Unit-II Forms of Technical Communication

REPORT:
Reports form an essential part of official, managerial and professional activity.The word report defines as to
carry back; to relate, as facts or discoveries; to give an account of.Thus a report can be defined as a systematic
account of facts for information, analysis and action to achieve a definite business objective. Purpose of a
report must be factual, objective orderly and definite.

IMPORTANCE OF REPORT
The importance of reports for any professional lies in the fact that a number of business decisions and
research conclusions are made on the basis of information presented or ideas recommended.
Reports serve several purposes like:
 Presenting Data
 Describing problems and suggesting solutions
 Discussing and analyzing data
 Recording events and happenings
 Analysing a situation
 Giving feedback & Recommendations

PREPARING/ ORGANISING/ WRITING A REPORT

The following five steps are suggested to write a Report:
Investigating the Sources of Information: The first step to write a report is to decide the sources from where
the facts or information can be collected.
Taking Notes: Second step in report writing is to note down the relevant point of information.
Analyzing the Data: Third step is to analyze the collected data. A lot of data will have to be rejected while a
need might be felt to collect more data.
Making an Outline: Once the data is analysed and the relevant data is collected, the data collected should be
organized preparing an outline the problem is stated, the facts are recorded, they are briefly analyzed, and the
logical conclusion is arrived at.

Report writing:
Reports form an essential part of official, managerial and professional activity. A report can be defined as a
systematic account of facts for information, analysis and action to achieve a definite business objective. The
purpose of a report must be factual, objective orderly and definite.

CHARACTERISTIC OF A REPORT: - A report should have the following features in it:

Precision: A good report is very clear about the exact purpose of report i.e. investigation, analysis and
recommendation.
Accuracy of Facts: Accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report since reports invariably lead to
decision making.
Relevance: Irrelevant facts make a report confirming: exclusion of relevant facts renders it incomplete and
likely to mislead.
Reader and Result Orientation: A good report is always leader and result oriented. While drafting a good
report, it is necessary to keep in mind the person who is going to read it and that it leads to home result or
recommendations.

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Objectivity of Recommendations: If recommendations are made at the end of the report, they must be
objective. They should come as a logical conclusion to investigation and analysis.
Simple and Unambiguous language: A good report must be written in simple and unambiguous language,
free from ornamentation.
Clarity and Brevity: A good report is absolutely clear and brief. Clarity depends on proper arrangement of
facts. Writer should make his purpose clear, define his/her resources, state his/her findings and finally make
necessary recommendations. Brevity in a report is to include everything significant and yet be brief.

PARTS/ STRUCTURE OF A REPORT:

A formal report can be divided into three major parts as Front Matter, Main body, and Back Matter. The
following components are present in almost all large reports:

1. Folder/Cover Page
2. Frontispiece
3. Title Page
4. Copyright Note
5. Forwarding Letter
This is the FrontMatter of the report
6. Preface
7. Table of Contents
8. Acknowledgement
9. Abstract and Summary
10. Introduction
11. Description
12. Conclusion
This is the MainBody of the report
13. Recommendations
14. Appendix
15. Reference:
16. Bibliography
This is the BackMatter of the report
17. Glossary
18. Index
Folder/Binding/Cover Page:
A report is always included in a folder or bound between covers. Cover page is needed for a long report. The
cover page of the report protects the main text safe. The cover page must be striking the reader. This page has
the title, number, date and classificationof the report, if any (confidential etc.), and sometimes the name of the
report writer is given. However, too much information should not be given on the cover page. Whatever is
printed should be tastefully set and designed to give it an attractive look. A cover page can be like:
Report No. X 13

A REPORT

ON

THE DECREASING WORK PERFORMANCE OF

THE WORKERS

BY
ANURAG MATHUR

USHA & COMPANY

NEW DELHI

MAY, 2010

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Frontispiece: It generally has a figure, picture, a photograph or a map etc. just to give it an attractive look and
arouse the interest among the readers.

Title Page: The title page includes the name of the report, the name of writer/writers, the name of
theorganisation and the date. Authors can include those who made a major, direct contribution to the report or
study. Minor contributors can be mentioned in the Acknowledgements section.

Copyright: In case a report is meant for publication, the notice of copyright should also be printed on the
inner side of the title page. It can be followed by a note of warning too. For example: All rights are reserved
© author
Or
© 2010, A. Chatterjee, author
Forwarding Letter:
The forwarding letter can also be known as an introductory letter. It is just a covering letter. It allows the
author to create a link with the reader. It can highlight the main points of the report. It prepares the readers
of the report to examine it in the right perspective by communicating the scope and the limitations of the
work. The forwarding letter can also acknowledge the help; the author might have received from certain
people during the preparation of the report. This is not a part of the report. It is put separately.

Preface:The preface repeats some of the information given in the forwarding letter. It also presents the
report to the reader and is a part of a report.

Acknowledgements:It is a thanksgiving to the persons who helped the author in the way of completion of
his/her task. When acknowledgements have not been recorded in the introductory letter or the preface, the
author can mention them separately. He/she can simply write the names of the persons, with their
designation, and the institutions who have helped him in the course of preparing his report. He can also
refer to the specific contribution of the persons whose names are being mentioned. For example, he may
say……… „We are thankful to Mr. …….,…..for extending his cooperation in the……,‟ or „we
acknowledge our gratitude to Mr. …… for having provided us the data of …., or ….., who took pains to
respond to our request for a survey of his ……..,‟ and so on.

Table of Contents: A table of contents is required only when the report is a long one, and the reader of the
report might need this help to locate the particular parts of the report. In a short report a table of contents
would appear to be quite unnecessary. The table of contents is a list of the headings and sub-headings into
which the text of the report has been divided. It should be clearly printed on a page leaving enough margins
on all sides. The page numbers should be precisely printed against all the points.

Abstract or Summary:While a short report does not have any requirement of a summary or abstract, a longer
report must have its abstract or summary, or both, so that the authorities, who have not sufficient time to go
through the entire report, can gather the necessary information from its abstract or summary. An abstract is
shorter and a more condensed gist of the text than the summary. However, both of them i.e. abstract and
summary should contain the essential information.

Introduction:The Introduction is a very important part of any report. Introduction introduces the report to the
reader of the report. An introduction is important because the person reading the report might not be
acquainted with the problem. An introduction not only informs the reader about the subject of the report but
also tells him/her what the background of the project/problem is, how much of the work has already been
completed, what the shape of the investigation has been, what methods and procedures have been adopted to
collect the information and to analyse it, etc.The introduction can also state by whom the project has been
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authorized, and on what terms.

Discussion or Description:This is a major part of main body of the report. The report writer describes the
work that has been performed and discusses the problem in detail. This section of the report is likely to be
divided into several sub-sections, particularly in case of a long report.

Conclusions and Recommendations:

Reports typically describe some findings which have been derived from observation, experiment, calculation,
etc. Conclusions are written to conclude a discussion. In a report, conclusions utter the results of all the details,
facts or arguments. The writer of the report not only presents the facts but also tries to draw some assumption.

Figure 2: Relationship of Introduction to Conclusions and Recommendations

Recommendations:
Recommendations are the clear suggestions to solve or to improve the condition. Sometimes the report writer
may think it worthwhile to ask for another survey, or further study, of the same issue. In some cases, report
conclusion and recommendations is one and the same thing, and then, there is no need to give
recommendations separately. Recommendations must be made only when the writer of the report has been
asked to do so. If it is not in the terms of reference, the writer should not presume to recommend any action.
Appendix: An appendix should be used to contain detailed material that is not essential to, but supports the
information contained in the body of the report. However, it does not mean that an appendix is a receptacle for
unimportant or unnecessary material. It can contain supporting data, detailed explanations of methodologies
or procedures, derivation of formulas etc. It also contains the information which could not be included in the
main text for some reason or the other.

List of References: When the writer uses material from other reports or books, he/shemust properly
acknowledge it, by citing the report or book in a list of references, and referring to the list at the places in the
text where the material is used. If he/she fails to acknowledge the work of others, youcan be accused of
plagiarism. For example

Dr. Swatantra, Ashutosh Srivastava, G.2009, Remedial English Language, New Delhi: S. Chand & Co.
Publishing House, Page No. 25.

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Bibliography: A bibliography is a listing of books or reports that contain similar or otherwise pertinent
material that may prove useful to the reader for the further and detailed study of the content.While a list of
references contains the specific information about a particular part that has been taken from some other
source, a bibliography contains the names which should be, or have been generally studied on the subject. For
example:

Dr Swatantra, Srivastava Ashutosh., Remedial English Language. 1sted.

New Delhi: S.Chand& Company, 2009.

Glossary:A glossary is a list of the words which might be unfamiliar or difficult to the reader and hence
needed for explanation. The technical terms which are likely to misguide the reader can be included into the
glossary. If there are not many words or terms of that kind, the footnotes can serve the purpose. A glossary is
not necessary when the person to whom the report is being presented is well acquainted with that field of
knowledge.

Index: An index is the name of topics and sub topics of the report. An index is given only at the end of a
long report. An index is more helpful than a table of contents to the reader. It guides the readers directly to
the spot where they can find a particular piece of information. By this the reader can get the topic at once.
The index is always prepared by arranging the topics, sub-topics, terms, and names etc. in alphabetical order.
Against each entry, all the page numbers on which that word has been used or discussed are mentioned.

STYLE OF REPORT:

Adaptation: For any writing or speech the language being used plays very important role. A business report
or a technical report is written to serve a practical purpose. Therefore, it is desirable that the language used in
the report should be simple and correct, and free from ornamental additions. The style and presentation
affect the impression made by the report. The report ought to be not only intelligible but also persuasive and
clearly organized.

Readability and Objectivity: Without exceptions, a report must contain nothing personal. A report in the
letter form can sometimes include a subjective opinion, but generally complete objectivity is maintained in a
report. Unless this point is remembered, the conclusions drawn are likely to be misleading. When a report is
presented in the form of a blank-form, it is quite free from personal comments. The writer of the report has
to determine the problem first. He/she has got to adapt his/her style to such considerations as:

(i) The purpose of the report.

(ii) Who has authorized the report?
(iii)Who will be studying the report?
(iv) The scope of the investigations.
(v) Is the writer of the report required to make any recommendation?

Order: Some reports prefer the inductive method, in which particular facts are used to draw general
conclusion. In order to preserve the readability and the value of the report in respects other than visual and
stylistic appeal, one should take all the pains to make the report accurate and unbiased. A wider data-base
should be preferred. The interpretation of the facts should be objective and factual. The tendency to use
hyperbolic language often results in a distortion of the facts. A sound reasoning and logical attitude can save
us from this weakness.

Diction: The language of technical writing ought to be precise and it should not be figurative. Verbosity and
circumlocution should be avoided, though conciseness should not be cultivated at the cost of intelligibility.
Terminology of the subject concerned will naturally enter into the diction of a report on a specific subject in
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 any field of technical or professional activity. Still the writer should respect the condition whether the report
is to be perused by an expert in that field, who might be acquainted with those terms or by the readers in
general who might not be acquainted with those terms. In later case, a glossary can make the report more
readable.

Sentence: Sentence must not be un-necessarily lengthy. Though nobody can exactly prescribe the proper
length of a sentence to be used in a report, yet a simple guideline can be followed. When a sentence appears to
be too long and the meaning gets somewhat blurred by its length, it is better to break it up into two or more
shorter sentences.

Paragraph: Similarly, the size of the paragraphs would vary from part to part of the report. Instead of
measuring the size of the paragraph in terms of the words or the lines included in it, the writer should follow
the principle of logic, unity and coherence. If the matter is relevant, and cannot be shifted to another
paragraph, if it substantiates an idea or an argument, it is justified to be there in the same paragraph. One
paragraph must contain the matter related with one point of the argument, or one aspect of the subject. A topic
sentence is a very useful to help in this respect. If the paragraph begins with a topic sentence, the rest of the
paragraph naturally grows out of it, either by enumerating the example, or by expanding the idea.

Coherence: Coherence binds the parts together and to the whole. Unity is strengthened and enhanced by
coherence I a pi8ece of writing. For example, when we are analyzing a subject, and we want to give a
different turn to the argument, or to cite an exception to a general practice, we should begin the next sentence
with „However‟ … or with „In spite or‟ …..,or with „on the other hand …‟ etc.

Viewpoint: A report can be presented either in the past tense or in the present tense. The occasion of the
report would determine the time-viewpoint. If the report records the facts that have been found out after going
into the details of an event in the past, the past tense appears to be the natural viewpoint. If a current problem
is being investigated or an ongoing development is being evaluated, the present tense may sound better.

Types of Reports:

1. On the basis of Legal Formalities

a. Formal
Statutory
Unstatuory
b. Informal
2. On the basis of Frequency of issue
a. Periodic or Routine Reports
b. Special or Occasional Reports
3. On the Basis of the nature of the subject
a. Informative Report
b. Analytical/ Interpretative or Investigative Report
4. On the Basis of the nature of the subject:
a. Problem finding
b. Fact finding
c. Performance
d. Technical
5. On the Basis of the no. of people involved:
a. Individual Reports
b. Committee and Sub Committee.

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 Types/Kinds of Reports: We can clarify Businessreport in the following ways:
1. On the Basis of Legal Formalities

a. Formal Reports: A formal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed form and is presented according to
an established procedure o a prescribed authority. Formal reports can be of any of the following types:
Statutory Report: A report prepared and presented according to the form and procedure laid down by law.
Unstatutory Report: Formal reports which are not required under any law but which are prepared to help the
management in framing policies or taking other important decisions.
b. Informal Report: An informal report is usually in the form of a person to person communication. An informal
report is usually submitted in the form of a letter or a memorandum form.

2. On the Basis of the Frequency of issue:

a. Periodic or Routine Reports: these reports are prepared and presented at regular prescribed intervals in the
usual routine of business. They may be daily, annually, semi- annually, quarterly, monthly, fortnightly,
weekly etc.
b. Special or Occasional Reports: These reports are related to a single occasion or situation special reports deal
with non-recurrent problems.

3. On the Basis of Function of a Report:

a. Informative Reports: These reports merely present facts pertinent to an issue or a situation.
b. Analytical/ Interpretative or Investigative Reports: These reports go into the causes of facts and analyse them
and come up to some conclusion and states some recommendations.
4. On the basis of the number of persons entrusted with the drafting of Reports:
a. Reports by Individual:these reports are submitted by one individual about a department is called individual
reports.
b. Committees or Sub-Committees:These reports are submitted by association of more than one person. In such
cases committees and sub-committees are formed to draft a report. These reports are formal in style and
impersonal in tone.
5. On the basis of the Length:

Long and Short Report: The long reports are more formal than the short one. They have most of the parts of
the structure of a report. But in a short report the introductory matter need not be given much space. A short
report being more a part of the routine official work, it can be sometime a little more personal in tone, while a
longer report preserves an impersonal appeal and attitude.

Thesis

A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or

professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. In some contexts, the word "thesis" or
a cognate is used for part of a bachelor's or master's course, while "dissertation" is normally applied to a
doctorate, while in other contexts, the reverse is true. The term graduate thesis is sometimes used to refer to
both master's theses and doctoral dissertations.

Importance of Thesis

Academic writings are an essential part of any learning process as for allow professors to evaluate the level of
understanding and involvement of every student into the certain subject. Preparing any academic paper is the
perfect way to refresh subject‟s knowledge and make sure that students are able operating with this data,
conduct scientific researches and make an analysis.
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Writing a high-quality academic paper requires hard work that includes the search for credible and verified
sources, maintaining the professional academic argument, analyzing conducted researches and making
conclusions.

How to Write Your Thesis

I. Thesis structure

Title Page

Title ( Including subtitle), author, institution, department, date of delivery, research mentor(s) and advisor,
their institutions and email addresses.

Abstract

 A good abstract explains in one line why the paper is important. It then goes on to give a summary of
your major results, preferably couched in numbers with error limits. The final sentences explain the
major implications of your work. A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative.
 Length should be ~ 1-2 paragraphs, approx. 400 words.
 Abstracts generally do not have citations.
 Information in title should not be repeated.
 Be explicit.
 Use numbers where appropriate.
 Answers to these questions should be found in the abstract:
1. What did you do?
2. Why did you do it? What question were you trying to answer?
3. How did you do it? State methods.
4. What did you learn? State major results.
5. Why does it matter? Point out at least one significant implication.

Table of Contents

 List all headings and subheadings with page numbers

 Indent subheadings
 It will look something like this:

Page #
List of Figures xxx
List of Tables
Introduction
subheads ...?
Methods
subheads ...?
Results
subheads ...?
Discussion
subheads ...?
Conclusion
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List of Figures
List page numbers of all the figures.
The list should include a short title for each figure but not the whole caption.

List of Tables
List page numbers of all tables.
The list should include a short title for each table but not the whole caption.

Introduction
The introduction should be written after completion of all the research work. Be sure to include a hook at the
beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to motivate our reader
to read the rest of the paper; it is an important/interesting scientific problem that our paper either solves or
addresses. We should draw the reader in and make them want to read the rest of the work.

The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous research in this area. It should cite those who had
the idea or ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most recent and relevant work.

What else belongs in the introductory section(s) are:

1. A statement of the goal of the paper: why the study was undertaken, or why the paper was written.
Do not repeat the abstract.
2. Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and significance of
the question you are trying to address.
3. Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building. Sufficient references such
that a reader could, by going to the library, achieve a sophisticated understanding of the context and
significance of the question.
4. The introduction should be focused on the thesis question(s). All cited work should be directly
relevent to the goals of the thesis. This is not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on
a subject.
5. Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included.
6. A verbal "road map" or verbal "table of contents" guiding the reader to what lies ahead.
7. Is it obvious where introductory material ("old stuff") ends and your contribution ("new stuff")
begins?

Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original work and interpretation/analysis by
you. Break up the introduction section into logical segments by using subheads.
Methods

What belongs in the "methods" section of a scientific paper?

1. Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your results.

2. Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment.
3. Description of your materials, procedure, theory.
4. Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots.
5. Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.
6. Desciption of your analystical methods, including reference to any specialized statistical software.

The methods section should answering the following questions and caveats:

1. Could one accurately replicate the study (for example, all of the optional and adjustable parameters
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 on any sensors or instruments that were used to acquire the data)?
2. Could another researcher accurately find and reoccupy the sampling stations or track lines?
3. Is there enough information provided about any instruments used so that a functionally equivalent
instrument could be used to repeat the experiment?
4. If the data are in the public domain, could another researcher lay his or her hands on the identical data
set?
5. Could one replicate any laboratory analyses that were used?
6. Could one replicate any statistical analyses?
7. Could another researcher approximately replicate the key algorithms of any computer software?

Citations in this section should be limited to data sources and references of where to find more complete
descriptions of procedures.
Do not include descriptions of results.
Results

 The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and graphs.
 Indicate information on range of variation.
 Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret results - save that for the discussion.
 Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others can draw their own inferences
and construct their own explanations.
 Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis.
 Break up your results into logical segments by using subheadings
 Key results should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of paragraphs. It is far better to say
"X had significant positive relationship with Y (linear regression p<0.01, r^2=0.79)" then to start
with a less informative like "There is a significant relationship between X and Y". Describe the
nature of the findings; do not just tell the reader whether or not they are significant.

Note: Results vs. Discussion Sections

The writer must make it clear to the reader, which statements are observation and which are interpretation. In
most circumstances, this is best accomplished by physically separating statements about new observations
from statements about the meaning or significance of those observations. Alternatively, this goal can be
accomplished by careful use of phrases such as "I infer ..." vast bodies of geological literature became
obsolete with the advent of plate tectonics; the papers that survived are those in which observations were
presented in stand-alone fashion, unmuddied by whatever ideas the author might have had about the processes
that caused the observed phenomena.

How do you do this?

1. Physical separation into different sections or paragraphs.

2. Don't overlay interpretation on top of data in figures.
3. Careful use of phrases such as "We infer that ".
4. Don't worry if "results" seem short.

Why?

1. Easier for your reader to absorb, frequent shifts of mental mode not required.
2. Ensures that your work will endure in spite of shifting paradigms.

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Discussion
Start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results. The discussion section should be a
brief essay in itself, answering the following questions and caveats:

1. What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and temporal variations.)
2. What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results?
3. What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations?
4. What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting predictions?
5. Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?
6. Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction - what is the relationship of the
present results to the original question?
7. What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions in earth sciences,
ecology, environmental policy, etc....?
8. Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible explanations for results. Be careful to
consider all of these rather than simply pushing your favorite one. If you can eliminate all but one,
that is great, but often that is not possible with the data in hand. In that case you should give even
treatment to the remaining possibilities, and try to indicate ways in which future work may lead to
their discrimination.
9. Avoid bandwagons: A special case of the above. Avoid jumping a currently fashionable point of view
unless your results really do strongly support them.
10. What are the things we now know or understand that we didn't know or understand before the present
work?
11. Include the evidence or line of reasoning supporting each interpretation.
12. What is the significance of the present results: why should we care?

This section should be rich in references to similar work and background needed to interpret results.
However, interpretation/discussion section(s) are often too long and verbose. Is there material that does not
contribute to one of the elements listed above? If so, this may be material that you will want to consider
deleting or moving. Break up the section into logical segments by using subheads.
Conclusions

 What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from your observations?
 If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to remember about
your paper?
 Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying out this
investigation, summarize new observations, new interpretations, and new insights that have resulted
from the present work.
 Include the broader implications of your results.
 Do not repeat word for word the abstract, introduction or discussion.

Recommendations

 Include when appropriate (most of the time)

 Remedial action to solve the problem.
 Further research to fill in gaps in our understanding.
 Directions for future investigations on this or related topics.

Acknowledgments

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Advisor(s) and anyone who helped you:

1. Technically (including materials, supplies)

2. Intellectually (assistance, advice)
3. Financially (for example, departmental support, travel grants)

References

 List all references cited in the text in alphabetical order using the following format for different types
of material:
 Hunt, S. (1966) Carbohydrate and amino acid composition of the egg capsules of the
whelk. Nature, 210, 436-437.
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1997) Commonly asked questions about
ozone. http://www.noaa.gov/public-affairs/grounders/ozo1.html, 9/27/97.
 Pfirman, S.L., M. Stute, H.J. Simpson, and J. Hays (1996) Undergraduate research at Barnard
and Columbia, Journal of Research, 11, 213-214.

Appendices
 Include all your data in the appendix.
 Reference data/materials not easily available (theses are used as a resource by the department and
other students).
 Tables (where more than 1-2 pages).
 Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages).
 You may include a key article as appendix.
 If you consulted a large number of references but did not cite all of them, you might want to include a
list of additional resource material, etc.
 List of equipment used for an experiment or details of complicated procedures.
 Note: Figures and tables, including captions, should be embedded in the text and not in an appendix,
unless they are more than 1-2 pages and are not critical to your argument.

Synopsis
Synopsis is the gist of your planned project submitted for approval from competent authorities. It gives a
panoramic view of your research for quick analysis by the reviewers.Thus, a protocol or a synopsis forms an
integral part of a research project or a thesis.
A synopsis should be constructed in a manner that facilitates the reviewer to understand the research project at
a glance. It should be brief but precise. A synopsis can be structured in the following manner:

1. Title
2. Statement of the problem and hypothesis
3. Aims and objectives
4. Review of literature
5. Research methodology
6. References

Title
The title of the research project should be brief but informative; sensationalization of the title is best avoided.
It should neither be too short nor too long. Any name of the institution, the number of cases to be studied
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should not be included. The hypothesis to be studied can be included.

Statement of the problem or hypothesis

The problem being studied should be mentioned in precise and clear terms. Understanding the problem aids
the researcher in constructing the research proposal. It also allows the person to formulate the hypothesis. The
problem under study should be relevant to the present. A brief account of its utility at the local or national
level has to be discussed. The present status of the problem and the necessity for taking up the study needs to
be mentioned.Hypothesis is mentioned as a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between two
or more variables.

Aims and objectives

All research projects should have objectives and aims and every effort should be made to achieve them. The
objectives and aims should be only a few (2-3). They must pertain to the study problem.

Review of literature
Review of literature is a very important part of a research project. It achieves the following:

a. Familiarizes the reader to the problem under study.

b. It describes the work done by others either at local or international level on it or similar subject.
c. It helps the researcher to understand the difficulties faced by others and the corrective steps taken or
modifications made by them. The researcher can anticipate similar or additional problems during the
study and review of literature helps him in anticipating them.
d. Research methodology of the researcher can be structured and modified after reviewing the literature.
e. The review assists in identifying various variables in the research project and conceptualizes their
relationship.
f. Review of literature in a synopsis helps the reviewer in assessing the knowledge of the researcher. The
reviewer can assess the work put in by the researcher and also assists in assessing the feasibility of the
study.

Research methodology
In a synopsis the research methodology adopted should be mentioned in about 150-200 words. The research
methodology forms the core of the research project.

Acknowledgments
The author must be thankful to all those people who have helped him/her in the research work. This section is
a thanks giving section where author shows his/her gratitude towards all those people who have helped
him/her.

References
References is a list of all the resources from where we have borrowed some information. A list of such
references should be given. As
1. Srinivas DK, Ananthkrishnan N, Sethuraman KR, Santoshkumar. Medical education principles and
practice, trainers, manual, NTTC. Pondicherry: JIPMER; 1995. p. 1997, 2000.
2. Mestri SC. Short book on medical education. Medical Education Unit, JSSMC, Mysore: 2003.

Writing a Technical Paper/ Conference/ Workshop Paper; Method

FORMAT FOR THE PAPER

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Scientific research articles provide a method for scientists to communicate with other scientists about the
results of their research. A standard format is used for these articles, in which the author presents the research
in an orderly, logical manner. This doesn't necessarily reflect the order in which you did or thought about the
work. This format is:

TITLE

1. Make your title specific enough to describe the contents of the paper, but not so technical that only
specialists will understand. The title should be appropriate for the intended audience.
2. The title usually describes the subject matter of the article: Effect of Smoking on Academic
Performance"
3. Sometimes a title that summarizes the results is more effective: Students Who Smoke Get Lower
Grades"

AUTHORS

1. The person who did the work and wrote the paper is generally listed as the first author of a research paper.

2. For published articles, other people who made substantial contributions to the work are also listed as
authors. Ask your mentor's permission before including his/her name as co-author.

ABSTRACT

1. An abstract, or summary, is published together with a research article, giving the reader a "preview" of
what's to come. Such abstracts may also be published separately in bibliographical sources, such as Biologic
al Abstracts. They allow other scientists to quickly scan the large scientific literature, and decide which
articles they want to read in depth. The abstract should be a little less technical than the article itself; you don't
want to dissuade your potential audience from reading your paper.

2. Your abstract should be one paragraph, of 100-250 words, which summarizes the purpose, methods, results
and conclusions of the paper.

3. It is not easy to include all this information in just a few words. Start by writing a summary that includes
whatever you think is important, and then gradually prune it down to size by removing unnecessary words,
while still retaining the necessary concepts.

3. Don't use abbreviations or citations in the abstract. It should be able to stand alone without any footnotes.

INTRODUCTION

What question did you ask in your experiment? Why is it interesting? The introduction summarizes the
relevant literature so that the reader will understand why you were interested in the question you asked. One
to four paragraphs should be enough. End with a sentence explaining the specific question you asked in this
experiment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

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1. How did you answer this question? There should be enough information here to allow another scientist to
repeat your experiment. Look at other papers that have been published in your field to get some idea of what
is included in this section.

2. If you had a complicated protocol, it may helpful to include a diagram, table or flowchart to explain the
methods you used.

3. Do not put results in this section. You may, however, include preliminary results that were used to design
the main experiment that you are reporting on. ("In a preliminary study, I observed the owls for one week, and
found that 73 % of their locomotor activity occurred during the night, and so I conducted all subsequent
experiments between 11 pm and 6 am.")

4. Mention relevant ethical considerations. If you used human subjects, did they consent to participate. If you
used animals, what measures did you take to minimize pain?

RESULTS

1. This is where you present the results you've gotten. Use graphs and tables if appropriate, but also
summarize your main findings in the text. Do NOT discuss the results or speculate as to why something
happened; t hat goes in th e Discussion.

2. You don't necessarily have to include all the data you've gotten during the semester. This isn't a diary.

3. Use appropriate methods of showing data. Don't try to manipulate the data to make it look like you did
more than you actually did.

"The drug cured 1/3 of the infected mice, another 1/3 were not affected, and the third mouse got away."

TABLES AND GRAPHS

1. If you present your data in a table or graph, include a title describing what's in the table ("Enzyme activity
at various temperatures", not "My results".) For graphs, you should also label the x and y axes.

2. Don't use a table or graph just to be "fancy". If you can summarize the information in one sentence, then a
table or graph is not necessary.

DISCUSSION

1. Highlight the most significant results, but don't just repeat what you've written in the Results section. How
do these results relate to the original question? Do the data support your hypothesis? Are your results
consistent with what other investigators have reported? If your results were unexpected, try to explain why. Is
there another way to interpret your results? What further research would be necessary to answer the questions
raised by your results? How do y our results fit into the big picture?

2. End with a one-sentence summary of your conclusion, emphasizing why it is relevant.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

15
This section is optional. You can thank those who either helped with the experiments, or made other important
contributions, such as discussing the protocol, commenting on the manuscript, or buying you pizza.

REFERENCES (LITERATURE CITED)

There are several possible ways to organize this section. Here is one commonly used way:

1. In the text, cite the literature in the appropriate places:

Scarlet (1990) thought that the gene was present only in yeast, but it has since been identified in the platypus
(Indigo and Mauve, 1994) and wombat (Magenta, et al., 1995).

2. In the References section list citations in alphabetical order.

Indigo, A. C., and Mauve, B. E. 1994. Queer place for qwerty: gene isolation from the platypus. Science 275,
1213-1214.

Magenta, S. T., Sepia, X., and Turquoise, U. 1995. Wombat genetics. In: Widiculous Wombats, Violet, Q.,
ed. New York: Columbia University Press. p 123-145.

Scarlet, S.L. 1990. Isolation of qwerty gene from S. cerevisae. Journal of Unusual Results 36, 26-31.

IMPORTANT FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS/PRINCIPLES/THESEVEN“C’S”OFLETTER
WRITING:

Seven C’s of Communication

1. Completeness - The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts required by the
audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver‟s mindset and convey the
message accordingly. A complete communication has following features:

Complete communication develops and enhances reputation of an organization.

 Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial information is missing and no additional cost is incurred
in conveying extra message if the communication is complete.
 A complete communication always gives additional information wherever required. It leaves no
questions in the mind of receiver.
 Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the audience/readers/receivers of
message as they get all desired and crucial information.
 It persuades the audience.

2.Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e, communicating what you want to convey in least
possible words without forgoing the other C‟s of communication. Conciseness is a necessity for effective
communication. Concise communication has following features:

 It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving.

 It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and needless words.
 Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words to the audience.
 Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.
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  Concise message is non-repetitive in nature.

3.Consideration - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective communication
must take the audience into consideration, i.e, the audience‟s viewpoints, background, mind-set, education
level, etc. Make an attempt to envisage your audience, their requirements, emotions as well as problems.
Ensure that the self-respect of the audience is maintained and their emotions are not at harm. Modify your
words in message to suit the audience‟s needs while making your message complete. Features of considerate
communication are as follows:

 Emphasize on “you” approach.

 Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This will stimulate a positive
reaction from the audience.
 Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what is possible” rather than “what is
impossible”. Lay stress on positive words such as jovial, committed, thanks, warm, healthy,
help, etc.

4.Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than trying to
achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has following features:

 It makes understanding easier.

 Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message.
 Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.

5.Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather than fuzzy and
general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message has following features:

 It is supported with specific facts and figures.

 It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.
 Concrete messages are not misinterpreted

6.Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender‟s expression as well as
should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be sincerely polite, judicious, reflective and
enthusiastic. Courteous message has following features:

 Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of the receiver
of the message.
 Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.
 It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of message.
 It is not at all biased.

7.Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors in

communication. Correct communication has following features:

 The message is exact, correct and well-timed.

 If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.
 Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers.
 It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the message.
 It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.

Q. Write a job Application Letter. Invent the necessary details yourself.

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March 8, 2016

Mr. S. Bhattacharya
Vice President (HRD)
Bajaj Motors Pvt. Ltd.
19/12. Safdarjung, New Delhi

Dear Sir
Subject: Application for a job
When I saw your advertisement in “The Times of India” dated Feb 23, 2016 for the post of Assistant Engineer, I
felt it was just the kind of post which I have been looking for. My varied practical and theoretical knowledge and
B. Tech. degree in Computer Science are my strongest qualification for the position.
You can see from the enclosed resume that I did a project on the needed field. I am enthusiastic about pursuing a
career in Software Development with “Bajaj Company Pvt. Ltd.” because of its scope and expansion.
I would welcome the opportunity to meet you and I can be contacted at +91 9999999999 24 hrs. I can also be
reached at email: aaaaaaaaaaa@gmail.com. Thank you for your valuable time.

Yours Sincerely

Rajat Kumar

Emclosure: Resume
C. V./ Resume
In today‟s world C.V. is very important for Job. In a C.V. or Resume both academic and personal information is given. A
Sample of C.V. is given below:

Name:
Mobile: +91-9999999999,
email id: aaaaaaa@gmail.com

Career Objective
Seeking for a career opportunity to utilize my talent and skills and provide significant contribution to the success of my
employer effectively. Willingness to work hard in a challenging environment with a purpose of growth and creativity, in
order to achieve organizational goals.
Key Skills
-Knowledge of Basic of C Language.
-Quit good on AutoCAD with 2D & 3D Modeling.
-Expertise in all editions of windows & MS Office.
Strength
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-Good Communication skills.
-Problem solving skills
-Ability to work in a team.
-Organizational skills
Academic Qualification

Course University/ institute/college Year of Percentage

Board Passing
Perusing B- AKTU Shambhunath Institute of Engg. & ---------- ------
Tech (CSE) Tech
th
12 UP Board GIC, Allahabad 2013 75%
10 th
UP Board GIC, Allahabad 2011 70%

Training and workshops undergone

 Organization: HCL (Noida)
 Time Duration: 28 days.
 Knowledge Gained: php, .net

Workshops
 Attained the workshop on Auto CAD.
 Attained the workshops on android app development as coordinator.

Achievements and extracurricular activities

 Participated in the State Level Science Quiz Competition held at Science Academy Allahabad and got 2nd
price.
 Active participant on NSS & active blood donor.

Hobbies
 Playing Cricket
 Listening Music

Personal Details
Name :
Date of Birth :
Fathers name :
Mother‟s name :
Gender :
Marital status :
Languages Known : English & Hindi
Postal Address :

Permanent Address : Same as Above

Declaration: The above Information Given by me are true to best of my knowledge and belief.

DATE:

PLACE: SIGNATURE:
TECHNICAL/ BUSINESS PROPOSAL
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The word proposal is derived from the verb „propose‟ that means „to offer or put forward for consideration, as a
suggestion, plan or purpose‟. Oxford Dictionary also defines the word „proposal‟ as „a formal suggestion or plam
or the act of making a suggestion‟. Thus proposal means to some suggestion or offer to solve any problem or to
any state of condition.
Significance/Importance of Proposals:
The proposal is prepared with the following objectives:
 A proposal is a persuasive presentation for the consideration of something: a merger, a bid for an account, a
research grant, and so on.
 Proposals serve to improve the existing working conditions of an organization.
 Proposals can be made internally from one department to another.
 Good proposals help the organization to win financial returns.
 Proposals relating to research activities play a very significant role in the progress of an individual or organization.

Internal Proposal: The writer prepares an internal proposal with a motive to convince the person or group in
authority to allow him to implement his ideas. Internal proposals are, thus, submitted within a company.
External Proposal: A proposal written by a firm in order to win contracts for work is known as the external
proposal.
There is one more method of classifying the proposals into two broad categories as mentioned below:
1. Solicited Proposal: When a proposal is prepared in response to an invitation from a firm or some
government or non-government organization, it is known as the solicited proposal. In such forms of
proposals, the proposer receives a form from the firm inviting the proposals. The writer is required to
supply the relevant particulars, as demanded by the firm. Solicited proposals are generally prepared in
response to advertisements.
2. Unsolicited Proposal: Sometimes a person prepares a proposal about a problem. This type of proposal is
developed by an individual, without being asked or without any external encouragement. Such proposals
are commonly known as unsolicited proposals where the proposer tries hard to rouse the interest of the
people to whom he has sent his proposal.

Characteristics of Good Proposal: A good proposal should have following elements in it:
1. A good proposal contains information which at once grips the attention of the person to whom the
proposal has been sent. It should specify the scope.
2. The subject or the theme of a good proposal should be so worthwhile that it would rouse the interest of
the person concerned who would consider the proposal indispensable.
3. The proposer highlights the benefits and advantages of the proposal which generates a desire to accept the
proposal immediately.
4. Finally, a good proposal convinces the man concerned and he is provoked to take action.

Structure/Parts/Format of a Proposal
A good proposal have four important parts:
i. Front matter or Prefatory Part
ii. The Technical Section
iii. The Managerial Section
iv. The Financial Section

Front Matter or Prefatory Part: It includes the following parts:

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 a. Cover Page/Title Page: The cover page of a proposal includes the title of the proposal, the name of one who is
submitting proposal and also the name of the individual or of the company to whom the proposal is submitted.
Since it is the first item to be read, all essential details should be clearly mentioned so that a clear picture of what
the proposer wants can be conveyed.
b. Table of Contents: In this prefatory part, table of contents should be given. List of tables and figures should be
clearly listed. Table of Contents is prepared only for the proposals that are long.
c. Executive Summary or Abstract: To provide a preview of the proposal, a brief summary of the proposal should be
prepared. In brief, it will mention the objectives, procedures and the outcome of the proposal. In case the reader
feels satisfied, he goes through the details of the proposal.

The Technical Section: In this section, the proposer highlights mainly two things: Problems and its solutions.
a. Statement of Problem: There should be the problem statement specifying what it intends to do. Moreover, it
would explain the source of the problem and also the possible solution, and the benefits that will come from the
proposal in hand.
b. Purpose: The purpose of the proposal should be clearly mentioned. According to Lesikar and Flatley an
appropriate beginning is a statement of the writer’s purpose to present proposal and the reader’s need.
c. Technical Plan: This section tries to answer the following Questions:
. What is the solution of the problem?
. Can this solution be implemented?
. Should the solution be implemented?
. What are the limitations or restrictions over which the proposer has no control?

The Managerial Section: The managerial section describes the project team or the personnel who will work
directly on the project. All details relating to those personnel are mentioned in this section.
The Financial Section: It includes a chart of anticipated expenditure. It is mandatory to all sorts of proposals. It
provides a detailed account of the amount required for several items such as equipment, lab testing, salaries of
personnel or project team, office contingencies and infrastructural facilities like building, water, electricity,
machines and so on.

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