Tripartite struggle

 Introduction – between 750-1000. Palas ruled over eastern india till end of 9th century,
Rastrakuta dominated Deccan, north and some parts of south india, Gujara – Pratiharas
dominates western india and upper gangetic valley.
 The struggle begins among them with ambit of dominating the gangetic area and among
them Rastrakutas is more power among them and lasts longest.

Rastrakutas

 They are sometimes called lattalura-puraveshvara (lord of the great city of Lattalura or
Lattur). Their capital was Manyakheta or Malkhed they are feudatory of Chalukya.
 Had military victory in north and south, defeated Palas and Pratiharas. They were
religiously tolerant supported Shavism, Vaishnavism and Jainism.
 Welcomed muslims and allowed them to preach islam in their domain.
 Constructed ellora rock cut shiva temple, they are patron of art and literature. Courts
adorned by poets and authors used prakrit and apabhramsha language. Swyambhu
apabhramsha poet lived in Rastrakutas court.

Ruler of Rashtrakuta chronologically with their achievement

Dantidurga

 Feudatory of Chalukya king, Kritivarman II. Founded Rastrakuta kingdom. His name
Dantidurga means (he whose elephant is his fortress).

Krishna I

 Took control of Karnataka and Konkan, gave death blow to pallavas. Constructed Single
rock cut Monolithic Kailashnath temple at ellora in Aurangabad, Maharashtra dedicated
to lord Shiva.

Dhruva

 His empire spanned the entire region between Kaveri river and Central India. Led
successful expedition to Kannauj and defeated “Nagabhatta II” of Gurjara-Pratihara and
also defeated Dharmapala of pala dynasty. During his region Rastrakutas became a pan-
India power.

Govinda III

 He is Son of Dhruva, Sajan inscription mentioned that he is victorious in the Tripartite

Battle. Invade north India and defeated Pala King Dharmapala and Powerful Malwa
from Pratihara Ruler Nagabhatta II.

Amoghavarsha II
  Established New capital at Manyakheta, Adopted title of “Viranarayana” after defeating
eastern chalukya at Vengavali. Made peace with western Gangas and keep friendly
relation with his neighbours . Patron of literature as well as well scholar in Kannada and
Sanskrit. Wrote “Kavirajamarga” in Kannada and “Prashnottara Ratnamalika” in
Sanskrit which later translated into Tibetan. His religious treatment, interest in art,
literature, peace loving nature compared with king Ashoka ( Ashoka of the south) and
with Gupta King Vikramaditya in patronizing Men of latters.

Indra III

 Amoghavarshas grandson and crushed various rebellion and reestablished empire.

Defeated Pratihara king Mahipala I and sacked Kannuj.

Krishna III

 Great Rashtrakuta ruler expanded empire from Narmada to Kaveri river include
northern Tamil nadu (Tondaimandalam). He defeated Chola king Prantaka I and
annexed northern part of Chola empire around 949 CE and erected a victory piller.
Rastrakutas has come to end in 972 CE.

Gurjara-Pratiharas

Descended from Gurjara-Pratiharas who were fighters and pastorals of eastern and central
portions of Rajasthan. Their title mining “Door Keepers” Compared with Laxmana.
Harischandra established the dynasty around Jodhpur in southwest Rajasthan. They had their
first capital at Bhinmal. Bhoja was the greatest ruler and actual founder of Pratihara Dynasty, he
regain Kannuj which had been the Paramaras capital.

Ruler of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty chronologically with their achievements

Nagabhatta I

 Stopped Arab invasion and provide most effective resistance, had authority over Gujarat
, Rajputana and Malwa region.

Vastaraja

 Made Kannuj in western UP his capital and expand control over north India. The
tripartite struggle stated when Vatsaraja’s expansionist policies put him odd with Pala
ruler Dharmapala and Rastrakuta ruler Dhruva. They hold Kannauj till the end.

Nagabhatta II

 He defeated Dharmapala of Pala dynasty and Govinda III of Rashtrakuta dynasty.

Mihir Bhoja/ Bhoja I

 He defeated Palas and Rashtrakutas with the help of feudatories like Chedis and the
Guhilas. His administrative centre was Kannauj also known as Mahodaya. Barah copper
 plate inscription, his first inscription make reference to military camp or Skandhavara at
Mahodaya. He also related with king Juzr who appear in travel narrative of Sulaiman,
wrote about kings wealth and military. Al- Masudi arab traveler address him as Baura.
He was a Vishnu devotee and adopted the title “Adivaraha”

Mahendrapala

 Fought battle with king of Kashmir and lose some territory. Took the title of
“Maharajadhiraja or Aryaverta” Rajsekhara Sanskrit poet adorned his court.
Rashtrakuta king Indra III defeated him and completely destroyed Kannauj , Gujarat fell
into the hands of Rashtrakutas. Al- Masudi mentioned in his account that Pratiharas
don’t have the access to sea.

Rajyapala

 Rashtrakuta King Krishna III invade north India and defeated pratihara ruler.
Muhammad Ghazni’s raid on Kannauj Rajyapala flees the battle field. And the last ruler
is Yashpala.

The importance of Kannauj is “ the city located on the right bank of river ganga , the area was
used as highway for commerce and communication” it is believed that whoever had the power
over kannauj, access political power over north India.

General System of Administration

Status of Monarch

The system based on Gupta empires Ideas and practices.

The king was administrator as well as chief of the armed force. He accompanied by
chamberlains such as vassal chiefs, feudatories, ambassadors.
The king also in charge of justice, court is the centre of political, legal and cultural
affairs.
Kings positions were hereditary, and post of king reserved for the Eldest son.
Arab travelers also mentioned that women’s did not cover their face during Darbar.
Adopted titles like Maharajadhiraj Param-Bhattakara, Chakravartin (greatest of all
Indian Kings).

Administration

 Princes mostly appointed as Governors and sometimes government officials. Example –

Amoghaversha’s daughter Chandrobalabbe administered Raichur Doab.
 Kings were advised by ministers, who are sometimes hereditary and sometime not.

 Epigraphy and literary records showed kingdom has foreign, revenue (minister),
treasurer , senapati, chief justice and purohita. All ministers except purohita participate
in war. Have large and well organized cavalry and war elephant.
  Palas had dest elephant, Pratiharas had best cavalry (Regular and Irregular) and
Rashtrakutas has lot of forts and had special guards. Palas and Rastrakutas had their
own navy.

Administrative Division of Empire

Rashtra – Under the jurisdiction of Rashtrapati or governor

Bhukti - supervised province collecting Land revenue and maintaining Law and Order.

Mandalas (Visaya) – Visayapati head of district performed land revenue collection and
maintain law and order.

Pattala – Cluster of village headed by Bhojapati.

Village – Led by headsman and accountant, their post is hereditary. Frequently assisted by
Grama – Mahajana or Grama Mahattara. Village committees Manage schools, roads, settle
minor disputes and same kind of organ present in cities. Kosha-Pala or Kotwal was in charge of
law and order in towns.

Religious policy

Kings were tolerant in their beliefs and action, patronizing Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
Welcomed muslims and allowed them to spread islam, chaturverna system was generally
maintained, state was essentially secular in the sense that politics and religion were kept
separate.

Trade and Commerce

In northern india period between 750-1000 considered as period of stagnation. Due to fall of
roman empire with whom india traded most. Decline of Sassanid empire (Iranian) and rise of
islam impact global trade. Indias wealth in gold and silver is primarily due to favorable foreign
trade. There was a scarcity of gold in north india. Some dharma shastras during that period
prohibits crossing salt seas this ban discourage Indian from travelling to Islamic areas. Malwa
and Gujarat became important trading hubs.

Emergency and strengthening of feudal system

Grant free land to the officials rise hereditary revenue officials known as Nad-Gavundas or
Deshagramakutas or Deshmukhs. The revenue assignments known as Bhoga offered to officials
were temporary in theory, the Bhoga land taken back only when there is rebellion. The result of
the rise in power, village community became weaker hence the control of supreme is
diminished. Feudal societies weaken rulers position and making him more dependent results
decline in trade and commerce.

Chola Empire
In 9th century, Chola’s ruled over the large portion of Indian peninsula. Develop strong navy
and conquer Sri Lanka and Maldive’s. the empire considered the pinnacle of the south Indian
history.

Vijayala feudatory of Pallava found the Chola Empire. First he conquer tanjore (850) then
defeated Pallava of Kanchi (Todaimandalam) and the Pandeya’s and gain control of south
Tamil Nadu.

Ruler of Chola chronologically with their achievement

Aditya I

 Successor of Vijayala, allied with Pallavas in the battle of Thirupurambiyam and

defeating Pandeyas and capture Tanjore. He defeated and killed Pallava king Aparajita
and capture Todaimandalam. Allied with Cheras defeated Pandeyas.

Parantaka I

 Conquered Madurai and earned the title Madurantaka (Madura’s Destroyer) and
Madurakonda ( Madura’s Capturar). Defeated combine armies of Pandeya’s and Sri
Lanka in the battle of Vellore. He was defeated in the battle of Takkolam 949 by
Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III. Krishna III crowned conqueror of Kanchi and Tanjai.

Parantaka II / Sundara Chola

 Defeated Pandeya and Sri Lanka’s combine army and capture territory.

Uttama Chola

 Known as Madurantaka, he reclaimed Todaimandalam from Rashtrakuta, he ruled over

Kanchi and Tiruvannamalai. His inscription found in Chengalpattu and North Acrot.

Arumoliverman / Rajaraja I

 Greatest Chola ruler, rule largest dominion of South India till 13th Century. Destroyed
Chera Navy in Trivandrum and attacked Quilon. Conquered Madurai and took Pandeya
king captive. Invade Sri Lanka and took control of northern part of it. His desire to gain
control is to trade with south east Asia. Coromondal and Malabar coast were famous
hubs for trade with south east Asia. Conquest of Maldivs one of his naval expedition.
Conquered Vengi and annexed the northwestern part of Ganga kingdom in Karnataka.
Build Rajarajeswara or Brihadeshwara Shiva temple in Tanjavur (Tanjore, 1010) the
temple also known as Rajaraja temple. Chola’s adopted practicing of having inscription
written on walls of temples to recounting victories on historical order. He created
excellent Land revenue system in which land was surveyed and then revenue was
calculated. He referred to as Ulakalanada Perumal means who measured the earth and
also compared with God Vishnu for his effort to land measurement.

Rajendra I
  He followed Rajaraja’s expansionist policy and completely overruling Pandeya and
Chera. Conquest of Srilanka was also completed. In 1022 he led expedition to north,
cross Ganga on the same route of Smudragupta defeating pala ruler Mahipala and
Western Chalukya. To mark the occasion he took the title of Gongaikondachola and
established capital at the mouth of the river kaveri Gongaikindacholapuram and
excavated Chodagarg tank there. In 1025 launch expedition to Vijaya empire of Malaya,
Sumatra and Java as well as overseas trade route to China. Expedition result annexation
of Kadaram or Kedah. Sailendra ruler build Buddhist Monastery at Nagapattinam and
Rajendra I granted land for the purpose. Cholas expand trade with China. Chola Navy
was the strongest at that time and bay of Bengal named as Chola lake. He was also
known as Pandita-Chola.

Rajadhiraja

 Earned the title of Jayamkonda Chola. Defeated Pandeyas, Cheras and Sri Lankan’s. He
plundered Kalyani and established Jaysthamba at Yadgir. He also known as Vijaya
Rajendra Chola. He died on the battle field during the war of Koppan with western
Chalukya King Someswar. He is the king who died on the back of Elephant.

Rajendra II

 He defeated Western Chalukya king Someswar and build Jaystambha at Kolhapur.

Virarajendra

 Authorized the establishment of school for learning of Vedas, Shastras and Grammars
for students and also build hostels for them. Provided hospitals for the sick called
Virasolan. Virasoliyam famous grammatical work in Tamil written during
Buddhamitras Region. Virarajendra took the title of Rajakeshri.

Athirajendra

 Civil unrest, possibly religious in nature, characterized in region.

Kullutung I

 Bear the title Shungamtavirtta (abolisher of tolls). During his region the Chola empire
began to disintegrate.

Cholas left a stain on history by adopting harsh attitude towards kings and the general
population of the place they sacked. They mostly plundered and massacred the people
including bahmin and childrens. They destroyed anuradhapuram capital of Sri Lanka. Later
Cholas replaced in the south by Pandyas and Hoysalas and the later Chalukyas by Yadavas and
Kakatiyas.

Foreign relation of Cholas

They frequently invade Sri Lanka to capture and rule and the relation with Malayan kings
deteriorated after the trade started with China. They clearly exhibits Indian Influence, The
temple of Angkorvat erected in 12th century by Surya Verman II king of Komboja (Cambodia)
dedicated to lord Vishnu (later dedicated to Buddhist temple) , it is surrounded by water filled
moats, contain a massive Gopuram and have sculpture on the walls based on Mahabharat and
Ramayana. Chola ruler dispatched several ambassadors to China.

Administration During Chola Period

 Kings referred to Ko, Perunmal, Perumal Adigal, Rajadhiraja, Ko-Konmai. Kings had
complete authority over council of ministers. Various Chola Inscription having an
attracting physical appearance being grate warrior, grate patron of art and literature,
protector of vernasharma Dharma and destroyer of evils of Kali Yuga.
 King some time compared with gods “ Chola king Rajaraja known as Ulakalanada
Perumal means who measured the earth compared with god Vishnu”. Kings stay on
tour to stay in touch with administration. According to Italian Traveller Marco Polo who
visited Kerala, Stated that when monarch died the personal body guards burn
themselves in funeral pyre.
 Cholas had powerful navy controlled Coromandal, Malabar as well as Bay of Bengal.
Maintained large army (Elephant, Cavalry and Infantry)

Division of Empire

 Rajyam or Rastrayam divided into eight Mandala and govern by governor typically
royal blood or noble family compensated by assigned revenue bearing land. Province
further sub divided into Nadus (District) which contain several villages. The number of
Nadus increases as new lands were brought under cultivation through irrigation. Land
grant to Brahmin aided the expansion of agriculture.
 Nagaras was specialized trade groups. Textile trade represented by Saliya and Satsuma
Parishatta Nagaram, oil and ghee suppliers represented by Shankarappadi nagaram,
seafaring merchants represented by Vaniya Nagaram.
 Corporate organization known as Samaya and their members governed by code of
conduct known as Bananju-Dharma. The Ayyavole in Aihole Karnataka was the largest
supra-Regional merchant association, similarly Manigramam was a prominent 13th
century guild in Tamil Nadu.

Local Administration of Chola Empire

 Cholas regarded as one of the earliest example of Panchayeti Raj System. “Ur” is a
assembly of Non-Brahmin village residents to discuss issue without formal rules or
procedure. Dealt with land related issue, land sale, gift and taxation.
 Sabha or Mahasabha is exclusive assembly of adult Brahmin members in Agraharas
means rent free Brahmadeya village. Membership govern by property
ownership,learning and good behavior. Mahasabha had proprietary rights over
communal lands and control over private lands. Could make loans to village and levy
taxes and right to recoup the revenue in case of default of payment.
  According to Tanjavur inscription Rajaraja I directed the sabhas of Cholamandalam to
perform various service to Brihadeswara temple.
 Affairs of village managed by an executive committee and the members of the
committee retired after every three years. A special tank committee is there known as
Erivariya (looks after distribution of water to the fields). Palaiyarai is important
administrative centre and Chola residential capital.

Economic Condition and Taxes

Many tanks were constructed on kaveri river for the purpose of irrigation. Main source
of income of the Cholas were land revenue (1/6th) collected in both cash and kind.
Conducted extensive land survey in order to determine government share of land
revenue.In addition land tax Cholas also earned for toll on trade, professional tax,
plunder of territories.
There is a reference in Karnataka Inscription that village led by women’s. village
Bharangiur led by wife of a man named Bittayya. There is a reference to woman named
Chandiyabbe as agavundi means (Village Chieftain) another women named Jakkiyabbe
as her Mantraki (Councilor).
Araghatta (Persian wheel) also used in agriculture along with tank, canals and wells.
Early medieval period saw significant advancement in textile industries. Kachipuram
famous for weaving industry. Kudamukku centre for betel nut as well as centre of craft
such as metal craft, coin minting and textile.
Emergence of trading castes Garveres who were originally cultivators, Heggades
initially revenue officials, Kayasthas specialized in writing and drafting land grant
documents. Chola kings maintain close relation with south Asian Countries and China.

Chola Society

o Society divided along caste line, Paraiyar (Untouchables) remained deplorable. Vellallas
(farming groups) associated with Shudras but did not face much discrimination and
lower status because they have some land and economic strength.
o Idangai (left hand caste grouping) artisans and trading groups and Valangai (Right hand
caste group) agricultural group dominated , both the cast belonging to Supra caste.

Religious sphere

 Royal patronage to brahmanas and temples were practiced. Revenue from distant
village assigned for temple maintenance. And to ensure transparency in financial
resource managed by brahama sabha. Chola ruler saw the growth and climax of bhakti
movement.
 Under Cholas temple architecture in south India reached its pinnacle mostly Dravidian
and limited to only south India. Kailashnath in Kachipuram is an example of Dravidian
architecture.
 Garbhagriha is the main feature of the style, number of storeys build in distinct style
known as vimana. Pillared hall called mandap and build in front of the sanctum. Its
serve as an audience hall for ceremonial dances performed by the devadasis. The entire
 structure guarded by a wall called with lofty gate called Gopurams. Brihadeswara
temple build by Rajaraja I and Gngaikondacholapuram is the perfect example of
Dravidian architecture.

Art forms and Literature

 Sculpture rich high level during this time example gometeswara statue in
Shravanabelagola. Dancing figure of shiva known as nataraja made of bronze.
 Sanskrit was the language of high culture. Emergence of literature in indias native
language. prominent saints Nayanars (Shiva) and Alvers (Vishnu) lived in Tamil
kingdom. Wrote there pieces in Tamil. This saints compiled eleven volumes under the
name Tirumurai are deemed as fifth veda.
 Kamban’s era second half of 11th and early 12th century considered as golden age in tamil
Literature.
 Kannada and albeit younger than Tamil. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna recognized as
Kannada’s poetries three jewels. Telegu version of Mahabharat was started by Nahhiah
and finished by Tikkanna.

Rajput Kingdom and Arab Invasion

Early 12th century saw the rise of the Rajputana, they are considered descendent from various
tribes like shakas, Kushanas, Hunas and others. Some historian believes that they are belonging
to Kshartiya verna of rahmical system. In north Rajput republicans created as a result of
collapse of Pratihara system. Chauhans of Ajmer, Paramaras of Malwa, Gahadavals of Kannuj
are most significant. Other lesser dynasties Tomaras of Delhi, Chalukyas of Gujarat, Kalachuris
of Jabalpur, Chandelas and Chalukyas of Bundelkhand. Palas driven from Bihar by Gahadavals
of Kannuj.

Chahamanas/Chauhanas

Shakambari modern day Jaipur Chahamanas first capital later relocated to Ajmer.

Ruler of Chauhans/Chahamanas chronologically with their achievement

Simharaja

 Assumed the title of Maharaja founder of the dynasty.

Vigraharaja

 Capital Chittor

Ajayaraja II

 Vanquished Paramaras, took Ujjain as capitel, found Ajayameru as city in Ajmer.

Vigraha Raja IV

 Referred to Visaldeva, took Delhi form Tomaras. His dominion reached Udaypur in
south and Shiwalik in north. Shifted capital to Ajmer from Sakambari (Sambhar). Wrote
well known drama Harikeli Nataka.

Prithviraj III

 Referred to Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora in folklore. Won battle against

Gahadavala, Jaychandra, Chalukya Bhima II, Chandella ruler Paramardi. Led expedition
in Bundelkhand and against ruler of Chandela capital of Mahoba. Prithviraj’s defeat is
described as the turning point in Islamic conquest in india. His court poet Chandbaradai
and Jayanka wrore Prithiviraj Raso and Prithiviraj Vijaya respectively.

Hari Raja

 Muhammad Ghuri conquered Delhi and Ajmer making govinda young son of prithiviraj
the vassal of Ajmer. Govinda founded Ranastambhrapura branch in Chahamana
(Ranathambore). Invading Ajmer, Qutubuddin Aibak disposed Hariraja and took
control of principality.

Chalukyas of Gujarat / Solanki Rajput

Solanki Rajputs are Distinct from Chalukyan of Badami. They controlled portion of Gujarat and
Kathiawar between 950 – 1300.

Ruler of Chalukyas of Gujarat // Solanki Rajput chronologically with their achievement

Mularaja

 Founder of the dynasty and capital was Anahilapataka (modern day Patan, Gujarat).
Constructed Mulavasatika for Digambaras and Mulanatha – Jivadeva for shvetambaras .

Bhima I

 During his region Muhammad Ghazni overran Gujarat and plundered Somnath.
Mondhera sun temple constructed by him. Rani ki vav also constructed by his wife
Udaymati. Vimal Vasahi Temple one of the five dilwara temples constructed by
Vimalsha, Bhima I’s minister.

Jaysimha Siddharaja

 Jaysimha conquered Saurashtra, Kutch and Malwa. Have good ties with Hemchandra.
Ruddha Mahakal Temple at Siddhapur was constructed. Captured fort of Junagarh form
Ranakdevi.

Kumar Pala
  Patronised Jainism and had cordial relation with Hemchandra. Renovated the temple at
somnath.

Bhima II

 Repelled Muhammad Ghuris incursion at the battle of Kayadara. Also destroyed Aibaks
invasion between 1195-97 and renamed himself Abhinav Siddharaj.

The dynasty came to end when Khalji Invade Gujarat in 1297.

Chandellas of Bundelkhand

 Chandelas first held power as the gujara pratiharas of kannauj feudatories. Build Nagara
Style temples of the Chandellas ancient capital Khajuraho. Chandella king Yasovarman,
Dhanga and Vidyadhara built Lakshamana, Vishvanatha and Kendriya Mahadeva
Temple respectively.
 Invasion of Chauhans and Ghurids effectively brought an end to Chandella dynasty.
Growing influence such as islam, Bundelas, Bhagelas cause continue decline of
Chandellas.
 As per Madhopur stone inscription Chahamana king Prithiviraj Chauhan invade
Chandella kingdom and sack Mahoba.

Paramaras of Malwa

The home of Paramaras of Malwa was mount Abu region of Rajasthan. Has multiple branches,
major one in Malwa and capital located in Dhara/ Dhar Madhya Pradesh later relocate to
Mandu. According to Harsola copper plate inscription of paramara king Siyaka II, Paramaras
were feudatory of rashtrakutas of Manyakheta. Majority of Paramara kings were Shaivites and
constructed numbers of Shiva temples.

Ruler of Paramaras of Malwa chronologically with their achievement

Upendra

 Founder of Malwa’s Paramara dynasty.

Siyaka II

 Sacked Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta and made paramara’s a sovereign region.

Munja

 Also known as Utpala or Vakpatiraja II. Had several military triumphs including
defeating kalachris and took control of their capital. Finally defeated by western
Chakulaya ruler Tailapa II. Adopted title like Amoghaversha/ Prithivivallabha/
Srivallabha.

Sindhu Raja
  His biography Nava Sahanka Charita written by his court poet padmagupta.

Bhoja

 Ruler of Paramara Dynasty who brought the dynasty to its pinnacle. Adopted the title
Parameshvara – Paramabhattaraka. Paramara kingdom assaulted by Solanki king
Bhimadeva and Kalachuri king Karna. He as knowledge over Chemistry, poetry, yoga,
architecture and grammar. He disdains the sciences, humanity and literature. He built
Bhoja Shala the school of Sanskrit studies as well as three dams and Bhojeswar temple.
Frequently contrasted to Vikramaditya.

Laxmanadeva

 As per Nagpur prasasthi he made significant military conquest.

The last known paramara king was killed by Alauddin khalji.

The Tomaras

 They are feudatory of Pratihara ruled Haryana with capital at Deillika (Delhi). The
dynasty referred to as “Tuar”. Iron pillar in Mehruli mentions Anangapala Tomara.
Anangapala Tomara credited with founder of Delhi. His coins depict a horseman and
bull inscribed with the name Shri Samanta Deva. First still existing water work build by
tomaras. Mehruli region’s Lalkote citadel was established by Anangapala II. Who
Constructed the Anang Tal. Tomara ruled by the name of Surajpala constructed Suraj
Kund reservoir near Faridabad, Haryana.

The Gahadavalas of Kannauj

 The dynasty established by Chandradeva. Forced the palas out of bihar and established
benaras as second capital. Jaichanda ruled Gahadavala dynasty as its final outstanding
monarch. In the battle of Chanawar with Muhammad ghori jaychand lost and perished
in the ganga.

Islamic conquest of north India and the gangetic plain

 Muhammad an Arab Trader from Makka became prophet Muhammad founded Islam.
And quickly spanned from North Africa to Iberian Peninsula and Iraq and India.
 Around 712 Muhammad Bin Qasim Umayyad Caliphate , invade sindh. Hajjaj governor
of Iraq send Muhammad Bin Qasim when king dahir refused to punish pirates.

Muhammad of Ghazni’s Invasion of India

 He made 17 attacks between 1000 to 1027 when the rajput authority was waning. His
primary purpose is to amass the enormous wealth that was there in India.
 He starts islamization and destruction of temples, for this reason he called as But Shikan.
Muhammad gain success because his cavalry moves quickly than Indian troops.
  Around 1000 entered Pakistan and Afghanistan and won the battle of Waihind against
hindu sahi ruler Jayapala. In 1008 Anangapala and Ghazni again engage in the second
battle of Waihind near Peshwer.
 He captured thaneswar in 1014 and set fire to Mathura temple. He overthrows
Chandella king Vidhyadhara in 1018 and destructed Kannauj. His 16th expedition took
place in 1025 in kathiwar’s somnath temple.
 He patronized significant individuals, Al-Beruni a central Asian Scholar and writer of
Kitab- Ul- Hind. Firdousi a Persian poet also known as homer of east. Utbi court
historian of Ghazni and the author of Kitab- Ud- Yammi.

Impact of Muhammad Ghazni’s invasion of india

Seventy invasion of India exposes fundamental military inadequacies of Indian

monarchs, India’s boundary became vulnerable due to invasion of Muhammad Ghazni.
Particularly incorporation of Afghanistan and Punjab. His conquest opened the door for
India to be captured from north east.

Invasion of Muhammad Ghori

 Also known as Muizz Uddin Muhammad Bin Sam. Co ruled the Ghurid empire
between 1173-1202. Was the real founder of Islamic empire in India.
 His first successful expedition in Multan 1175, he took Uchch from the Bhatti Rajput.
Marched against Gujarat but the Challukya kingdom king Solanki Bhima II defeated
him at the battle of Kayadara.
 He took control of Punjab and Lahore in 1179, Peshwar and Sindh in 1182.

First Battle of Tarain (1191)

 The dispute between Ghori and Prithiviraj began for control of Bhatinda. In the battle
Ghori’s army utterly destroyed and Ghori escaped near death. The location is Karnal,
Haryana. Prithivi took control of Bhatinda.

Second Battle of Tarain (1192)

 In this battle Prithiviraj Chauhan defeated because Ghurid armies was well organized
and quick moving cavalry with superior skill, advanced technology, usage of iron
stirrups and horse shoes. Prithiviraj fleet but captured near Saraswati River. The coin of
that time bear Prithiviraj on one side and ghori on other.

Battle of Chandwar (1194)

 The battle is between Jayachandra Gahadavalas king and Ghori, where Jayachandra
utterly defeated and thus Turkie’s took control of Northern India. Qutubuddin Aibak
became the Ghori’s viceroy.

Conquest by Qutubuddin Aibak

  Aibak conquered Aligarh and Ranathambore in 1195. He fought with Bhima II the king
of Gujarat Solanki and defeated him and took control of Gujarat and overthrew
Chandella rajputs in Bundelkhand.
 The Nalanda and Vikramshila university demolished concurrently by Baktihar Khalji in
1197 in Bihar and 1202 in Bengal. Bakhtiar Khalji appointed as viceroy of Bihar and
Bengal. Khokhar uprising 1205 required ghori to returned to India to put down the
uprising.
 In 1206 someone in vicinity of jhelums Dhamyak district assassinated Ghori.

Cause of defeat of the Rajputs

The rise of local land lord’s elements and chiefs damaged the administrative framework
as feudalism spread in Indian republic. On the other hand Turkish tribal structure as
well as the expansion of the iqta and Khalsa systems, allowed them to keep massive
standing armies. Sultan drew revenue directly from khalsa land. Thus enable to
maintain large army. Indians not accustomed to moving as an organized mass of riders.

Early Phase of delhi Sultanate

Slave Dynasty

Mamluk dynasty is another name for the slave dynasty. Mamluk in Arabic means “land”. At
this time three dynasties were found, Qutbi dynasty by Qutubuddin Aibak (1206-1211),
Iltuthmis found first Ilbari Dynasty (1211-1266), Balban established 2nd Ilbari dynasty (1266-
1290).

Qutbi Dynasty

Aibak found slave dynasty and considered true father of muslims supremacy in India.
He was slave of Muhammad Ghori and served as a Ghoris governor in Indian holding.
Tajuddin Yaldauz the emperor Ghazni control delhi after Ghazni and nasiruddin
qabaccha governor of multan and Uchch aim for independence.
Aibak took Lahore as capital and adopted title of Sultan. He also referred to as Lakh
Baksh. Build Quwwat-ul-Islam first mosque in Delhi and Adhai din ka Jhopra in Ajmer.
Patronized scholar Hasan Nizami (Taj-ul-Massir), Fakh-ud-Din (Tarik-e- mubarakhsahi).
He began building Qutub Minar in honour of Sufi saint Khwaja Moinuddin Baktiar
Kaki.

Region of Iltuthmis (1st Ilbari dynasty)

He is the one who solidify Turkish power in India. He moved capital from Lahore to
Delhi.
Around 1215 in the battle of tarain he vanquished Yaldauz. Expel Qabaccha from Punjab
in 1217. During his region Chengiz khan reached Indus for the pursuit of fugitive
Khwarezm Prince.
 When Jalaluddin Mangbarani flee the Mongols and sought refuge in iltuthmis court he
refused. He began his early conquest in 1225. He sent his son Nasiruddin Muhammad
and returned Bengal and Bihar to delhi sultanate.
He dispatched expedition against Ranthambor and Jalor.
He appointed iqtadar who was responsible for maintaining law and order and collecting
taxes and required to send the surplus to the government. Iqtadari may actually be
transferred.
He composed Turkan-i-Chahalgani composed of 40 strong military leaders, they aid and
advice sultan when needed.
In 1229 he received Mansur (letter of recognition) from cliph of Bagdad and made
sovereign ruler of India. Made first pure Arabic coin silver tanka weighted about 175
grams. He finished construction of Qutub Minnar delhi. Minhas-us-siraj who wrote
Tabaqat-i-Nashiri patronized by Iltuthmis.

Rulers after iltuthmis

Razia sultana

 Indias first and only female muslim ruler. She attempt to established non turk counter
nobility incurred the fury of the turkhis armies. He assigned malik Jamalludin Yakut to
the prestigious position of Amir-i-akhur (superintendent of royal horse).
 In 1240, an uprising led by atulia erupted in Sirhind. Raziya marched against atulia
alongside Yakut. Atulia’s supporters murdered Yakut and imprisoned Razia. Later she
was defeated and killed by Bahram Shah and ascended the throne.

Nasiruddin Muhammad

 Grandson of Iltuthmis came to power with the help of Ulugh Khan/ Balban, who
himself assumed the office of Naib. In 1250 balban conspired against Nasiruddin and
replaced him with Imaduddin Raihan.

Balban and second Ilbari Dynasty

 Balban is the key architecture of Delhi Sultanate. The sultan according to Balban was
god’s shadow on earth (Zil-i-Illahi) and the beneficiary of heavenly feavour (Nibyabat-i-
Khudai).
 Assassinated every member of Iltutmish’s family and disbanded Chahelgani. Balban
instituted strict court discipline, new rituals like Sijada and Paibos. He refused to laugh
and joke and even stopped drinking wine. He barred non turks from serving in his
administration. Indian muslims not awarded major government position. Assign spies
to monitor nobility actions.
  Balban took harsh measures to stop robberies by mewatis up to the outskirt of Delhi. He
divided Diwan-i-Arz (Finance) from Diwan-i-Unzarat (Military department). He
patronized restoration of laws and orders.
 He address himself as nasir-Amir-ul-momin (the cailph’s right hand). He administered
justice with extreme impartially. Followed policy of blood and iron, by placing spies in
every area.

Kaiqubad

 Following the death of balban his grandson assumed the throne but Firoz the Ariz-i-
Mumalik minister of war assumed the title of Jalaluddin khalji and ascend the throne by
killing kaimur.

Khalji Dynasty

 Jalaluddin Khalji established the dynasty and became the first sultan of delhi to be
tolerant towards hindus. He attempted to gain support of the nobility by implementing
a policy of tolerance. In 1294 alauddin Khalji attacked Devagiri. Allauddin treacherously
murdered his uncle near Kara and took the throne of Delhi.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)

 He was appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies) , he led two successful

expedition. He also named Arizi-i-Mumalik (Minister of war). Alauddin changed
jalaluddin’s policy of tolerance and try to resurrect Balbans brutal governance policies.
 Accouding to barani, Alauddin convinced that the general wealth of the nobles, inter
marriage, an ineffective spy system and consumption of liquor is the root cause of all
rebellion.
 To stop such rebellion he enacted four ordinances. Confiscated properties of nobilities,
reorganized intelligence system, alcohol and intoxicant totally prohibited and social
gathering without consent of sultan is prohibited.
 He developed permanent standing army to protect his empire from mongol invasion.
First mongal invasion happened during Alauddin Khalji.
 His 1st conquest with Gujarat in 1299 against Vaghela monarch Rai karan and he gain
Malik Kafur. Ranathambore rajasthan strongest fort withstood Jalaludding khalji but in
1301, alauddin Khalji captured it because Hamidadeva ruler of Ranathambore shelter
two mongol solders.
 Alauddin attacked Raja ratan singhs chittor in 1303 and defeated him. Later chittor was
renamed Khizrabad after his sons name.
 Khalji army led by Ain-Ul-Mulk seize malwa in 1305. Also captured Ujjain, Mandu,
Dhar, Chanderi.
 Alauddin dispatched Malik Kafur to south and honoured him by making him Naib.
 He is the first ruler to established land revenue in cash. Kinship philosophy was secular
and declared “I don’t know if this is lawful or unlawful, I do whatever I believe is good
for the state”. He refuted the caliph’s suzerainty.

Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah

  After the death of Alauddin Khalji, Malik Kafur ruled the throne later ousted by
Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah. He declared himself cilaph and assumed the title Wasiq
Billah. Assassinated soon and Nasiruddin Khasrau seceded.

Cultural development during Alauddin Khalji

 Sultan support poet such as Amir Khasru and Mir Hasan Dehlvi. Erected Alai Darwaza,
Hauz Khas, Nahal Hazar Satoon, Jamait Khana Mosque, Alai Minar and new capital of
Siri. Assumed title Sikandar-i-Azam.

Administration of Alauddin Khalji

 Historian Ferishta remarked that imported horse and enlished 475000 cavalry. Pioneer
Chehra ( Description of each solder) and Dagh ( Branding of horse).
 Religious review carried out regularly to maintain maximum effectiveness. In Delhi he
established 4 markets. Mandi (Grain markets), Sarai adil (Fabric and grocery market)
include sugar, dry fruits, butter and oil.
 Each market is under supervision of Sahana-i-Mandi, assisted by an intelligence officer.
Barids (Intelligence officer) Munhiyanas (Market traders).
 Any infraction leads to serious punishments such as exile from capital, fine,
incarceration and mutilation. Grains supplies secured by stockpiling in government
warehouse.
 Diwan-i-Riyasat a separate department established under command of Naib-i-Riyasat.
Every vendor registered with the market department. Selling of alcohol, intoxicant and
gambling outlawed.

Land revenue under Alauddin Khalji

 He first conducted land measurement. Land revenue collected in cash to pay the solders.
“Biswa” was the standard measurement unit. State demand 1/5th of the produced and
impose home tax (Grahi) and Pasture Tax (Chari) and “Kismat-i-Khuti (Headsman Tax)
later abolished.
 His land revenue reforms laid the ground for Shershah and Akbar’s subsequent reforms.
Centralized government took possession of religious endowment (Inam and Wakt).

Tughlaq Dynasty

Ghiyasudding Tughalq

 First sultan took the title of Ghazi (Infidel slayer), first sultan to begin irrigated project.
Build tughalquabad near delhi. Sent jauna khan/ Muhammad Bin Tughlaq to re-
established control in Warrangal (Kakatias) and Madurai (Kanchi). Seikh Nizamuddin
Aulia had tumultuous relation with him.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

  Ziauddin Barani discuss his five experiments. To improve administration he shifted
capital from Delhi to Devgiri (Daulatabad) but due to lack of water supplies capital
relocate to Delhi after 2 years.
 Intended to take Khrusan and Iran after repelling Mongol invasion. To helps farmers of
Doab (Between Ganga and Yamuna) he doubles the revenue. He adopted the concept
the Token currency using copper coins inspired by Chinese emperor Kublai khan’s
paper currency. Minted copper coins as the same value of silver coins.
 During his region Kumaon hills known as Qarachill hills.

Reformative steeps of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Only delhi sultan who possessed through literacy, religious and philosophical
education. Fluent in Arabic and Persian. Also knows logic, astronomy and mathematics.
In religious mater he remains quite tolerant. Established good relation with Egypt, china
and Iraq. During his tenure Iban Batuta visited and served as Chieq Qazi in Delhi for
eight years.
Diwan-i-Amirkohi (Agricultural department) was established. Granted Taqqavi loans to
farmers for buy seeds and to expand their farming. Spent 70 lakh tanka to build a
modern farm.
Allahabad fort and jahapana city was also built.

Political condition of india during the region of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

 In his final days south India gain independence. Hari hara – Bukka established
Vijayanagar Empire (1336), Hassan Gangu’s Bahmani Kingdom (1347), Hassan Shah
established Madurai Sultanate.
 Governor of Oudh, Multan and Sindh revolted against Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq

 Being selected sultan by the nobles. His policies were to placate the aristocrats, troops
and theologians. Khan-i-jahan maqbul a telegu Brahmin convert was named wazir.
 Sultan collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscript from Jawalamukhi temple library and has
Aziruddin Khan “Dalail-i-Firuz shahi translated them into Persian.
 Levied tax according to Islamic law. Non-Muslims rigidly subjected to Jaziya. He
considered hindus a second class citizen. A Brahmin was publicly burned for criticizing
Quarran.
 Forbade muslim women’s from visiting saint graves and punished heterodox muslim
groups (Sian muslims and sufis). He made Iqtadari hereditary. Solders assigned land
(jagirs) and there recruitment was declared hereditary.
 First to impose irrigation tax (Sharb), build a number of canals and established PWD.
Adha (50% Jittal) and Bitch (23%) jittal. Established royal industries (Karkhanas) , run
by Slaves (Diwan-i- Bandagan) and Wakil-i-Dar was the officer in command.
 During his region several new settlements were build Firozabad near red fort, hissar,
jaunpur. The jama masjid and forth storey of Kutub Minar was build by Firoz Shah
Tughlaq.
  Ashokan pillars from Toppara and Meerut carried out to delhi. Established Diwan-i-
Khairat for take care of orphans and widows. Dar-ul-Safa (hospitals) and marriage
offices for under privileges muslims was also created.
 Firoz’s court have Barani (Tarikh-i-Firozsahi & Fatwa-i-Jahandari) & Khawja Abdul
Malik Islami (Futah-Ul-Sulatin).

Nasirruddinn Muhammad

 Timur mongol lord of central Asia invade india 1398. And his invasion ended tughlaq
dynasty.

Saiyyad Dynasty

Khizir Khan

 Timur appointed Khijir Khan as governor of Multan. He conquers Delhi and established
Saiyyad Dynasty. He did not adopt the title of sultan instead known as Riyat-i-Ala. He is
most capable of Saiyyad rulers. Saiyyad wore a pointed headgear (Kulha) and referred
to as Kulha-Daran.

Alauddin Alam Shah

 Last ruler of Saiyyad dynasty, his wazir Hamid Khan persuaded Bahlol Lodhi to
command the army.

Lodhi Dynasty

 Last governing family of sultanate period and first to be led by Afghans.

Bahlol Lodhi

 Established the Lodhi dynasty and putting down the revolts in Mewat and Doab.
Defeated sultan of Jaunpur and subjugated to the Delhi sultanate in 1476 also subjugate
ruler of kalpi and dholpur. Incorporated the Sharqui dynasty and issue copper coins.
Never reoccupy Bengal, bihar, Gujarat.

Sikandar Lodhi

 His hindu mother give him the name of Nizam Khan. Conquer Bihar and defeats
numerous riots of rajput. Conquered Bengal, expand his dominion from Punjab to Bihar
and parts of Gwalior and Nagor.
 He introduced a new land measurement stick Gazz-i-Sikandari. Exhibit little tolerant
towards other religion. Re-impose Jizya for Non-Muslims. Found Agra in 1504 and
penned Persian rhymes under pen name Gul Rukhi.

Ibrahim Lodhi
  Rana sanga (Surya vanshi of Sisodiya clan) of mewar defeated him. During his reign his
uncle Alauddin revolted. Ruler of Punjab Daulat khan Lodhi asked babur to invade
india. In first battle of panipath Babur uprooted Ibrahim Lodhi in 1526.

Administration under Delhi Sultanate

The title of sultan first used by Muhammad Ghazni. Incorporated caliph name in khutba
or prayer and engraved it on its coin. Caliph granted Mansur to illtuthmis, Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq and Firoz shah Tughlaw.
Sultan’s office was the final authority on military, legal and political concerns. Sultan
served as a court of appeal.
During this time there is no definite succession of law. Throne was equally divided
among sons.

Central Administration

 Ministers were appointed by sultan and served at his pleasure. Naib had virtually all of
the sultan’s authority and had control over all the departments.
 Finance department oversees by Diwan-i-Wazarat, Under Wazir a separate auditor
general in charge of scrutinizing expenditure and account general was in charge of
checking income.
 Diwan-i-Arz the department of Military Affairs led by Ariz. The sultan is commander in
chief not Wazir.
 Balban established military department later Allauddin khalji improved it he also
introduced Dagh and Chera system.
 Diwan-i-Rasalat was the religious department led by Chief Sadr Also known as Chief
Qazi heade judicial branch also dealt with awarded stipends to deserving scholars, land
grant to construct Tombs, Mosques and Madrashas.
 Diwan-i-Insha department of correspondence maintain correspondence between ruler
and other sovereign states.

Provincial Government

 Province of Delhi sultanate was known as Iqtas. The governors of provinces known as
muqtis or Walis. Provinces further divided into shiqs, controlled by Shiqdar. Pargana
consisted of numbers of village led by Amils.
 Village chiefs was referred as to muqaddam and chaudhri. Patwari was the village
accountant.

Land Revenue

 Iqta land was assigned to compensate for their service instead of cash payment. Khalsa
land under jurisdiction and the revenue used to support royal court and household.
 Khut ( smaller land owners) and Hindu Rais (Independent Rajas). General peasantry
had to pay 1/3rd as land revenue.
  Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq boost agricultural production by
giving irrigation facilities and taqqavi loans. Firoz promoted horticulture, interested in
enhancing the quality of fruit in india particularly melon and grapes.
 Processes of urbanization accelerated lots of towns grew such as Multan and Lahor,
Broach, Cambey, Anhilwara, Kara, Lakhnauti and delhi, daulatabad, Jaunpur.
 During this time cotton textile and silk industries developed. Sericulture developed in a
large scale.

Iqta System

 Iqta literally means portion, but actually it was the land allotted to individual for their
rendered service.
 Iqtadar or muqtis (Military Commander) was intended to introduce the system. This
system introduced to expanding sultan’s territories and preserving law and order. There
was 12 iqtas in sultanate period.

Social System

 Arabs and turks introduced purdah system. Purdah became common among elite
hindus in rajput clans in North India.
 Traditional cast system was prevalent and brahims occupying the top position in the
society.
 Sati practice was frequently practiced. Slavery had existed previously but flourished
during sultanate period.

Art and Architecture

 Delhi or imperial style, provincial style and hindu style of architecture.

 Art and architecture of Delhi sultanate is deferent from that of india. Turks uses Arabic
alphabet, arches, domes and ornaments. They used red and yellow sand stones.
 They transformed several temples into mosque such as Quwwat-ul-islan was previously
a Vishnu temple. Their policy on temple prohibited eructation of new temple but
permitted to repair or renovate the old one.
 The construction of Qutub-Minar started by Aibak later finished by Illtuthmis dedecated
to Khwaja Baktiar Kaki. Iltuthmis tomb was build near Qutub minar by his eldest son
Nasiruddin Muhammad.
 Sultan ghari was built by Illtuthmis entirely on hindu style. Balconies of building was
the architectural skills during that time.
 Later Alauddin Khalji build bland darwaza at the gateway of Qutub Minar. It might be
the first structure built entirely on Islamic principle.
 Iltuthmis build Hauzi-i-Shamshi, Shamsildgah, Jami masjid Badaun, Atarkin ka
darwaza at Nagpur. Allauddin constructed city of Siri, Jamait khan mosque,
Nizamuddin Aulia shrine.
 Giyasuddin Tughlaq build tughlaquabad. During Tughlaq period buildings building’s
by merging arch and dome made of gray sand stones. Tughlaqabad erected under reign
of Giyasuddin Tughlaq.
  Firoz tughlaq designed kotla fort in delhi and Lodhi garden. Muhammad bin tughlaq
build city of jahanpannah near delhi and fort of adinabad.

Provincial architecture

 Mostly influenced by delhi style of architecture. Hindu style architecture started

declining and confined only to rajasthan and in north India.
 Rana kumbha of mewar build fort of kadambh garh and kriti stambha (Tower of
victory). Later vijayanagar kingdom created splendor in south.

Painting

 Miniature painting flourished in mandu and jaunpur. Manuscript of kalpasutra written

on paper later on 15th century.
 Sultan Hussein sharqi of jaunpur, during his rule hindu romance Laur-Chandra in
avadhi hindi was completed.
 Rajasthan was another painting hotspot Supasanahachariyam a paper text discovered in
mewar.

Literature

 History of tughlaq dynasty contained in Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firozsahi. Tabaqat-i-Nasiri

history of muslim up to 1260 CE was written by Minhaj-us-Siraj.
 Amir Khasru developed a new Persian poetry style known as sabaq-i-hind, or Indian
Style. Allauddin’s conquest discussed in amir khasrus Khazain-ul-Futuh. Tughlaq nama
written by amir khasru. Zia Nakshabi was the first Persian language translator of
Sanskrit stories. Titu nama translated into turkhis by Zia Nakshabi and even seven
European language.

Provincial Kingdoms of Medieval India

Assam Orissa Mewar Kashmir Bengal Gujarat Jaunpur Malwa

Kashmir

 According to Rajtarangini of kalhan Kashmir valley was once a lake. Land of Kashmir
was prohibited for outsiders. Arab traveler Alberuni in Al-Hind “said that admittance
into Kashmir was not permitted even by hinuds.
 In 11th century shaivism was dominant religion of Kashmir. Mal administration of
Lohara Dynasty opened the stage foreigners to invade Kashmir.
 During Lohara lord Suhadeva, Turkic-mongol lord raid on Kashmir.
 Islamic preacher Sk. Nuruddin Noorani known to hindus as Nund Rishi, merge
Kashmiri Shaivism and Sufism. Akbar incorporated Kashmir within mughal empire in
1586.
Jaunpur

 Jaunpur was the rich province of Delhi sultanate. Malik Sarwar during Firoz Shah
tughlaq was governor of Jaunpur. Nasirudding Muhammad appointed Malik Sawar as
minister and bestowed title Sultanu-Sharq.
 Malik sawar did not became sultan but lay the ground work for shariq dynasty. During
his rule jaunpur developed a distinct architectural style known as Shariq style. Jaunupr
known as India’s Shiraz.
 Atal masjid, Lal Darwaja Masjid and Jama Majit is an example of Shariq style. Finally
Sikander Lodhi annex Jaunpur.

Orissa

 Gajapati monarch of kalinga replaced Gangas of Orissa. Kapilendra Deva established the
Gajapati Dynasty. Suryavamshi dynasty is the another name of this dynasty.
 Narashimhadeva I of this dynasty built konark sun temple. Bhakti movement of
Chaitanya who arrived kalinga at the time of king prataprudra. Lived for 18years at
puri.
 The construction of jagannath temple by anantaverman chandogya belonging to
suryavamshi gajapati dynasty.

Mewar

 Mewar ot udaypur kingdom literally known as Medhpaat. Ruler of mewar adopted the
title of Maharana. Hindu civilization exemplified in the temple of their lord Eklingaraj
also known as Medhpateswar.
 Rana Hammira founded Second Guhlia dynasty of chittor and became progenitor of
Sisodya clan. Hammira first used the title Rana, erected Annapurna mata temple
located in chittorgarh fort rajasthan.

Rana Kumbha/Kumbha Karna Singh

 Conquest states like Bundi, Kota, Chatsu, Malpura, amber and Dungerpur. Rana
Kumbha of Mewar and sultan Mahmud khalji had history of feuding because
Rana Kumbha offered refuge to Mahmud Khalji’s Adversary and Mahmud
Khalji provide shelter and encouragement to Ranas Competitors. He erected
tower of victory at chittor. He was a big supporter of art and literature as well as
super musician itself (Veena Player).
 He was known as “sangeet shiromoni” wrote treaties on Indian music called
sangeet raj , sangeet mimansha, sangeet ratnakar, sudprabandh. He built city of
Basantapur, constructed five forts Kumbhagarh, Achalgarh, Maddan, Kolana
and Vairat. Unfortunately his own son Udai assassinated him.

Rana Sanga
  Originally, Sangram Singh, violent and brave rajput king. In 1518 fought bravely
with Ibrahim lodhi at Ghatoli. Babar entered India in 1526 at the request of Rana
Sanga. He fought against babur in legendary battle of khanwa (1527) near
Fatepur Sikri.

Gujarat

 Gujarat with its handicrafts, fertile plain and busting seaports makes the richest
province of delhi sultanate.
 Allauddin Khalji, the first sultan to annex it to Delhi sultanate. According to Historian
Ferishta Firoz shah tughlaq exceedingly liberal and encourage Hinduism to a large
extent. Later Gujarat was annexed by Akbar in 1573 CE.

Malwa

Malwa captured by Allauddin Khalji in 1310. Firoz Shah tughlaq commanded trunk
road between Gujarat and northern India, as well as between north and south india, on
the high plateau between the rivers Narmada and Tapi.
Dilwar khan belonging to firoz shah tughlaq, threw off his allegiance to Delhi and
refused to accept the title of Sultan. Dilwar relocate capital from Dhar to Mandu. After
dilwar khan, alap khan assume the throne and adopted the title of hoshang Shah.
Wonders created in mandu fort city e.g. Jama Masjid construction begun by hoshang
Shah and later completed by Mahmud Khalji. Hindola Mahal, Jahaz Mahal, Hoshang
shah’s tomb and Rani Rupmatis mahal.

Bengal

 Delhi sultanates eastern most province. Found it difficult to control due to far distance,
unpleasant climate, weak means of transportation and communication. Balban force
Bengal to recognize Delhi’s sovereignty and placed his son Bughra khan as governor.
 Giyasuddin Tughlaq divided Bengal into three separate administrative divisions –
Lakhnauti, Satgaon, Sonargaon.
 In 14th century Bengal was established as an independent regional state. Around 1342
Haji illias Khan united Bengal and became its monarch and laying foundation of Illias
Sahi Dynasty. Poet Maladhar Basu who was the writer of Shri Krishna Vijaya patronized
by sultans and given the title of Gunaraja Khan.
 Sher Shah Sur took control of Bengal from Humayun. Later 1586 CE Akbar capture
bangal and turned into a suba.

Assam

 Assam was narrative of confluence of Tibeto-Burman (Sino-Tibetan), indo Aryan,

Austroasiatic culture.
 It was never a vassal or colony of a external force except the Burmese in 1821 and then
the Britisher’s in 1826 following the legendary treaty of Yabadoo. Muslim sultans of
Bengal under the Muhammad bin Bakhtier Khalji.
  In north Bengal and assam there were two warring kingdoms (1) Kamala/Kamrupa (2)
Ahom kingdom in east. Ahoms were mongoloid tribes from northern Burma.

Kingdoms In south India

Vijayanagar Empire

 Founded by Harihara and Bukka, they were feudatory of kakatias of Warangal. Later
became minister in kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka.
 When Muhammad tughlaq overran Kampili the two brothers were imprisoned,
converted to Islam to deals with the rebellion there.
 Vijayanagar kingdom was divided into four dynasty (1) Sangama (2) Saluva (3) Tuluva
(4) Aravidu.

Rulers of Sangama Dynasty

 Harihara & Bukka – founder and feudatories of Kakatias of Warangal. They able to
expand their kingdom due to decline of Hoysala kingdom. After the death of harihara,
Bukka succeeded, during his tenure sultanate of Madurai was abolished.

Harihara II –

 Earned the title of Karnataka Vidyavilisha. Expanded territories by fighting the Reddis
of Kondavidu for control of Andhra between Nellore and Kalinga. Conquered the
territory of Addanki and Srisailam areas as well as territory between peninsula and
Krishna river. His greatest achievement was wresting control of Belgram and Goa.

Deva raya I

 Known for his military powers and for support to irrigation projects. Build a dam across
Tungabhadra river. Constructed dam on Haridra river for irrigation purpose. In his
early career he was defeated by Bhamoni monarch firoz shah and marry his daughter to
sultan. He Modernize vijayanagar army by strengthening his cavalry, hiring Turkic
archers and importing horse from Arabia and Persia. First vijayanagar monarch have
10000 muslim solder. Build a mosque and butcher for his army. Italian traveler Nicolo
Conti and Russian merchant Nikitin (Author of Voyage of India) visited. Nicolo Conti
commented that “in this city there are 90000 men fit to bear arms”. He patronized
Kannada literature, Madhura a jain poet in his court who wrote Dharmanathapurana
about the life of 15th jain tirthankar. Hazare rama temple of his time is a deccan
architecture.

Deva Raya II

 Greatest of Sangama Dynasty ruler, wrote well known kannada works (Sobagina sone
and Amaruka) and in Sanskrit (Mahanataka Sudhanidhi). Wrote commentary on
Brahmasutra. Patronage to kannada poet including Chamarasa and Kumara Vyasa. His
 court adorned by Sanskrit poet Gunda Dimdima and Telegu Poet Kavisarvabhauma
Srinatha, author of haravilasam. Parameshwara a well known mathematician from
kerala school of astronomy lived on his kingdom. His addiction to hunting elephant
earned him the title of Gajabetagara literally means Hunter of elephant. Abdur Rajjak
from Persia and Nicolo Conti visited his court.

*** Suluva dynasty was founded by suluva Narashimha ***

Tuluva Dynasty

 Founded by Vira Narasimha Raya.

Krishna Deva Raya

 Greater Vijayanagara ruler also known as Abhinava bhoja, Andhra Pitamaha or Andhra
Bhoja. Fought series of wars with deccan sultanate. In battle of diwani muslim armies
were decisively defeated. He invade Raichur Doab, completely destroyed the Adil Sahi
force of bijapur first, then attacked Gulbarga and captured Raichur Doab around 1520.
Krishna Deva raya took the title of Yavanaraja Sthapanacharya. He defeated the gajapati
ruler Pratap Rudra and captured Telengana. He keep cordial relation with the
Portuguese. Albuquerque sent ambassador to Krishna deva Rayas court. Portuguese
explorers Domingo Peas and Barbosa Visited India. Astadiggaj adorned his court (1)
Pingali Suranna author of Garuda Puranam, Prabhavatee Pradyumnamu, Raghava
Pandaveeyam and Kalapurnodayamu. (2) Tenali Ramakrishna author of Panduranga
Mahamatyam. (3) Allasani Peddanna his works include Manucharitam and
Harikanthasaram. He constructed famous Vittalaswami and Hazara Ramaswamy
temple in vijayanagar. The famous tirupati temple flourished during his reign. He
named a suburb of vijayanagara nagalapuram after his mother. Krishna Deva Raya
written the following books Jambavati Kalyanam (in Sanskrit), Ushaparinayam ( in
Sanskrit), Amukthamalyadha (in Telegu). Krishna Deva Raya’s reign is regarded as
classical phase of telegu literature and rightly honoured as Andhra Pitamaha.

Achyuta Deva Raya

 Portuguese traveller named Fernoa Nuniz visited India. He support kannada poet Chatu
Vittalanatha ( considered as father of carnatic music) and Sanskrit scholar Rajanatha
Dindima II. During his tenure Tiruvengalanatha temple also known as Achyuta temple
was constructed. After his death Venkata-I succeeded him later Krishna deva raya under
the regency of Aravidu Aliya Rama Raya.

Sada Shiv Raya

 He was a puppet in the hands of his minister, Aliya Rama Roy. Deccan states including
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda formed a confederacy and gave final blow to the
Vijayanagara army in the battle of Talaikotta in 1565 CE, another name of this battle was
Rakshasa thangadi. He was the last ruler of this dynasty.
However vijaynagar kingdom survived for another century under the Aravidu dynasty and this
dynasties most famous ruler was Thirumala, Sri ranga and Venkata II.

General administration of Vijayanagar Kingdom

 King was the absolute ruler of the kingdom and army’s supreme commander. Chief
minister referred to as Maha Pradhani, oversaw law making officer including Dalavya
(Commander), Vassal (Palace guard), Rayasam (Secretary/Accountant), Adaippam
(Personal Attendant) and Karya Karta (executive agent).

Provincial Admministration

 Kingdom divides into administrative units known as Mandalam, Nadus, Sthalas, and
finally gramas.
 Mandeleswara or Nayak was Mandalams Governor. Rulers delegates full administrative
authority to the local authorities. Initially governors were royal princes later appointed
from among the vassals and nobles of the ruling family.
 Provincial governors holds provincial autonomy, holding their own courts, appointing
officers, maintaining armies even issued their own coins.

Economy and revenue system

 Source of revenue was tax collected at ports, tax on professions, land revenue, tribute,
gift from vassal chiefs and feudal lords.
 They encourage growth of agriculture by providing irrigation facilities by building
Wells, tanks and Dams. Canal excavation also mentioned by Nuniz. Land revenue
generally fixed at 1/6th.
 Industries were organized into guilds. Kurnool and Anantapur district had diamond
mines. Malabar and Connore was famous sea ports.
 Some revenue used for maintenance if temple and irrigation works. Commercial
connection grew with west Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Portugal and with east Burma,
Malaya peninsula and China.
 Famous items of export were cotton, silk clothing, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter etc.
Shipbuilding had became an art form.
 Vijayanagar issued a large number of (Varaha is main gold coins) (Known as Pon in
Tamil and Honnu in Kannada). Three kinds of coins first is Lopeki, second Pertab and
third Fanam. Coins made of gold mixed with alloy, one named Virahab (one mithlkal),
equivalent to 2 dinnars says abdur Razzaq. Fanam most useful currency, the sixth of the
Fanam made of pure silver and called it tar. Dijitel is a copper coin worth 1/3rd of Tar.
 Gold coins has image of hindu deities and animals such as bull, elephant and fantastic
gandaberunda (double eagle with an elephant in each beak and claw). Kings name
appear on coins either in Nagari or Kannada.

Army and Military Organisation

  Extremely well organized and efficient. Army made up off cavalry, infantry, artillery
and elephant. Imported high quality of horse from Arabia and gulf countries. Poet of
Malabar was epicenter of luxury goods trade.
 Amara nayaka system was important feature of vijayanagar administration. Armies
highest rank officials was Nayakas, Palaiyagaras or poligars. In lieu of service they
offered land called (Amaram), whereas solders were paid in cash.
 Nayakas was in charge of agricultural lands (Amaram) in his jurisdiction. He collected
the tax to utilize the army (including horse, weapons). Nayaka was also the fort
commander.
 Vijayanagar was also familiar with the use of fire arms and haired turkhis and
Portuguese. Forts has thicken walls to with stand firearms. Parapets were build on the
forts to use house cannon. The army have both small fire arms like rifle and pistols and
heavy arms like cannons.

Social and religious life

 Sangama rulers predominately Shaivaits, with Virupaksha as their family deity.

Ramanujams srivishnavism was widely accepted. Barbosa referred religious freedom
that everyone enjoys.
 Muslims were employed in administration and free to construct mosque and worship.
Deva Raya II enlisted muslims in his armed force and assigned them jagirs.
 Women’s rights not significantly improved but some of them was learned such as
Gangadevi wife of kumara kampana author of famous work Madhuravijayam and two
other well known poet Hannamma and Thirumalamma.
 According to Nuniz women worked in royal palace as dancers, servants, Palanquin
bearers. Sati or Sahagaman was honoured. Peas mentioned flourishing Devadashi
System.

Literature

 The rulers of vijayananar was also avid readers of Sanskrit, tamil, telegu, kannada.
Literary development at the peak during Krishna Deva Raya. He himself also known as
(Andhra Bhoja). Great Sanskrit scholar Sanaya wrote commentaries on veda.
 Madhavacarya a Sanskrit scholar had close relation with Vijayanagara. Gangadevi wife
of Kampana in her famous work Madhuravijayam describe her husbands conquest of
Madhura in Mahakavya Style.
 Hanamma and Thirumalamma were well known poerts of that time. Hanamma worked
as reporter at Deva Raya’s court. Thirumalamma and her son Paranjyotiyar were
prominent scholars. Tirumalamma wrote ChidambaraPuranam and Chokkanatharula.
 Bhagavata Purnam translated into Tamil by Sevvaichchbuduvar. Irusamaya Filakkain
work on Vaisnavism written by Vadamalavi Annagalayyam. Bhima Kavi translated
Basava Purana into Kannada. A kannada version of Ramayana was composed by
Kumara Velmini.

Art and Architecture

  Main features of vijayanagara Architecture were the tall Raya Gopurams, and
Kalyanamandapam. Most vijayanagara temples found on Hampi. Best example of style
were Vitthalaswamy and Hazarerama Ramaswamy temple.
 Horse was the most frequently seen motif on these pillars. Kalyana Mandapam can be
found in vellore. Kanchipuram’s Varadharajaswami, Ekamparanatha temples and
Tiruchirapalli’s Jambukesvara temple.
 Temple architecture was updated with new elements. Addition to Main shrine, a smaller
temple was called Amma shrine was build in the north west to house the lord or main
deity’s consort.
 Krishna deva Raya was a exceptional builder, he named a town Nangalapura after his
mothers, most well known of these temples are Vittalaswamy and Virupaksha Temple.
 Paintings at Virabhadra and Lepakshi temples demonstrate the skill of vijayanagara
Painters. Ramayana and Mahabharata stories was inscribed on the walls of various
temples. Paintings such as Dasavathara, Girirajakalyanam, Virupakshya are beautiful
specimen of art.

Bahmani Kingdom

 Arose in south India in the late 14th century. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq appointed
amiran-i-Sabha also known as Sada Amir to established a stable administration in
Deccan.when the conflict between Delhi sultanate and Deccan officers intensified the
independent Bahamani kingdom established with capital Gulbarga in Andhra Pradesh.
 The dynasty founded by Hanan Gangu who took the title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman
Shah.

Political History of Bahmani Kingdom

Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah

 He was an Afghan Adventurer and serving as general under Sultan Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq. Nazir uddin Ismail Shah revolted against the sultanate of delhi. According to
historian Feristha his original name was Hasan Gangu later he adopted the term
Bahman Shah as tribute to Brahmana Patron.
 He led his first campaign against Warangal against its ruler Kapaya Nayaka to cede the
fortress of Kaulas to Him.

Taj-Ud-Din Firoz Shah

 Greatest of all Bahmani King, began invasion of berar by defeating Gond Raja Narshing
of Kherla. He married Ray’s Daughter. Later he invade Vijayanagar and winning
victories but defeated by Devaraya II.
 Well versed in Religious science as well as natural science (Botany, Geometry, Logic).
He has talented calligraphist and poet, fluent not only in Telegu, Kannda and Marathi
also in Persian, Arabic, and turkey according to Ferishta.
  Constructed observatory near Daulatabad. His administration include a large number
of Hindus. During his reign deccan Brahmins came to dominate administration.

Ahmad Shah Wali

 Also known as Saint wali because his association with the famous sufi saint Gesu Daraz.
Defeated warrangal and later the state capital was transferred from Gulbarga to Bidar.

Mahmud Gawan

 Under his leadership kingdom reached pinnacle of its power and territorial limits. He
was an Persian merchant who came to india and joined Bahmani Kingdom. He was
granted title of Malik-Ul-Tujjar (Chief of Marchant) by Humyun Shah. He also given the
title of Khwaju-i-Jahan.
 He was a man with a strong background in mathematics. He divided his kingdom into
eight Tarafs or provinces, each with its own Tarafdars in charge. Only fort in each
province was under the control of tarafdars.
 The remaining forts in the province were assigned to Qiladar or Fort commander. He
was a military genius and led successful campaing against vijayanagar, Odissa and
Arabian sea Pirates.
 Bahmani expand its trade with Iran and Iraq after gaining control of Goa and Dabhol. In
the war against Vijayanagar in belgaum he used gun power and invite Persian chemists
to teach his solders how make and use gun powder.
 He defeated Mahmud Khalji of Malwa under. he was generous patron of art,
establishing endowment to build a collage in Bidar in the Persian style. During his
tenure nobles were divided into two groups (1) Deccanis (Old timers) (2) Afaqis (New
comer )
 Krishna Deva Raya defeated the last remnants of the Bahmanai sultanate’s power,
resulting in Bahmani sultanates demise.

After 1518 sultanate broke up into five states

 Nizam Sahis of Ahmednagar – Found By amhed Bari, annexed by Shah Jahan.

 Adil Shahis of Bijapur – Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. Muhammad Adil shah built
world second largest dome Gol Gombaz. Ibrahim adil shah bestowed the title of
Jagadguru Badsha due to his tolerance. He attempted to bring cultural harmony
between siahas and sunnis. He was an music lover who composed praises for the hindu
deities Saraswati and Gajapati. Wrote the book kitab-e-Navras. He kept a band of
musician known as Lashkar-e-Nauras. Later his kingdom annexed by Aurangzeb.

 Qutub Shais of Goloknda – Quli Qutub Shah built the fort of golkonda. Also build the
city of huydrabad and charminer. Later annexed by Aurangzeb.

Bahmani Administration
 Sultanate was divided into 4 administrative province known as taraf. Daulatabad,Berar,
Gulbarga and Bidar were the provinces involved. Every province led by tarafdar also
known as subedar. Khalsa land was set aside from the jurisdiction of tarafdar. Nobles
who kept 500 horses were given 100000 huns per year.
Nobles were paid in cash or in form of grant of land known as Jagir. Amirs were divided
into two groups (1) Deccanis who were immigrant muslims lived in Deccan region. (2)
Afaqis or Pardesis who came from central Asia, Iran, Iraq.

Officials of Bahmani Kingdom

Officials Descriptions
Wazir-i-Kul PM and Chief Advisor of the King.
Amir-i-Kul Head of the Finance Department.
Wazir-i-Jahan Foreign affairs and Maintenance of royal orders.
Tarafdar Head of province
Sadar-i-Jahan Head of judiciary and charitable works.
Reasons behind the conflict between Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdom

 To gain Control of Raichur Doab (Between river Krishna and Tungabhadra), which was
very fertile and abundant in mineral resource.
 Golkonda mine located in the eastern part of the doab region.
 Apart from the fertility of the region, the region also controlled the foreign trade.
 The Marathwada region was the control of the Konkon belt which was extremely fertile
and includes Goa’s port.

Rise of Mughals

 Mughals were descendent of Mongol Chengiz Khan and Turk Taimur. The reason
behind conquest of India was, political strife between Uzbeks and Timurids which made
Babur instable in Kabul.
 Babur ruled over Quandahar, Kabul but did not yield sufficient income for his armies
requirement. Babur also fear about the Uzbek attack on Kabul, hence babur saw India is
safe heaven and suitable base for operation against Uzbeks.

Babur

 Race for political supremacy in central Asia between Uzbeks (Turkhih ethnic group) and
Ottomans (Sunni Islamic persons) forced Babur to seek his career elsewhere.

Initial Conquest of India by Babur

 Babur took control of Bhira in 1518-19, later Daulat Khan occupied Bhira and drove out
Babur agent. Babur once more traversed Indus in 1520-1521, taking Bhira and Sialkote
the two entrance of sialkote.
  Babur received and embassy form Daulat Khan Lodhi, headed by Dilwar Khan. They
invited Babur to India and advised him to replace Ibrahim Lodhi as ruler. Also a
messenger from Rana Sanga invited Babur to invade India.

Battle of Panipath (20th April, 1526)

 The battle was fought between Babur and Ibrahim lodhi and Babur got Victorious and
seizes control of Delhi.
 The reason behind Babur victory is (1) Tulugma System of warfare also known as Rumi
method. (2) The cavalry of Babur used gun and have Ustad ali and Mustafa two skilled
Ottoman Gunners.
 Babur had to wage two hard fought battles, one against Rana Sanga and Other against
the Eastern Afghans. This battle opened a new phase in struggle for domination in
North India.

Battle of Khanwa (1527)

 Babur decision to stay in India gave big shock to Rana sanga. The presence of Babur may
prohibit the expansion policies of Rana Sanga. Hence Rana breach the contract of
helping him in battle against local rulers.
 Rana sanga gain support from Afghan rallied including Mahmud Lodhi & others such
as Ruler of Mewat, Ilaskhan Mewati, etc, with the hope of reclaiming Delhi’s throne.
 Due to this Babur solemnly proclaimed the war against Rana Sanga to be a Jihad. The
battle of Khanwa secured Babur’s position in the Delhi-Agra region, by taking Hasan
khan Mewatis forts in Gwalior and Dholpur.

Battle of Chanderi (1528)

 In Malwa, Babur oversaw a campaign against Medini Ray of Chanderi.

Battle of Ghagra (1529)

 This was Babur’s final Conflict with Afghans. Mahmud Lodhi and Sultan Nushrat Shah
made alliance against Babur. Babur defeated the Afghans on the bank Ganges tributary
Ghagara.

Significance of Babur Advent into India

Kabul and Kandahar made permanent part of empire encompassing north India for the
first time since Kushanas.
The control of the territories boosts International trade. India could then participate
more actively in the massive Trans-Asian trade.
Babur was a orthodox sunni who did not follow and religious prophets or practice
Bigotry.
Although he declared the conflict with sanga to be a jihad, and adopted the title of Ghazi
after winning.
 He introduced a brand new strategy of warfare to india and demonstrated the power of
an expertly combined artillery and cavalry.
Due to his victory artillery and gunpowder quickly gain popularity in India.

Cultural contribution of Babur

 He was a follower of Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar, a Naqshbandiya Sufi. Babur well versed
in Persian and Arabic.
 He wrote Masnavi as well as Tuzuk-e-babri, a memoir in Turki, later translated into
Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan I Khana.
 He has written great details of flora and fauna of India. Introduced Char-bagh and
gardens with symmetrical layouts, fountains and running water.
 He constructed two mosques in Rohilkhand’s Sambhat and other in Panipath.

Humayun (1530-56)

at 23 he replaced babur, he had to dealt with variety of issues left Babur behind, such as
undefeated Afghans e.g. Bahadur Shah governor of Gujarat, Sher khan from Bihar.
Timurid legacy of dividing the empire among all the brothers was the final legacy.
Humayun’s brother Kamaran, had control over Kabul and Kandahar and also have
jurisdiction over Punjab.
He overcomes the Afghan armies and seized Bihar and Jaunpur in around 1532 at
Daurah.
He attacked Chunar, which was also known as the entrance of eastern India. Controlled
the land and river routes between Agra and east.
Humayun captured Mandu before storming Champaner and Ahmedabad.
He made Askari the governor of Gujarat, but he escaped to agra as Bahadur Shah
advanced towards Ahmedabad.

Conflict between Sher Shah Suri and Humayun

In battle of Chausa 1539, sher khan assumed the name sher shah after defeating
Humayun.
Battle of Billagram / Kannauj in 1540, brothers of Humayun, Askari and Hindal battled
bravely but sher shah triumphed against Humayun. After the battle Humayun became a
prince without realm and was forced to leave Delhi.

Later life of Humayun

He married Hamida Banu Begum, Akbar was borned in 1542 in Amarokot, a hindu
kingdom ruled by Rana Prashad.
He sought refuge at the court of Iranian ruler who converted him to Shia islam. Bairam
khan assisted him in returning to India.
Humayun founded new city in Delhi known as Dinapannah and erected Jamali mosque
and Isha khan Mosque.
 Humayun tomb known as Taj Mahal Proto type, build by his widow Haji Begum.
Humayun appointed two Persian artist, Mir sayad ali and Abdus Samad as his court
painters.

Emperor Sher Shah Suri (1540-1555)

 Founder of the Sur Dynasty, his original name was Farid, he worked for the governor of
Bihar (Bahar Khan), who gave the title of Sher khan to Farid.

Military conquest of Sher Shah Suri

 Assend the throne of Delhi at the age of 54 years. He began strengthening his position in
north and eastern India. In 1542 he defeated and subdued Malwa, and then Chanderi.
 In famous battle of Samel near Ajmer, he vanquished Maldeo. His final conquest was
against Kalinjar (Bundelkhand), which he won although he lost due to gunpowder
explosion.

Administration of Sher Shah Suri

 He used to say that justice is the most exlellent of religious rights, and it is approved
alike by the king infidels and of the faithful.
 Quazi was appointed to Administer Justice, although village Panchyet and zamidars
continued to handle civil and criminal cases at local level.
 Islam shah codified the laws. He attempted to limit the rights and privileges of the
aristocracy and to pay solder in cash.
 Jizyah continued to be collected from hindus.
 Sher shah made few alternations to administrative divisions such as, Pargana was made
up of several villages and overseen by shiqdar who was in charge of law and order and
general administration and munsif and amil, who was in charge of collecting land tax.
 Accounts were kept in Persian as well as in local language. Revenue officers - Amins
and Qanungo – maintainance of revenue records.
 Shiq or sarkar located above pargana, over seen by shiqdar-i-shiqdaran or faujdar and a
munsif – Imunsifan.
 King was assisted with (1) Diwan-i-Wazarat, revenue and finance minister (2) Diwan-i-
Arz, minister of Army (3) Diwan-i-Rasalat, Foreign Minister (4) Diwan-i-Insha, Minister
for communication.
 Sher shah mentained administrative machinery on the line of Sultanates.
 The GT road spanned from Sonargaon Bengal to Indus in the west repaired by him,
constructed road that connect Agra with Jodhpur and Chittor and presumably the road
to Gujarat sea port. Third route connecting Lahore and multan.
 He build sarai at the gap between 8 kilometer or 2 Kos, sarai provided separate
accommodations for Hindus and Muslims. Brahmins assaigned to provide hindu
travellers with lodging, food and feading there horses.
 Sarai had several watchmen who were overseen by sahanas (Custodians). Sarai grew
into the market towns (qasbas). The sarais was also utilsed as news service or Dak
Chowkis. His roads and sarais have been called the arteries of the empire.
Economic reforms by Sher shah Sur

 Custom duty at the boundary of Bengal and bihar at sikrigali. Goods from central and
western asia paid custom duty at Indus.
 Nobody authorized to collect tax on highways, ferries or anywhere else. The duty was
paid in second time when the product was sold.
 Sher Shah held the local village headmen (Muqaddams) and zamidars liable for any
losses incurred by a marchant on the roadways. The zamidars and muqaddams required
to produce the thief or indicate the hiding places of the thieves.
 Sher Shahs currency reforms also aided in the expansion of commerce and economy,
silver rupiya (1 rupiya = 64 Dams), gold coins Ashrafi/Mohors weighed 169 grams. The
term Rupiya began to adopt as the name for silver piece with a regular weight of 178
grams under his region. He established uniform system of weight and measures.

Land revenue policies of Sher Shah Suri

 He was adamant on measuring the showed land. A crop rate called Ray was created.
State tax was 1/3rd of the produce. The land was categories into three types Good,
moderate and Bad. Peasants had option of paying in cash or kind, albeit the state
preferred cash.
 Area sown, types of crop cultivated, the amount each peasant had to pay were written
down on a peace of paper called Patta.
 A cess of two and half seers per bigha was charged to protect against famine and other
natural disasters.

Army under Sher Shah Suri

 Every solder had his description register (chera) and his hores’s was branded with
imperial signed.
 Sher shah borrowed this method as the Dagh (Branding), from Alauddin Khaljis
Military Reforms.
 He established cantonments throught the empire. He also mmaintained his personal
royal force called Khalsa Kali.

Cultural Contribution of Sher Shah Suri

He developed a new city on the banks of the Yamuna river near Delhi. Constructed
Purana Quila which was later worked as Humayuns library. His personal museum is
located at Sasaram Bihar.
He constructed Rohtan’s Forts (UNESCO site in Pakistan), Rohtasgarh fort in Bihar and
Sher Shah Suri Masjid in patna. During his tenure Malik Muhammad jayasi completed
Padmawat.

Reign of Akbar (1556-1605)