 Each artery and vein consists of three layers: an inner lining of squamous endothelium, the
tunica intima, a middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibres, the tunica media, and an
external layer of fibrous connective tissue with collagen fibres, the tunica externa.

 Blood pumped by the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery, whereas the left ventricle
pumps blood into the aorta. The deoxygenated blood pumped into the pulmonary artery is
passed on to the lungs from where the oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary veins
into the left atrium. Constitutes pulmonary circulation.

 A unique vascular connection exists between the digestive tract and liver called hepatic portal
system. The hepatic portal vein carries blood from intestine to the liver before it is delivered
to the systemic circulation.

REGULATION OF CARDIAC ACTIVITY

 Normal activities of heart auto regulated by specialized muscle called (nodal tissue). Hence
heart is called myogenic. A special centre in the medulla oblongata can moderate the cardiac
function through autonomic nervous system (ANS) on the other hand parasympathetic neural
signals reduce heart rate. Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac output .

DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to as atherosclerosis, affects the vessels that supply
blood to the heart muscle. It is caused by deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous
tissues, which makes the lumen of arteries narrower.
 Angina: It is also called ‘angina pectoris’. A symptom of acute chest pain appears when no
enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

 The process of excreting ammonia is Ammonotelism. Many bony fishes aquatic amphibians
and aquatic insects are ammonotelic in nature. generally excreted by diffusion across body
surfaces or through gill surfaces (in fish) as ammonium ions. Mammals, many terrestrial
amphibians and marine fishes mainly excrete urea and are called ureotelic animals. Reptiles,
birds, land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of pellet or
paste with a minimum loss of water and are called uricotelic animals.
 Protonephridia or flame cells are the excretory structures in Platyhelminthes (Flatworms,
e.g., Planaria. rotifers, some annelids and the cephalochordate – Amphioxus. Nephridia are
the tubular excretory structures of earthworms and other annelids. Malpighian tubules
excretory structures of most of the insects help in the removal of nitrogenous wastes and
osmoregulation. Antennal glands or green glands performs excretory function in crustaceans
like prawns.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 In humans, the excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary
bladder and a urethra. Kidneys situated between the levels of last thoracic and third lumbar
vertebra close to the dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity. Each kidney 10-12 cm in
length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an average weight of 120-170 gram. Inner
to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called the renal pelvis with projections called
calyces. Inside the kidney, there are two zones, an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
  The cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids as renal columns called Columns of
Bertini. Nephron has two parts – the glomerulus and the renal tubule. Blood from the
glomerulus is carried away by an efferent arteriole. renal tubule begins with cup-like structure
called Bowman’s capsule. Glomerulus alongwith Bowman’s capsule, is called the malpighian
body or renal corpuscle. Tubule further form proximal convoluted tubule. A hairpin shaped
Henle’s loop is the next part of the tubule. Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT situated in
the cortical region of the kidney whereas loop of Henle dips into the medulla. The nephron
which has very long loop of henle called juxta medullary nephrons.

URINE FORMATION
 in urine formation is the filtration of blood, which is carried out by the glomerulus and is
called glomerular filtration 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the kidneys per minute which
constitute roughly 1/5th of the blood pumped out by each ventricle of the heart in a minute.
The epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule called podocytes Blood is filtered so finely through
these membranes that almost all the constituents of the plasma except the proteins pass onto
the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule. Therefore, it is considered as aprocess of ultra filtration.
glomerular filtration rate (GFR). 125 ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres per day.
 It is observed that nearly 99 per cent of the filtrate has to be reabsorbed by the renal tubules
this process is called re-absorption. tubular epithelial cells perform this either by active or
passive mechanisms. substances like glucose, amino acids, Na +, etc., in the filtrate are
reabsorbed actively whereas the nitrogenous wastes are absorbed by passive transport.
During urine formation, the tubular cells secrete substances like H + , K+ and ammonia into the
filtrate.

FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES

 Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium which
increases the surface area for reabsorption? Nearly all of the essential nutrients PCT also help
to maintain the pH and ionic balance by selective secretion of hydrogen ions and ammonia
and by absorption of HCO3- from it.
 Henle’s Loop: Reabsorption is minimum plays a significant role in the maintenance of high
osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid. Permeable to water but almost impermeable to
electrolytes.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): Re-absorption of NA+ and water. DCT is also capable of
re-absorption of HCO3- and selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium ions and NH3 to
maintain the pH and sodium-potassium balance in blood.

REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION

 Functioning of the kidneys is efficiently monitored and regulated by hormonal feedback
mechanisms involving the hypothalamus, JGA. Osmoreceptors activated by changes in blood
volume, body fluid volume and ionic concentration excessive loss of fluid from the body can
activate these receptors which stimulate the hypothalamus to release anti diuretic hormone
(ADH) or vasopressin from the neurohypophysis. ADH facilitates water re-absorption thereby
preventing diuresis. increase in body fluid volume can switch off the osmoreceptors and
suppress the ADH release. This causes an increase in blood pressure.
 Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water from the distal parts of the tubule This
mechanism generally known as Renin-Angiotensin mechanism.

MICTURITION
 The process of release of urine is called micturition and the neural mechanisms causing it are
called the micturition reflex. When the urinary bladder is full Central Nervous system send
signal to release the pressure through urination. urine formed as a light yellow clolor, slightly
acidic pH 6. average, 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per day. Presence of glucose
(Glycosuria) and ketone bodies (Ketonuria) in urine indicative of diabetes mellitus.
ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION
 lungs remove CO2 approximately 200mL/ minute. Liver, secretes bile-containing substances
like bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins and drugs. Sweat
containing NaCl, small amounts of urea, lactic acid. the primary function of sweat is to
facilitate a cooling effect on the body surface. Sebaceous glands eliminate certain substances
like sterols, hydrocarbons and wax through sebum, provide a protective oily covering for the
skin.
DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
 Accumulation of urea in blood, called uremia. urea can be removed by a process called
hemodialysis. During the process Blood drained from a convenient artery into a dialyzing unit
after adding an anticoagulant like heparin.
 Renal calculi: Stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.) formed within the
kidney.
 Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.

LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

TYPES OF MOVEMENT
 Human body exhibit three main types of movements, amoeboid, ciliary and muscular. Cells in
our body like macrophages and leucocytes in blood exhibit amoeboid movement.
Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments also involved in amoeboid movement. Ciliary
movement occurs in organs which are lined by ciliated epithelium.
 Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract is also facilitated by the ciliary
movement. Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc, requires muscular movement.
Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal and neural systems.

MUSCLE
 Flagellar movement helps in the swimming of spermatozoa, maintenance of water current in
the canal system of sponges and in locomotion of Protozoans like Euglena. Muscle is a
specialized tissue of mesodermal origin. Muscles classified using different criteria, based on
location, appearance and nature. Based on three types of muscles identified: (i) Skeletal (ii)
Visceral and (iii) Cardiac.
 Skeletal muscles: Also called striated muscles. their activities are under the voluntary control
of the nervous system called voluntary muscles too. Primarily involved in locomotory actions.
Visceral muscles: Located in the inner walls of hollow visceral organs like the alimentary
canal, reproductive tract, smooth in appearance hence called smooth muscles. Their activities
are not under voluntary control of the nervous system hence non-voluntary muscles. They
assist transportation of food through the digestive tract and gametes through the genital tract.
Cardiac muscles: striated muscle and involuntary in nature.
 The ER i.e. the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle fibres is the store house of calcium ions.
Characteristic feature of the muscle fibre is the presence of a large number of parallelly
arranged filaments in the sarcoplasm called myofilaments or myofibrils. study of the
myofibril has established that the striated appearance is due to the distribution pattern of two
important proteins – Actin and Myosin. Actin filaments are thinner as compared to the
myosin filaments, hence are commonly called thin and thick filaments respectively.
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
 Muscle contraction is initiated by signal by the CNS) via a motor neuron. Junction between a
motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is called neuromuscular junction. A
neural signal reaching this junction releases a neurotransmitter (Acetyl choline) which
generates an action potential in the sarcolemma. causes the release of calcium ions into the
sarcoplasm Increase.
 Repeated activation of the muscles can lead to the accumulation of lactic acid due to
anaerobic breakdown of glycogen in them, causing fatigue. Muscle contains a red coloured
oxygen storing pigment called myoglobin. Myoglobin content is high in some of the muscles
which give a reddish appearance. Such muscles are called the Red fibres contain plenty of
mitochondria these muscles therefore, called aerobic muscles.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. Bone and cartilage are
specialized connective tissues. former has a very hard matrix due to calcium salts in it and the
latter has slightly pliable matrix due to chondroitin salts. Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones
the skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton. The skull composed of
two sets of bones cranial (8) and facial (14) that totals to 22 bones. U shaped hyoid bone
present in buccal cavity. – Malleus, Incus and Stapes, collectively called Ear Ossicles.
 Our vertebral column formed by 26 serially arranged units called vertebrae and is dorsally
placed. First vertebra is the atlas. The vertebral column is differentiated into cervical (7),
thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (1-fused) and coccygeal (1-fused) regions starting from the
skull.
 Sternum flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax. Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not
connected ventrally and are therefore called floating ribs. Thoracic. bones of the limbs along
with their girdles constitute the appendicular skeleton. Each limb is made of 30 bones. The
bones of the hand (fore limb) humerus, radius and ulna, carpals (wrist bone – 8), metacarpals
(palm bone – 5) and phalanges (14). tibia and fibula, tarsals (ankle bones – 7). A cup shaped
bone called patella cover the knee ventrally (knee cap).
 Scapula is a large triangular flat bone situated in the dorsal part of the thorax between the
second and the seventh ribs. Pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones Each coxal bone is
formed by the fusion of three bones – ilium, ischium and pubis.

JOINTS
 Joints have been classified into three major structural forms, namely, fibrous, cartilaginous
and synovial.
 Fibrous joints do not allow any movement. This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones
which fuse end-to-end.
 Cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are joined together with the help of cartilages.
 Synovial joints presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity between the articulating surfaces of
the two bones allows considerable movement. Ball and socket joint (between humerus and
pectoral girdle), hinge joint (knee joint), pivot joint (between atlas and axis), gliding joint
(between the carpals) and saddle joint (between carpal and metacarpal of thumb).

DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Myasthenia gravis: Auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leads to
weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscle.
 Muscular dystrophy: Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle mostly due to genetic
disorder.
 Tetany: Rapid spasms (wild contractions) in muscle due to low Ca++ in body fluid..
 Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterised by decreased bone mass and increased
chances of fractures. Decreased levels of estrogen are a common cause.
 Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION
 Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and complement the
functions of one another.

NEURAL SYSTEM
 Composed of specialised cells called neurons which can detect, receive and transmit different
kinds of stimuli. Neural organisation is very simple in lower invertebrates example, in Hydra
it is composed of a network of neurons. Neural system is better organised in insects brain is
present along with ganglia and neural tissues.

HUMAN NEURAL SYSTEM

 Central neural system (CNS) & peripheral neural system (PNS). The CNS includes the brain
and the spinal cord. PNS comprises of all the nerves of the body associated with the CNS.
PNS are of two types: afferent fibres and efferent fibres.
 The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS and the efferent
fibres transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to the concerned peripheral tissues/organs.
 PNS is divided into two divisions called somatic neural system and autonomic neural system.
The somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles while the
autonomic neural system transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary organs and
smooth muscles of the body.
 The autonomic neural system is further classified into sympathetic neural system and
parasympathetic neural system.

NEURON AS STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF NEURAL SYSTEM

 A neuron composed of three major parts, cell body, dendrites and axon. Cell body contains
cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and certain granular bodies called Nissl’s granules.
Short fibres which branch repeatedly and project out of the cell body contain Nissl’s granules
and are called dendrites. Transmit impulses towards the cell body.
 The axon is a long fibre, each branch terminates as a bulb-like structure called synaptic knob
which possess synaptic vesicles containing chemicals called neurotransmitters.
 Neurons are divided into three types, multipolar with one axon and two or more dendrites
found in cerebral cortex. Bipolar (one axon and one dendrite) found in retina of eye. Unipolar
(one axon only) in embryonic stage.
 Axons are of two types myelinated and non myelinated. myelinated nerve fibres are
enveloped with Schwann cells. The gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called
nodes of Ranvier. myelinated nerve fibres found in spinal and cranial nerves. Unmyelinated
nerve fibre commonly found in autonomous and the somatic neural systems.

GENERATION AND CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULS

 When a neuron is not conducting any impulse, i.e., resting, the axonal membrane is
comparatively more permeable to potassium ions (K+) and nearly comparatively more
permeable to potassium ions (K+) and nearly impermeable to sodium ions (Na+).during nerve
impulse axon membrane has a positive charge on the outer surface and negative charge in
inner surface. The rise in the stimulus-induced permeability to Na+ is extremely shortlived.

Transmission of Impulses

 Impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through junctions called synapses. There
are two types of synapses, namely, electrical synapses and chemical synapses. Impulse
 transmission across an electrical synapse is always faster than that across a chemical synapse.
Electrical synapses are rare in our system.

CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM

 Bcts as the ‘command and control system controls the voluntary movements, balance of the
body, functioning of vital involuntary organs (e.g., lungs, heart, kidneys, etc.),
thermoregulation, hunger and thirst, circadian (24-hour) rhythms of our body, activities of
several endocrine glands and human behaviour. It is also the site for processing of vision,
hearing, speech, memory, intelligence, emotions and thoughts.
 Brain is covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer layer dura mater, middle layer
arachnoid, inner layer pia mater. Brain divided into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.

Forebrain

 Consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus. Cerebrum major part of the human brain.
Cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally, left and right cerebral hemispheres connected by a
tract of nerve fibres called corpus callosum. The cerebral cortex is referred to as the grey
matter due to its greyish appearance. The region of cerebral cortex contains motor and
sensory areas hence called association areas responsible for complex functions like
intersensory associations, memory and communication. The cerebrum wraps around a
structure called thalamus, which is a major coordinating centre for sensory and motor
signaling.
 Hypothalamus lies at the base of the thalamus. The hypothalamus contains a number of
centres which control body temperature, urge for eating and drinking also contains
neurosecretory cells secrete hormones called hypothalamic hormones. structures like
amygdala, hippocampus form a complex structure called the limbic lobe or limbic system
with the hypothalamus, it is involved in the regulation of sexual behavior expression of
emotional reactions.

Midbrain

 Located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain.
Cerebral aqueduct passes through the midbrain. dorsal portion consists four round swellings
(lobes) called corpora quadrigemina.

Hindbrain

 Comprises Pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called the medulla oblongata). The medulla of
the brain is connected to the spinal cord. Medulla contains centers which control respiration,
cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions. major regions make up the brain stem; mid
brain, Pons and medulla oblongata.

CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION

 The neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate and regulate the physiological
functions in the body.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONES

 Endocrine glands called ductless glands. Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as
intercellular messengers and are produced in trace amounts.
HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads (testis in males
and ovary in females) are the organized endocrine bodies in our body In addition to these,
some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney, heart also produce hormones.

The Hypothalamus

 Hypothalamus is the basal part of diencephalon, forebrain it contains several neurosecretory

cells called nuclei. These hormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary
hormones. Hormones produced by hypothalamus are of two types releasing hormones
(stimulate secretion of pituitary hormones) and inhibiting hormones (which inhibit secretions
of pituitary hormones).
 Hypothalamic hormone called Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH). While
somatostatin from the hypothalamus inhibits the release of growth hormone from the
pituitary.
 posterior pituitary is under the direct neural regulation of the hypothalamus.

Pituitary Gland

 Located in a bony cavity called sella tursica and is attached to hypothalamus by a stalk.
Divided into adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis. Adenohypophysis consists of two
portions, pars distalis and pars intermedia. pars distalis region of pituitary, called anterior
pituitary. Produces growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH).
 Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) also known as posterior pituitary, stores and releases two
hormones called oxytocin and vasopressin.
 Excess secretion of growth hormone in adults especially in middle age can result in severe
disfigurement (especially of the face) called Acromegaly. Prolactin regulates the growth of
the mammary glands and formation of milk in them. ACTH stimulates the synthesis and
secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.
 LH and FSH are called gonadotrophins. In males, LH stimulates the synthesis and secretion
of hormones called androgens from testis In males, FSH and androgens regulate
spermatogenesis. In females, LH induces ovulation of fully mature follicles (graafian
follicles) and maintains the corpus luteum. And FSH stimulates growth and development of
the ovarian follicles in females.
 Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles of our body and stimulates their contraction. In females,
it stimulates a vigorous contraction of uterus at the time of child birth, and milk ejection from
the mammary gland.
 Vasopressin acts mainly at the kidney and stimulates resorption of water and electrolytes by
the distal tubules and thereby reduces loss of water through urine (diuresis). Hence, it is also
called as anti- diuretic hormone. Impairment affecting synthesis or release of ADH results
water loss and dehydration this condition is known as Diabetes Insipidus .

Pineal Gland

 Located on the dorsal side of forebrain. Pineal secretes melatonin. plays a very important role
in the regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body example, maintaining the normal
rhythms of sleep-wake cycle, body temperature. Also influences metabolism, pigmentation
the menstrual cycle as well as our defense capability.

Thyroid Gland

 Composed of two lobes, located on either sides of tracheae. Both the lobes are interconnected
with a thin flap of connective tissue called isthmus. Thyroid gland is composed of follicles
and stromal tissues. Follicular cells synthesise two hormones, tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine
(T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
  In hypothyroidism thyroid gland became enlarge called goiter. Hypothyroidism during
pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the growing baby leading to
stunted growth (cretinism), mental retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-
mutism. Hypothyroidism may cause menstrual cycle to become irregular.
 Exopthalmic goitre is a form of hyperthyroidism in which enlargement of the thyroid gland,
protrusion of the eyeballs, increased basal metabolic rate, and weight loss, also called Graves’
disease.
 Thyroid hormones control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Maintenance of
water and electrolyte balance is also influenced by thyroid hormones. Thyroid gland secretes
a protein hormone called thyrocalcitonin (TCT) which regulates the blood calcium levels.

Parathyroid Gland

 Present on the back side of the thyroid gland. secrete a peptide hormone called parathyroid
hormone regulated by the circulating levels of calcium ions. increases the Ca 2+ levels in the
blood. Stimulates re-absorption of Ca 2+ by the renal tubules and increases Ca 2+ absorption
from the digested food.

Thymus

 Between lungs behind sternum on the ventral side of aorta, plays a major role in development
of the immune system. This gland secretes peptide hormones called thymosins. play a major
role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes provide cell-mediated immunity (humoral
immunity). Thymus is degenerated in old individuals resulting in a decreased production of
thymosins result, persons become weak.

Adrenal Gland

 Our body has one pair of adrenal glands, at anterior part of each kidney. Composed of two
types of tissues. adrenal medulla (inside), adrenal cortex (outside). Underproduction of
hormones by adrenal cortex alters carbohydrate metabolism causing acute weakness and
fatigue leading to a disease called Addison’s disease.
 Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones called adrenaline or epinephrine and noradrenaline or
norepinephrine commonly called as catecholamines. Adrenaline and noradrenaline are
secreted in response to stress of any kind and during emergency are called emergency
hormones or hormones of Fight or Flight. These hormones increase alertness, pupilary
dilation, piloerection (raising of hairs), sweating etc. Both the hormones increase the heart
beat and rate of respiration.
 Catecholamines stimulate the breakdown of glycogen resulting increased concentration of
glucose in blood. they also stimulate the breakdown of lipids and proteins. Adrenal cortex
secretes many hormones, commonly called as corticoids. Corticoids, which regulate the
balance of water and electrolytes in our body are called mineralocorticoids.
 Glucocorticoids stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis and inhibit cellular
uptake and utilisation of amino acids. Cortisol stimulates the RBC production. aldosterone
helps in the maintenance of electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure and blood
pressure. Adrenal cortex which play a role in the growth of axial hair, pubic hair and facial
hair during puberty.

Pancreas

 Is a composite gland acts as both exocrine and endocrine gland. consists of ‘Islets of
Langerhans’. The two main types of cells in the Islet of Langerhans are called -cells and -
cells. -cells secrete glucagon -cells secrete insulin. Glucagon is a peptide hormone
maintaining the normal blood glucose levels. Glucagon acts mainly on the liver cells.
stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in an increased blood sugar (hyperglycemia). Glucagon
reduces the cellular glucose uptake and utilisation. Thus, glucagon is a hyperglycemic
hormone.
 Insulin is a peptide hormone plays a major role in regulation of glucose homeostasis. Insulin
acts mainly on hepatocytes and adipocytes and enhances cellular glucose uptake and
 utilization. Insulin also stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) in the
target cells. Prolonged hyperglycemia leads to a complex disorder called diabetes mellitus
which is associated with loss of glucose through urine.

Testis

 Testis performs dual functions as a primary sex organ as well as an endocrine gland produce a
group of hormones called androgens mainly testosterone. Androgens regulate the
development, maturation and functions of the male accessory sex organs like epididymis, vas
deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc. stimulate muscular growth, growth of
facial and axillary hair, low pitch voice. Androgens act on the central neural system and
influence the male sexual behaviour (libido).

Ovary

 Produces one ovum during each menstrual cycle. produces two groups of steroid hormones
called estrogen and progesterone. Ovary is composed of ovarian follicles and stromal tissues.
Estrogen secreted mainly by the growing ovarian follicles. Estrogens stimulation of growth,
activities of female secondary sex organs. appearance of female secondary sex characters
(e.g., high pitch of voice, etc.), Progesterone supports pregnancy. also acts on mammary
glands and stimulates the formation of alveoli (sac-like structures which store milk) and milk
secretion.

HORMONES OF HEART, KIDNEY AND GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

 Atrial wall of our heart secretes a very important peptide hormone called atrial natriuretic
factor (ANF), which decreases blood pressure. juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a
peptide hormone called erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis (formation of RBC).
Endocrine cells present in different parts of the gastro-intestinal tract secrete four major
peptide hormones, namely gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK) and gastric inhibitory
peptide (GIP). Gastrin stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen. CCK
acts on both pancreas and gall bladder and stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and
bile juice, respectively.

MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

 Effects on target tissues by binding to specific proteins called hormone receptors. Hormone
receptors present on the cell membrane of the target cells. Each receptor is specific to one
hormone only and hence receptors are specific.
 On the basis of their chemical nature, hormones can be divided into groups (i) peptide,
polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamic
hormones, etc.) (ii) steroids (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone), (iii)
iodothyronines (thyroid hormones), (iv) amino-acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine).