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Content
Preface xiv
2 Genetic Bases of Child
Development 48
1 The Science of Child 2.1 MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY 49

Development 2 The Biology of Heredity 49
Single Gene Inheritance 53
1.1 SETTING THE STAGE 3 Genetic Disorders 54
Historical Views of Children and CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Childhood 4 Why Do African Canadians Inherit Sickle-Cell
Origins of a New Science 5 Disease? 54
1.2 FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES OF CHILD IMPROVING CHILDREN’S LIVES
DEVELOPMENT 7 Genetic Counselling 57
The Biological Perspective 8
The Psychodynamic Perspective 9 2.2 HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND
The Learning Perspective 11 DEVELOPMENT 59
The Cognitive-Developmental Behavioural Genetics 59
Perspective 14 FOCUS ON RESEARCH
The Contextual Perspective 15 Hereditary and Environmental Bases of
1.3 THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT Aggressive Behaviour 64
RESEARCH 19 Paths From Genes to Behaviour 65
Early Development Is Related to Unifying Themes 69 See for Yourself 69
Later Development, But Not Resources 70 Key Terms 70
Perfectly 20 Summary 70 Test Yourself 71
Development Is Always Jointly Influenced by
Heredity and Environment 20
Children Influence Their Own
Development 21
3 Prenatal Development, Birth,
and the Newborn 72
Development in Different Domains is
Connected 22 3.1 FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH 73
1.4 DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT Period of the Zygote (Weeks 1–2) 73
RESEARCH 23 Period of the Embryo (Weeks 3–8) 75
Measurement in Child-Development Period of the Fetus (Weeks 9–38) 76
Research 24 IMPROVING CHILDREN’S LIVES
General Designs for Research 29 Five Steps Toward a Healthy Baby 80
Designs for Studying Age-Related
Change 33 3.2 INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL
Ethical Responsibilities 38 DEVELOPMENT 81
Communicating Research Results 40 General Risk Factors 81
Child-Development Research and Family
SPOTLIGHT ON THEORIES
Policy 41 A Theory of the Risks Associated with Teenage
Unifying Themes 44 See for Yourself 44 Motherhood 84
Resources 44 Key Terms 44 Teratogens: Diseases, Drugs, and Environmental
Summary 45 Test Yourself 47 Hazards 87
vii
viii Contents
FOCUS ON RESEARCH 4.3 THE DEVELOPING NERVOUS

Impact of Prenatal Exposure to Environmental SYSTEM 144
Toxins on Sex Ratios 91
Organization of the Mature Brain 144
How Teratogens Influence Prenatal The Developing Brain 145
Development 93
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment 95
Brain Specialization for Face Processing 148
3.3 HAPPY BIRTHDAY! 99
Unifying Themes 152 See for Yourself 152
Labour and Delivery 100
Resources 152 Key Terms 153
Approaches to Childbirth 101
Summary 153 Test Yourself 154
Adjusting to Parenthood 103
Birth Complications 104
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Infant Mortality 107
3.4 THE NEWBORN 109

5 Perceptual and Motor
Development 156
Assessing the Newborn 110
The Newborn’s Reflexes 111 5.1 BASIC SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL
Newborn States 112 PROCESSES 157
CHILDREN’S LIVES Smell, Taste, and Touch 158
Back to Sleep! 115 Hearing 159
Perception and Learning in the Newborn 115 CHILDREN’S LIVES
Hearing Impairment in Infancy 160
Resources 116 Key Terms 117 Seeing 161
Summary 117 Test Yourself 119 Integrating Sensory Information 162
The Theory of Intersensory Redundancy 163
4 Growth and Health 120 5.2 COMPLEX PERCEPTUAL AND

ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES 165
4.1 PHYSICAL GROWTH 121 Perceiving Objects 165
Features of Human Growth 122
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Mechanisms of Physical Growth 124
Early Visual Experiencing and Face
The Adolescent Growth Spurt and Puberty 128 Processing 170
CHILDREN’S LIVES Attention 172
Preventing Osteoporosis 129 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Disorder 173
Adolescent Rites of Passage 131 5.3 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 175
SPOTLIGHT ON THEORIES Locomotion 176
A Paternal Investment Theory of Girls’ Pubertal CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Timing 133 Cultural Practices that Influence Motor
Development 179
4.2 CHALLENGES TO HEALTHY GROWTH 135
Fine-Motor Skills 181
Malnutrition 136
Physical Fitness 183
Eating Disorders: Anorexia and Bulimia 137
Obesity 138 Unifying Themes 186 See for Yourself 186
Disease 141 Resources 186 Key Terms 187
Accidents 142 Summary 187 Test Yourself 188
Contents ix
7.2 PROBLEM SOLVING 243

6 Theories of Cognitive Developmental Trends in Solving
Development 190 Problems 244
Features of Children’s and Adolescents’ Problem
6.1 SETTING THE STAGE: PIAGET’S
Solving 245
THEORY 191
Scientific Problem Solving 249
Basic Principles of Piaget’s Theory 192
Stages of Cognitive Development 193 7.3 ACADEMIC SKILLS 251
Piaget’s Contributions to Child Reading 251
Development 199 CHILDREN’S LIVES
6.2 MODERN THEORIES OF COGNITIVE Rhyme Is Sublime Because Sounds Abound 253
DEVELOPMENT 202 Writing 256
The Sociocultural Perspective: Vygotsky’s Knowing and Using Numbers 258
Theory 202 CULTURAL INFLUENCES
CULTURAL INFLUENCES Grade 5 in Taiwan 264
How Do Parents in Different Cultures Scaffold
7.4 ELECTRONIC MEDIA 266
Their Children’s Learning? 204
Television 267
Information-Processing Theories 206
Computers 269
Core Knowledge Theories 211
6.3 UNDERSTANDING IN CORE Unifying Themes 271 See for Yourself 271
DOMAINS 214 Resources 271 Key Terms 271
Understanding Objects and Their Properties 215
Understanding Living Things 216
Understanding People 219
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Understanding Others’ Intentions 220
8 Intelligence and Individual
Differences in Cognition 274
CHILDREN’S LIVES
Theory of Mind in Autism 222 8.1 WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? 275
Psychometric Theories 276
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 277
Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence 279
The Theory of Successful Intelligence 279
7 Cognitive Processes and CULTURAL INFLUENCES

How Culture Defines What Is Intelligent 281
Academic Skills 228
8.2 MEASURING INTELLIGENCE 282
7.1 MEMORY 229
Binet and the Development of Intelligence
Origins of Memory 229 Testing 283
Strategies for Remembering 231 What Do IQ Scores Predict? 286
Knowledge and Memory 233 Hereditary and Environmental Factors 287
CHILDREN’S LIVES
Fuzzy Trace Theory 235
Providing Children with a Head Start for
School 289
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Do Stereotypes and Suggestions Influence Impact of Ethnicity and Socioeconomic
Preschoolers’ Reports? 238 Status 291
x Contents
8.3 SPECIAL CHILDREN, SPECIAL NEEDS 295 9.5 SIGNED LANGUAGE AND GESTURAL
Gifted and Creative Children 296 COMMUNICATION 343
Children with Disability 297 Using Gestures to Communicate 343
Children with Learning Disability 298 Signed Language 344
Evidence for Language Development 344
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Phonological Representations in Children with Unifying Themes 346 See for Yourself 346
Reading Disability 299 Resources 346 Key Terms 346
10 Emotional Development 350

9 Language and
Communication 306 10.1 EMERGING EMOTIONS 351
The Function of Emotions 351
9.1 THE ROAD TO SPEECH 307 Experiencing and Expressing
Elements of Language 307 Emotions 352
Perceiving Speech 308 Recognizing and Using Others’
Emotions 356
CHILDREN’S LIVES
Regulating Emotions 358
Are Cochlear Implants Effective for Young
Children? 312 10.2 TEMPERAMENT? 360
First Steps to Speech 314 What Is Temperament? 360
9.2 LEARNING THE MEANINGS OF WORDS 315 SPOTLIGHT ON THEORIES
Understanding Words as Symbols 316 A Theory of the Structure of Temperament
Fast Mapping Meanings to Words 316 in Infancy 361
Hereditary and Environmental Contributions to
A Shape-Bias Theory of Word Learning 319 Temperament 363
Individual Differences in Word Learning 321 CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Encouraging Word Learning 322 Why is Yoshimi’s Son so Tough? 363
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Stability of Temperament 364
Do Infants Learn Words from Watching Temperament and Other Aspects of
Infant-Oriented Media? 323 Development 365
CULTURAL INFLUENCES 10.3 ATTACHMENT 367

Growing Up Bilingual 325 The Growth of Attachment 367
Beyond Words: Other Symbols 328 The Quality of Attachment 370
9.3 SPEAKING IN SENTENCES 330 FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting
From Two-Word Speech to Complex Style 375
Sentences 330
How Do Children Acquire Grammar? 332 CHILDREN’S LIVES
Determining Guidelines for Childcare for Infants
9.4 USING LANGUAGE TO
and Toddlers 377
COMMUNICATE 338
Taking Turns 338 Unifying Themes 378 See for Yourself 378
Speaking Effectively 339 Resources 379 Key Terms 379
Listening Well 341 Summary 379 Test Yourself 380
Contents xi
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
11 Understanding Self and Similarity in Structure of Domains of Social
Others 382 Judgment but Differences in Content 426
Promoting Moral Reasoning 428
11.1 WHO AM I? SELF-CONCEPT 383
12.3 HELPING OTHERS 431
Origins of Self-Recognition 384
Development of Prosocial Behaviour 431
The Evolving Self-Concept 385
Skills Underlying Prosocial Behaviour 432
The Search for Identity 387
Situational Influences 433
CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Contribution of Heredity 434
Dea’s Ethnic Identity 389 Socializing Prosocial Behaviour 434
FOCUS ON RESEARCH 12.4 AGGRESSION 436
Identity and Acculturation of Immigrant Change and Stability 437
Youth 391
Roots of Aggressive Behaviour 438
11.2 SELF-ESTEEM 395 SPOTLIGHT ON THEORIES
Developmental Change in Self-Esteem 396 Social-Information-Processing Theory and
Variations in Self-Esteem Associated with Children’s Aggressive Behaviour 442
Ethnicity and Culture 398 FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Sources of Self-Esteem 398 Benefits of Martial Arts Participation for
CHILDREN’S LIVES Children 446
Self-Esteem in Gifted Classes 399 Victims of Aggression 447
Low Self-Esteem: Cause or Consequence? 400 Unifying Themes 450 See for Yourself 450
11.3 UNDERSTANDING OTHERS 402 Resources 451 Key Terms 451
Describing Others 403 Summary 451 Test Yourself 453
Understanding What Others Think 404
Prejudice 406
SPOTLIGHT ON THEORIES 13 Gender and Development 454
Developmental Intergroup Theory 407
13.1 GENDER STEREOTYPES 455
How Do We View Men and Women? 455
Learning Gender Stereotypes 457
13.2 DIFFERENCES RELATED TO GENDER 459
Differences in Physical Development and
Behaviour 460
12 Moral Understanding and Differences in Intellectual Abilities and
Behaviour 414 Achievement 461
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
12.1 SELF-CONTROL 415 Development of Sex Differences in Spatial
Beginnings of Self-Control 415 Ability 463
Influences on Self-Control 417
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Improving Children’s Self-Control 418
A Cross-Cultural Look at Gender Differences in
12.2 REASONING ABOUT MORAL ISSUES 420 Math 466
Piaget’s Views 420 Differences in Personality and Social
Kohlberg’s Theory 422 Behaviour 467
Beyond Kohlberg’s Theory 425 Frank Talk about Gender Differences 470
xii Contents
13.3 GENDER IDENTITY 472 Children of Gay and Lesbian Parents 505
The Socializing Influences of People and the Firstborn, Laterborn, and Only Children 505
Media 472 CHILDREN’S LIVES
Cognitive Theories of Gender Identity 476 Assessing the Consequences of China’s One-
Child Policy 506
Gender Schema Theory 477 Qualities of Sibling Relationships 508
Biological Influences 479 Maltreatment and Its Consequences 510
Causes of Maltreatment 512
13.4 GENDER ROLES IN TRANSITION 480 Preventing Maltreatment 514
Emerging Gender Roles 481
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Beyond Traditional Gender Education of Parents to Prevent Child
Roles 481 Abuse 515
CHILDREN’S LIVES
14.2 PEER RELATIONSHIPS AND
Encouraging Valuable Traits, Not Gender
Traits 483
INFLUENCES 517
Development of Peer Interactions 518
Unifying Themes 484 See for Yourself 484 Friendship 522
Resources 484 Key Terms 485 Groups 529
Summary 485 Test Yourself 486 Popularity and Rejection 531
14.3 INFLUENCES OF SOCIETY 533
Childcare and After School Activities 533
14 Social Influences 488 Part-Time Employment 536
Neighbourhoods 538
14.1 PARENTING AND FAMILY SPOTLIGHT ON THEORIES
RELATIONSHIPS 489 The Family Economic Stress Model 539
The Family as a System 490 School 542
Styles of Parenting 490
Parental Behaviour 492
Influences of the Marital System 495
Children’s Contributions 497
The Impact of Divorce 498 Glossary 550
Blended Families 501 References 559
The Role of Grandparents 502 Name Index 597
CULTURAL INFLUENCES Subject Index 611
Grandmothers in First Nations Families 503
List of Boxes
FOCUS ON RESEARCH CHILDREN’S LIVES

Hereditary and Environmental Bases of Five Steps Toward a Healthy Baby 80
Aggressive Behaviour 64 Genetic Counselling 57
Impact of Prenatal Exposure to Environmental Toxins on Back to Sleep! 115
Sex Ratios 91 Preventing Osteoporosis 129
Brain Specialization for Face Processing 148 Hearing Impairment in Infancy 160
Early Visual Experiencing and Face Processing 170 Theory of Mind in Autism 222
Understanding Others’ Intentions 220 Rhyme Is Sublime Because Sounds Abound 253
Do Stereotypes and Suggestions Influence Preschoolers’ Providing Children with a Head Start for School 289
Reports? 238 Are Cochlear Implants Effective for Young
Phonological Representations in Children with Reading Children? 312
Disability 299 Determining Guidelines for Childcare for Infants and
Do Infants Learn Words from Watching Infant-Oriented Toddlers 377
Media? 323 Self-Esteem in Gifted Classes 399
Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting Style 375 Encouraging Valuable Traits, Not Gender Traits 483
Identity and Acculturation of Immigrant Youth 391 Assessing the Consequences of China’s One-Child
Benefits of Martial Arts Participation for Children 446 Policy 506
Development of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability 463
Education of Parents to Prevent Child Abuse 515
A Theory of the Risks Associated with Teenage
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Motherhood 84
Why Do African Canadians Inherit Sickle-Cell
A Paternal Investment Theory of Girls’
Disease? 54
Pubertal Timing 133
Infant Mortality 107
The Theory of Intersensory Redundancy 163
Adolescent Rites of Passage 131
Fuzzy Trace Theory 235
Cultural Practices that Influence Motor Development 179
The Theory of Successful Intelligence 279
How Do Parents in Different Cultures Scaffold Their
A Shape-Bias Theory of Word Learning 319
Children’s Learning? 204
A Theory of the Structure of Temperament
Grade 5 in Taiwan 264
in Infancy 361
How Culture Defines What Is Intelligent 281
Developmental Intergroup Theory 407
Growing Up Bilingual 325
Social-Information-Processing Theory and Children’s
Why is Yoshimi’s Son so Tough? 363
Aggressive Behaviour 442
Dea’s Ethnic Identity 389
Gender Schema Theory 477
Similarity in Structure of Domains of Social Judgment but
The Family Economic Stress Model 539
Differences in Content 426
A Cross-Cultural Look at Gender Differences in Math 466
Grandmothers in First Nations Families 503
Preface
L ike many professors-turned-textbook-authors, Robert

Kail wrote this book because none of the texts avail-
able met the aims of the child-development classes that
fundamental developmental issues, such as the continu-
ity of development and the roles of nature and nurture
in development. In Children and Their Development, four
he taught. Children and Their Development, first pub- of these foundational issues are introduced in Chapter 1,
lished in 1998, was Kail’s effort to meet those aims. This, then reappear in subsequent chapters to scaffold students’
the third Canadian edition, does so from a Canadian per- understanding. As we mentioned already, the end of the
spective. In the next few paragraphs, we want to describe chapter includes the Unifying Themes feature, in which
those aims and how this book is designed to achieve the ideas from the chapter are used to illustrate one of the
them. foundational themes. By reappearing throughout the text,
the themes remind students of the core issues that drive
Goal 1: Use effective pedagogy to promote students’
child-development science.
learning. The focus on a student-friendly book begins
with the structure of the chapters. Each chapter consists Goal 3: Teach students that child-development sci-
of three or four modules that provide a clear and well- ence draws on many complementary research meth-
defined organization to the chapter. Each module begins ods, each of which contributes uniquely to scientific
with a set of learning objectives and a vignette that in- progress. In Module 1.4, we portray child-development
troduces the topic to be covered. Special topics that are research as a dynamic process in which scientists
set off in other textbooks as feature boxes are fully inte- make a series of decisions as they plan their work. In
grated with the main text and identified by a distinctive the process, they create a study that has both strengths
icon. Every feature ends with at least one critical thinking and weaknesses. Each of the remaining chapters of
question to encourage students’ engagement with the ma- the book contains a Focus on Research feature that
terial presented. Each module ends with several questions illustrates this process by showing—in an easy-to-read,
intended to help students check their understanding of question-and-answer format—the different decisions
the major ideas in the module. that investigators made in designing a particular study.
The end of each chapter includes several additional The results are shown, usually with an annotated fig-
study aids. Unifying Themes links the ideas in the chapter ure, so that students can learn how to interpret graphs.
to a major developmental theme. See for Yourself suggests The investigators’ conclusions are described, and we
activities that allow students to observe firsthand topics in then conclude each Focus on Research feature by men-
child development. Resources includes books and websites tioning the kind of converging evidence that would
where students can learn more about child development. strengthen the authors’ conclusions. Thus, the research
Key Terms is a list of all of the important boldfaced terms methods introduced in Chapter 1 reappear in every
appearing in the chapter. The Summary is a concise, one- chapter, depicting research as a collaborative enterprise
page review of the chapter. The Test Yourself questions that depends on the contributions of many scientists
further confirm and cement students’ understanding of the using different methods.
chapter material.
Goal 4: Show students how findings from child-
These different pedagogical elements do work; stu-
development research can improve children’s lives.
dents using previous editions frequently comment that
Child-development scientists and students alike want to
the book is easy to read and presents complex topics in an
know how the findings of research can be used to pro-
understandable way.
mote children’s development. In Chapter 1 of Children
Goal 2: Use fundamental developmental issues as a and Their Development, we describe the different means
foundation for students’ learning of research and theory by which researchers can use their work to improve chil-
in child development. Child-development courses some- dren’s lives. In the chapters that follow, these ideas come
times overwhelm students because of the sheer number of alive in the Children’s Lives feature, which provides ex-
topics and studies. Of course, today’s child-development amples of research-based solutions to common problems
science is really propelled by a concern with a handful of in children’s lives. From these features, students realize
Preface xv
that child-development research really matters—that par- Disabilities and organizations such as the Canadian
ents, teachers, and policymakers can use research to fos- Association for Research and Education in Intellectual
ter children’s development. Disabilities (CARD-ID) and the Canadian Association for
Why do you need this new edition? Here are six good Community Living (CACL).
reasons:
6. MyPsychLab has been updated and now includes a more
robust study plan organized and structured around
1. Brand new to this edition are Critical Thinking questions
Bloom’s taxonomy, and new videos have been added
at the end of every feature within a chapter, and a test
along with a complete eText that students can access any-
at the end of every chapter to help students assess their
time, anywhere—even offline with an iPad.
understanding of the material presented in the chapter.
2. Many of the Focus on Research, Cultural Influences,
Spotlight on Theories, Children’s Lives, and Improving New to the Third Canadian
Children’s Lives features have been replaced and updated Edition
throughout the text, covering such topics as brain special-
ization for face processing, scientific reasoning, autism, The third Canadian edition of Children and Their
intelligence, children’s testimony, and school phobia/ Development has several improvements designed to
school refusal behaviour. make the book more useful to students and instructors
in Canada. As mentioned above, a Canadian perspec-
3. New cutting-edge research has been added, such as the tive has been taken throughout, and work by Canadian
impact of a pregnant woman’s cell-phone usage on pre- researchers highlighted. More international research
natal development, the influence of emotions on moral and information is also included. In updating the cov-
development, the impact of motor skill development on erage of research, we have added hundreds of new
perception, cross-cultural variations in attachment, the citations to research published since 2000. We have
impact of the exposure to a culture of violence on the also added significant new content to every chapter. Of
development of aggression, and the role of multiple cas- particular note:
cading risks in the development of aggression.
Chapter 1 now includes information on Bronfenbrenner’s
4. Also expanded and updated are the topics of fetal alco- Ecological Systems theory, moved from the end chapters
hol spectrum disorder, theory of mind, children’s tes- to this chapter’s section on the Contextual Perspective to
timony, learning disabilities, the impact of video on be part of the discussion on the foundational theories in
children’s language learning, consequences of attach- child development.
ment quality, the influences on identity formation,
adolescent storm and stress, and self-esteem. As well, Chapter 2 includes a reorganized section on Paths
new material has been included on cultural differences from Genes to Behaviour, with expanded coverage of
in self esteem, the benefits of grandparent-grandchild epigenesis.
relationships, and programs for the prevention of Chapter 3 has additional information on sensory experi-
child maltreatment. ences of the fetus, expanded coverage of fetal alcohol spec-
5. Entire sections have been reorganized. The greatest trum disorder, and new material on the impact of cell-
change has been a reorganization of information from phone usage on prenatal development.
the second edition Chapter 15, with movement of some Chapter 4 has a much-reorganized section on brain devel-
information to other chapters and an amalgamation of opment, including a new Focus on Research feature, with
the remaining information with Chapter 14 to form a updates and improved explanations of brain specializa-
single chapter covering Social Influences. Other chap- tion, especially of experience-dependent and experience-
ter-level reorganizations have been made, including the expectant growth.
section on Paths from Genes to Behaviour (which now
includes expanded coverage of epigenesis) and the sec- Chapter 5 has a new section on the impact of motor-skill
tions on brain specialization and children with intel- development on perception.
lectual disability (formerly mental retardation), which Chapter 6 has been reorganized, its content on theory of
reflects the changes to terminology implemented by the mind updated, and it now includes a new Children’s Lives
American Association on Intellectual and Developmental feature devoted to autism.
xvi Preface
Chapter 7 now has information on electronic media (TV, MEDIA SUPPLEMENTS

video games, computers), moved here from later chap-
ters, as well as a revised section on children’s eyewitness
testimony and updated information on word and num-
MyPsychLab
ber recognition. MyPsychLab. MyPsychLab combines proven learning ap-
Chapter 8 contains an updated Spotlight on Theory fea- plications with powerful assessment to engage students,
ture on intelligence; a completely rewritten section on assess their learning, and help them succeed. With assess-
children with intellectual disability, with updated ter- ment tied to every video, application, and chapter, stu-
minology and information; and significantly revised dents receive immediate feedback and instructors can see
coverage of learning disabilities. what their students know with just a few clicks. Instructors
can personalize MyPsychLab to meet the needs of their
Chapter 9 updates information on infant language learning students.
and describes work on the impact of video on children’s
language learning, including a new Focus on Research fea-
ture on the influence of “baby media.” MyPsychLab includes:
Chapter 10 has new material on the origins of disgust, a • MyVirtualChild. MyVirtualChild is an interactive
completely revised section on school phobia (now called simulation that allows students to play the role of
school refusal behaviour), and much-revised coverage on parent and raise their own virtual child. By making
the consequences of attachment quality. decisions about specific scenarios, students can raise
Chapter 11 has been substantially re-organized and their child from birth to age 18 and learn firsthand
updated, including revised and expanded coverage of how their own decisions and other parenting actions
influences on identity formation, adolescent storm and affect their children over time.
stress, and self-esteem, as well as new material on the cul- • An individualized study plan for each student,
tural differences in self-esteem. based on performance results from chapter pre-
tests, helps students focus on the specific topics
Chapter 12 has a new Cultural Influences feature, new
where they need the most support. The personal-
material on the influences of emotions on moral devel-
ized study plan arranges content from less complex
opment, coverage of the role of a culture of violence
thinking (like remembering and understanding) to
on the development of aggression, new material on the
more complex critical thinking skill (like applying
role of multiple cascading risks in the development of
and analyzing) and is based on Bloom’s Taxonomy.
aggression, and updates on cyberbullying and ridicule
Every level of the study plan provides a formative
as a form of bullying.
assessment quiz
Chapter 13 includes completely revised coverage of gender- • The MyPsychLab Video Series for Developmental
related differences in math (with a new Cultural Influences Psychology engages students in the study of hu-
feature), and an updated Spotlight on Theories feature. man development. Hundreds of observational
Chapter 14 is a reorganization of the second edition’s chap- videos and interviews from prenatal development
ters 14 and 15, to give one, coherent chapter on Social through to the end of the lifespan bring to life a
Influences. This chapter also has new material on the effects wide range of topics typically covered in child, ado-
of punishment and an alternative called “time in,” as well as lescent, and lifespan development courses. New
revised information regarding family structure, including cross-cultural videos shot on location in several
the role of grandparents, and updates on peer relationships countries allow students to observe similarities and
and programs designed to prevent child maltreatment. differences in human development across cultures
throughout the lifespan. These videos can be ac-
cessed online via MyPsychLab and are also avail-
Support Materials able on DVD.
Children and Their Development, Third Canadian Edition, • The Pearson eText lets students access their text-
is accompanied by a superb set of ancillary materials. They book anytime, anywhere, and any way they want—
include the following: including on an iPad.
Preface xvii
• Media Assignments for each chapter (including including art and figures from our leading texts, videos,
videos with assignable questions) feed directly into lecture activities, classroom activities, demonstrations, and
the gradebook, enabling instructors to track student much more. Instructors are able to search through this ex-
progress automatically. tensive database by content topic (arranged by standard
topics within the introductory psychology curriculum) or by
content type (video, audio, simulation, Word documents).
INSTRUCTOR SUPPLEMENTS ClassPrep allows instructors to select resources appropriate
for lecture, many of which can be downloaded directly. Or
instructors can build their own folder of resources and pres-
MyTest: Pearson MyTest is a powerful assessment- ent from within the ClassPrep program. ClassPrep can also
generation program that helps instructors easily create be accessed through MyPsychLab.
and print quizzes, tests, exams, as well as homework or CourseSmart: CourseSmart goes beyond traditional
practice handouts. Questions and tests can all be au- expectations—providing instant online access to the text-
thored online, allowing instructors ultimate flexibility books and course materials you need at a lower cost for
and the ability to efficiently manage assessments at any students. And even as students save money, you can save
time, from anywhere. MyTest for Children and Their time and hassle with a digital eTextbook that allows you to
Development contains over 2000 multiple-choice, true/ search for the most relevant content at the very moment
false, and short-answer essay questions, which are also you need it. Whether it’s evaluating textbooks or creat-
available in Microsoft Word format (see below). MyTest ing lecture notes to help students with difficult concepts,
can be accessed through MyPsychLab as well. CourseSmart can make life a little easier. See how when
The following supplements can be downloaded from you visit www.coursesmart.com/instructors.
a password-protected section of Pearson Education Can- Technology Specialists: Pearson Learning Solutions
ada’s online catalogue (www.pearsoncanada.ca/highered). Managers work with faculty and campus course designers
Navigate to your book’s catalogue page to view a list of to ensure that Pearson technology products, assessment
those supplements that are available. See your local sales tools, and online course materials are tailored to meet
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Instructor’s Resource Manual: Each chapter in the to helping schools take full advantage of a wide range of
manual includes the following resources: Chapter Learn- educational resources by assisting in the integration of a
ing Objectives; Lecture Suggestions and Discussion Top- variety of instructional materials and media formats. Your
ics; Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises; local Pearson Education sales representative can provide
Out-of-Class Assignments and Projects; Lecture Notes; you with more details on this service program.
Multimedia Resources; Video Resources; and Handouts. Pearson Custom Library For enrollments of at least 25
Designed to make your lectures more effective and to students, you can create your own textbook by choosing
save you preparation time, this extensive resource gath- the chapters that best suit your own course needs. To be-
ers together the most effective activities and strategies for gin building your custom text, visit www.pearsoncustom-
teaching your developmental psychology course. The In- library.com. You may also work with a dedicated Pearson
structor’s Manual is in PDF format. Custom editor to create your ideal text—publishing your
PowerPoint Presentations: Each chapter’s PowerPoint own original content or mixing and matching Pearson
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Image Library: This set of images, illustrations, fig- started.
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Test Item File: The test bank in Microsoft Word To the Student
format contains over 2000 multiple-choice, true/false, and
short-answer essay questions. The test bank is also avail- In this book, we’ll trace children’s development from
able in MyTest format (see above). conception through adolescence. Given this goal, you
ClassPrep: This new offering from Pearson may expect to find chapters devoted to early childhood,
makes lecture preparation simpler and less time-consuming! middle childhood, and the like. But this book is orga-
Pearson has collected the very “best of” instructor resources, nized differently—around topics. Chapters 2 through 5
xviii Preface
are devoted to the genetic and biological bases of human Cultural Influences shows how culture influ-
development, and the growth of perceptual and mo- ences children and illustrates that developmen-
tor skills. Chapters 6 through 9 cover intellectual devel- tal journeys are diverse. All children share the biologi-
opment—how children learn, think, reason, and solve cal aspects of development, but their cultural contexts
problems. Chapters 10 through 14 concern social and differ. This feature celebrates the developmental expe-
emotional development—how children acquire the cus- riences of children from different backgrounds.
toms of their society and learn to play the social roles
Children’s Lives shows how research and theo-
expected of them.
ry can be applied to improve children’s devel-
This organization reflects the fact that when scientists
opment. These practical solutions to everyday prob-
conduct research on children’s development, they usu-
lems show the relevance of research and theory to real
ally study how some specific aspect of how a child devel-
life, and show how results from research are used to
ops. For example, a researcher might study how memory
create social policy that is designed to improve the
changes as children grow or how friendship in childhood
lives of children and their families.
differs from that in adolescence. Thus, the organization of
this book reflects the way researchers actually study child Spotlight on Theories examines an influential
development. theory of development and shows how it has
been tested in research.
ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS AND Two other elements are designed to help you focus on
LEARNING AIDS the main points of the text. First, whenever a key term is
introduced in the text, it appears in Blue bold italic like
Each of the chapters (except Chapter 1) includes several
this and the definition appears in black boldface type.
modules that are listed at the beginning of each chap-
This format should make key terms easier for you to find
ter. Each module begins with a set of learning objectives
and learn. Second, summary tables appear periodically
phrased as questions, a mini-outline listing the major
throughout the book, reviewing key ideas and providing
subheadings of the module, and a brief vignette that in-
a capsule account of each. For example, the following
troduces the topics to be covered in the module. The
Summary Table shows the many study aids that we’ve
learning objectives, mini-outline, and vignette tell you
included in the book.
what to expect in the module.
5.1
SUMMARY TABLE
Basic Sensory and Perceptual Processes
OUTLINE LEARNING OBJECTIVES STUDY AIDS USED IN CHILDREN AND THEIR
Smell, Taste, and Touch • Are newborn babies able to smell and taste? Do they respond to touch
Hearing and experience pain? DEVELOPMENT, THIRD CANADIAN EDITION
Seeing • How well do infants hear? How do they use sounds to understand
their world?
Integrating Sensory
Information • How accurate is infants’ vision? Do infants perceive colour?
• How do infants integrate information from different senses? Study Aid Key Features
Darla adores her three-day-old daughter, Olivia. She loves holding her, talking to her, and simply watch- Module-opening Learning objectives,
ing her. Darla is certain that Olivia is already getting to know her, coming to recognize her face and the
sound of her voice. Darla’s husband, Steve, thinks she is crazy. He tells her, “Everyone knows that babies material vignette, mini-outline
are born blind. And they probably can’t hear much either.” Darla doubts that Steve is right, but she wishes
someone would tell her about babies’ vision and hearing. Special features Focus on Research, Children’s
Lives, Cultural Influences,
Spotlight on Theories,
each with Critical Thinking
Each module in Chapters 2 through 14 includes at
questions
least one special feature that expands or highlights a topic.
Design elements that Boldface key terms defined
There are four different kinds of features; you can recog- promote learning in text, summary tables
nize each one by its distinctive icon: (like this one)
Check Your Learning Recall, interpret, and apply
Focus on Research provides details on the de-
questions
sign and methods used in a particular research
End-of-chapter material Unifying Themes, See for
study. Closely examining specific studies demystifies
M05_KAIL7890_03_CH05.indd 157 12/2/13 5:21 PM
Yourself, Resources, Key
research and shows that scientific work is a series of Terms, Summary, Self-test
logical steps conducted by real people.
Preface xix
Each module concludes with Check Your Learning ques- Several icons also appear throughout the margins to
tions to help you review the major ideas in that module. As direct you to interactive study resources on MyPsychLab
you can see in the inset, there are three kinds of questions: that illustrate key concepts discussed in the text:
recall, interpret, and apply. Watch directs you to videos.
Explore directs you to animations.
Check Your Learning Simulate directs you to simulations.
RECALL List the major parts of a nerve cell and the major regions of the cerebral
cortex.
Finally, a MyPsychLab banner has been placed at the end
Describe evidence that shows the brain’s plasticity.
of every chapter to remind you to visit MyPsychLab to help
INTERPRET Compare growth of the brain before birth with growth of the brain after
you master the material you’ve just learned.
birth.
APPLY How does the development of the brain, as described in this module, com-
pare to the general pattern of physical growth described in Module 4.1?
TERMINOLOGY
Every field has its own terminology, and child develop-
If you can answer the questions in Check Your Learning
ment is no exception. We will be using several terms to
correctly, you are on your way to mastering the material
refer to different periods of infancy, childhood, and ado-
in the module. However, do not rely exclusively on Check
lescence. Although these terms are familiar, we will use
Your Learning as you study for exams. The questions are
each to refer to a specific range of ages:
designed to give you a quick check of your understanding,
not a comprehensive assessment of your knowledge of the Newborn Birth to 1 month
entire module. Infant 1 month to 1 year
At the very end of each chapter are several additional Toddler 1 to 2 years
study aids. Unifying Themes links the contents of the chap- Preschooler 2 to 6 years
ter to the developmental themes that we introduce in Mod- School-age child 6 to 12 years
ule 1.3. The feature, See for Yourself, suggests some simple Adolescent 12 to 18 years
activities for exploring issues in child development on your Adult 18 years and older
own. Resources includes books and websites where you
Sometimes for the sake of variety we will use other
can learn more about children and their development. Key
terms that are less tied to specific ages, such as babies,
Terms is a list of all the important terms that appear in the
youngsters, and elementary-school children. When we do,
chapter, along with the page where each term is defined. The
you will be able to tell from the context what groups are
Summary provides a concise review of the entire chapter,
being described.
organized by module and the primary headings within the
We will also use very specific terminology in describ-
module. Finally, the Test Yourself questions further confirm
ing research findings from different cultural and ethnic
and cement your understanding of the chapter material.
groups. The appropriate terms to describe different cultural,
racial, and ethnic groups change over time. For example,
INTEGRATION OF MyPsychLab the terms coloured people, Negroes, Black Canadians, and
MyPsychLab is a dynamic, interactive online resource that African Canadians have all been used to describe Canadi-
gives you access to a variety of valuable media resources—all ans who trace their ancestry to Africa. In this book, we will
in one easy-to-use website. Several features have been added use the term African Canadian because it emphasizes the
to this text to help you take advantage of those resources: unique cultural heritage of this group of people. Following
this same line of reasoning, we will use the terms European
MyPsychLab Visit www.mydevelopmentlab.com to help you get the best grade!
Test your knowledge and grasp difficult concepts through:
Canadian (instead of Caucasian or white), First Nations or
Aboriginal (instead of Indian or American Indian), Asian
■ Custom study plans: See where you are strong and where you ■ Video and audio clips
d 152
■
went wrong
Interactive simulations
■ Raise your own Virtual Child
—and much more!
Canadian, and Hispanic Canadian.
12/2/13 5:21 PM
These labels are not perfect. Sometimes they blur

Throughout the chapters in the text, you’ll find de- distinctions within ethnic groups. For example, the term
scriptions of MyPsychLab video clips. These descriptions Hispanic Canadian ignores differences between individu-
appear in the margin beside topics that are further ex- als who came to Canada from Puerto Rico, Mexico, and
plored in the video clips. Guatemala; the term Asian Canadian blurs variations
xx Preface
among people whose heritage is East Indian, Japanese, I am particularly grateful to three people for their
Chinese, or Korean. Whenever researchers identified the special contributions to Children and Their Development.
subgroups in their research sample, we will use the more Jeff Marshall supported the book enthusiastically and
specific terms in describing results. When you see the guided its revision. Over the years, Harriett Prentiss and
more general terms, remember that conclusions may not Susan Moss labored long to make my writing clear and
apply to all subgroups within the group. inviting. To all these individuals, many, many thanks.
—Robert V. Kail
COURSESMART FOR STUDENTS
For the Canadian editions of the book, I, too, would like
CourseSmart goes beyond traditional expectations— to thank those mentioned above who helped with the
providing instant, online access to the textbooks and original work. In addition, I would like to thank the fol-
course materials you need at an average savings of 60 lowing reviewers for their many helpful comments and
percent. With instant access from any computer and the suggestions:
ability to search your text, you’ll find the content you
need quickly, no matter where you are. And with on- Jan Blaxall, Fanshawe College
line tools like highlighting and note-taking, you can save Tina Bonnett, Fanshawe College
time and study efficiently. See all the benefits at www. Tanya Broesch, Simon Fraser University
coursesmart.com/students. Tina Daniels, Carleton University
Sandra Hessels, Huron University College at UWO
Anick Legault, Dawson College
A Final Word Kim O’Neil, Carleton University
Robert Kail wrote the first American edition of this book Lorna Reid, University of Guelph
to make child development come alive for his students Theresa Steger, Humber College ITAL
at Purdue. Although we can’t teach you directly, we Tara Vongpaisal, Grant MacEwan University
hope this book sparks your interest in children and their I must also thank Ky Pruesse for the initial concept of the
development. Please let us know what you like and Canadian edition; Matthew Christian, Acquisitions Editor;
dislike about the book so that it can be improved in Joel Gladstone and Carolin Sweig, Sponsoring Editors, and
later editions. You can email me, Anne Barnfield, at editors Heather Parker, who started the editing process,
abarnfie@uwo.ca—I’d love to hear from you. Joanne Sutherland, who continued the process and, for the
third edition, Christine Langone, who worked hard to get
Acknowledgments help me to turn in coherent, updated chapters. Elizabeth
Lewis and Harleen Chopra brought the book through pro-
Textbook authors do not produce books on their own. I duction. I would also like to thank Annamarie Chalikakis
want to thank the many reviewers who generously gave for her invaluable assistance when this whole process be-
their time and effort to help sharpen my thinking about gan and Brescia students Kasha McEwen (with the first
child development and shape the development of this text. edition) and Sileny Chamorro (for the second edition) for
I also owe a debt of thanks to many people who helped their assistance in retrieving information and performing
take this project from a first draft to a bound book. Wanda literature searches. My husband, Richard Van de Weter-
España designed a book that is both beautiful and func- ing, as ever, deserves special thanks for his patience and
tional. LeeAnn Doherty skillfully orchestrated the many understanding.
activities that were involved in actually producing the book. —Anne M. C. Barnfield
About the Authors
Robert V. Kail is a Distinguished Professor of

Psychological Sciences at Purdue University. His undergradu-
ate degree is from Ohio Wesleyan University, and his PhD is
from the University of Michigan. Kail is editor of Psychological
Science and the incoming editor of Child Development
Perspectives. He received the McCandless Young Scientist Award
from the American Psychological Association, was named the
Distinguished Sesquicentennial Alumnus in Psychology by
Ohio Wesleyan University, and is a fellow of the Association for
Psychological Science. His research focuses on cognitive develop-
ment during childhood and adolescence. Away from the office,
he enjoys photography and working out. His website is http://
www2.psych.purdue.edu/~rk/home.html
Anne M. C. Barnfield is an Associate Professor of

Psychology at Brescia University College. Her undergraduate
degree is from the University of London, U.K. and her Ph.D. is
from the University of Sussex, U.K. Barnfield is an occasional
manuscript reviewer for the journal Perceptual and Motor Skills
and a book reviewer for The Journal of Asian Martial Arts.
She is a member of the Society for the Teaching of Psychology
and the Canadian Society for Brain, Behaviour and Cognitive
Science. Her research focuses on the development of spatial
memory and on the beneficial influences of sport participation—
particularly for children. Away from the office, she enjoys karate
and horseback riding. The Brescia University College website is:
http://www.brescia.uwo.ca/
1 The Science
of Child Development
Marzanna Syncerz/Fotolia.
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Setting the Stage Foundational Themes in Doing

Theories of Child Child-Development Child-Development
Development Research Research
Beginning as a microscopic cell, every person takes a fascinating journey designed to lead to adult-
hood. This trip is filled with remarkably interesting and challenging events. In this book, we’ll trace this
journey as we learn about the science of child development, a multidisciplinary study of all aspects of
human growth from conception to young adulthood. As an adult, you’ve already lived the years that
are at the heart of this book. We hope you enjoy reviewing your own developmental path from the
perspective of child-development research and that this perspective leads you to new insights into the
developmental forces that have made you the person you are today.
Chapter 1 sets the stage for our study of child development. We begin, in Module 1.1, by look-
ing at philosophical foundations for child development and the events that led to the creation of child
development as a new science. In Module 1.2, we examine theories that are central to the science of
child development. In Module 1.3, we explore themes that guide much of the research in child de-
velopment. Finally, in Module 1.4, we learn about the methods scientists use to study children and
their development.
1.1 Setting the Stage

OUTLINE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Historical Views of Children 1. What ideas did philosophers have about children and childhood?
and Childhood 2. How did the modern science of child development emerge?
Origins of a New Science 3. How do child-development scientists use research findings to improve
children’s lives?
Kendra loves her 12-month-old son, Joshua, but she is eager to return to her job as a loan officer at a local
bank. Kendra knows a woman in her neighbourhood who has cared for some of her friends’ children, and
they all think she is wonderful. But deep down, Kendra wishes she knew more about whether this type of
care is really best for Joshua. She also wishes that her neighbour’s daycare centre had a “stamp of approval”
from someone who knows how to evaluate such facilities.
K endra’s question about the best way to care for her infant son is just the most
recent in a long line that she has had about Joshua since he was born. When
Joshua was just a few days old, Kendra wondered if he could recognize her face and
her voice. As her son grows, she’ll continue to have questions: Why is he so shy at
preschool? Should he take classes for gifted children or would he be better off in
regular classes? What can she do to be sure that he doesn’t use drugs?
These questions—and hundreds more like them—touch issues and concerns
that parents such as Kendra confront regularly as they do their best to rear their
children. And parents are not the only ones asking these questions. Many profes-
sionals who deal with children—teachers, healthcare providers, and social workers,
for example—often wonder what is best for children’s development. Does children’s
self-esteem affect their success in school? Should we believe young children when
they claim they have been abused? As well, government officials must decide what
programs and laws provide the greatest benefit for children and their families. How
does welfare reform affect families? Are teenagers less likely to have sex when they
participate in abstinence-only programs?
3
4 Chapter 1 • The Science of Child Development
So many questions, and all of them important! Fortunately, the field of child
development, which traces physical, mental, social, and emotional development
from conception to maturity, provides answers to many of them. To begin, let’s look
at the origins of child development as a science.
Historical Views of Children and Childhood

For thousands of years, philosophers have speculated on the fundamental nature
of childhood and the conditions that foster a child’s well-being. The famous Greek
philosophers Plato (428–347 bce) and Aristotle (384–322 bce) believed that schools
and parents had responsibility for teaching children the self-control that would make
them effective citizens. But both philosophers, particularly Aristotle, also worried
that too much self-discipline would stifle children’s initiative and individuality, mak-
ing them unfit to be leaders.
Plato and Aristotle also had ideas about knowledge and how it is acquired.
Plato believed that experience could not be the source of knowledge because human
senses are too fallible. He argued instead that children are born with innate knowl-
edge of many concrete objects (such as animals and people), as well as with knowl-
edge of abstractions (such as courage, love, and goodness). In Plato’s view, children’s
sensory experiences simply trigger knowledge that they’ve had since birth. The first
time a child sees a dog, her innate knowledge allows her to recognize it as such; no
learning is necessary.
In contrast, Aristotle denied the existence of innate knowledge, believing in-
stead that knowledge is rooted in perceptual experience. Children acquire knowledge
piece by piece, based on the information provided by their senses. Aristotle likened a
child’s mind to a tablet that is blank, ready for experience to do the writing.
These contrasting views resurfaced during the Age of Enlightenment. The
English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) asserted that the human infant is a
tabula rasa, or “blank slate,” and claimed that experience molds the infant, child,
adolescent, and adult into a unique individual. According to Locke, parents should
instruct, reward, and discipline young children, gradually relaxing their authority
as children grow. In our opening vignette, Locke would have advised Kendra that
childcare experiences will undoubtedly affect Joshua’s development (though Locke
would not specify how).
A century after Locke made his assertions, his view was challenged by the
French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), who believed that new-
borns are endowed with an innate sense of justice and morality that unfolds natu-
rally as the child grows. During this unfolding, children move through the same
developmental stages that we recognize today—infancy, childhood, and adolescence.
Rather than emphasizing parental discipline, Rousseau argued that parents should
be responsive, and he encouraged them to be receptive to their children’s needs, as
he explained in his book Émile, written in 1762. Rousseau would have downplayed
the impact of childcare experiences per se on Joshua’s development, insisting instead
that the key would be having caregivers who are responsive to his needs.
Rousseau shared Plato’s view that children begin their developmental journey
well prepared with a stockpile of knowledge. Locke, like Aristotle two thousand
years before, believed that children begin their journey lightly packed, picking up
necessary knowledge along the way, through experience. These debates might have
continued to be solely philosophical for millennia except for a landmark event: the
emergence of child development as a science.
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especially offensive to their persecutor were strangled. Others
managed to eke out a wretched subsistence by the most menial
occupations, and even by beggary. The venerable Moshafi, after
suffering for years every humiliation that could be imposed by the
ingenuity of hatred and the insolence of power, perished in some
unknown way by violence, and his body was carried to the grave
with but little more ceremony than usually attended the interment of
a pauper.
While these events were transpiring, a formidable conspiracy for
the assassination of the Khalif and the promotion of one of his
cousins, Abd-al-Rahman-Ibn-Obeydallah, to the royal dignity, was
maturing in the capital. The great majority of the literary men,—the
former companions and instructors of Ibn-abi-Amir,—with officials
who had viewed his elevation with unconcealed envy and hatred,
stimulated by mediocrity and conscious incompetence, were the
promoters of the enterprise. The dangerous position of leader was
assumed by the eunuch Djaudar, who was anxious to avenge his
disgrace, to retrieve his fortunes, and to restore the failing credit of
his caste. There was scarcely a kadi, a jurist, a poet of the court, or a
professor of the University who was not cognizant of the plot. The
faquis and the theologians, who considered the orthodoxy of Ibn-abi-
Amir as more than doubtful, were concerned in it to a man. The
prefect, Ziyad-Ibn-Aflah, who had succeeded Ibn-abi-Amir in the
control of the municipal affairs of Cordova, promised his co-
operation, and agreed to place the armed force under his command
at the disposal of the conspirators. It was decided that Djaudar
should put the Khalif to death. The day for action arrived; the palace
was designedly abandoned by the police; and Djaudar obtained
without suspicion an audience with Hischem. But, either through
awkwardness or irresolution, the blow aimed at the heart of the
Khalif fell short; the assassin was overpowered; and the prefect,
having been summoned to the palace and seeing that all was lost,
endeavored to remove suspicion from himself by the arrest and
zealous prosecution of his accomplices. The leading conspirators
were crucified, and punishments of greater or less severity were
inflicted upon the others. The double traitor, Ziyad-Ibn-Aflah, with
brazen effrontery, assisted at the trial and voted for the
condemnation of his former associates.
Aware that his liberal views on the subject of religion, and the
philosophical studies with which he frequently occupied his leisure,
had created against him a feeling which was largely responsible for
the recent conspiracy, and which might eventually be productive of
more serious disorders, Ibn-abi-Amir determined to make some
concessions to the prejudices of the theologians. The broad
toleration of the two former reigns, when skepticism was fashionable
and the cultivation of philosophy general and popular, had been
followed by a reaction. The influence of the Malikites had been re-
established, and it was easy for these fanatics to excite popular
odium against any one suspected of entertaining heretical opinions.
When the obnoxious individual filled a post of eminence in the state,
a hint from a faqui might be equivalent to a sentence of death. The
native shrewdness of Ibn-abi-Amir suggested a means of
counteracting this danger. Having carefully selected the theologians
of the capital most notorious for their intolerance, he invited them to
the palace and solemnly informed them that the presence of the
philosophical and scientific works in the library of Al-Hakem was a
great burden upon his conscience, and requested their assistance in
purging the collection of books treating of subjects whose study was
not sanctioned by the Koran. Conducted into the immense library
whose shelves were covered with the literary treasures of Europe
and Asia, the bigoted enemies of learning entered upon their task
with alacrity. The collection was examined in detail, and the works
known or suspected to be tainted with heterodox sentiments were
consigned to the flames. The distinguished penitent improved the
occasion to offer an edifying exhibition of zeal by personally assisting
in the destruction of the proscribed volumes.
History has failed to acquaint us with the magnitude of this loss. It
must have been important, however, even if due allowance be made
for the ignorance of the muftis and faquis, who had but slight
knowledge of any save theological literature, and whose industry
must have been sorely taxed by the laborious scrutiny of six hundred
thousand volumes. Henceforth no one ventured to question the
orthodoxy of the minister. He patronized with marked partiality all
members of the religious profession; flattered their pride by his
attention to their prosy discourses; won their affection by his
liberality; elicited their praise by his denunciation of infidels. He
demonstrated that the skill of his youth had not departed from him by
the production of a beautiful copy of the Koran, written entirely by his
own hand, which he never suffered to leave his person, and
constantly perused in public with such apparent unction that all who
beheld him were greatly impressed with this remarkable display of
devotion.
Moshafi having been disposed of, it was now the turn of Ghalib.
The powerful interest of Ibn-abi-Amir with the Sultana and the nobles
which had raised him to the rank of hajib placed him on a political
equality with his father-in-law. The latter was constantly at variance
with his associate, whom he considered as his inferior, but whose
ascendency in the conduct of the administration he was nevertheless
forced to acknowledge. The annoyance Ibn-abi-Amir suffered from
these disputes, and the fact that Ghalib was now the sole obstacle
interposed between his ambition and the practical sovereignty of the
empire, led him to begin without delay the scheme which he had
devised for the overthrow of his colleague. The first, and indeed the
indispensable, requisite of success was the control of the army. The
power of the audacious minister, which was dreaded by every civil
functionary of the khalifate, virtually ended at the outposts of the
nearest garrison. The soldiery knew him only as a kadi; and while he
had behaved with credit in more than one engagement, and had
established a name for generosity, his military reputation and
popularity had so far proved to be neither brilliant nor enduring. The
attachment of the soldiers centred in Ghalib. They had shared
together the hardships and the glory of many arduous campaigns.
Their interests had long been identical, and any demonstration
involving the honor or the safety of the general would have been
resisted by the entire military force of the monarchy. The army
consisted mainly of Arabs, the Berbers enlisted by Abd-al-Rahman
III. having been gradually disbanded and natives of the Peninsula
substituted for them under Al-Hakem. The partiality of their
commander had indulged them in frequent and serious infractions of
discipline. Their equipment was not uniform, and was often
defective. The awkwardness of the horsemen was the jest of
foreigners. In many respects the organization of the various corps
did not differ from that of a disorderly and inefficient militia.
The experience acquired by Ibn-abi-Amir during his sojourn in
Africa had convinced him of the excellence of the Mauritanian
cavalry, whose reputation indeed dated from the First Punic War.
The Spanish posts in that country had been abandoned, with the
exception of Ceuta, and the protectorate formerly exercised by the
khalif removed. In consequence of this measure, and there being no
central power to restrain the Berbers, the entire region became at
once a prey to anarchy. At the time the minister was planning a
thorough reorganization of the army, intelligence was conveyed to
him by the governor of Ceuta that a considerable detachment of
Berbers, who had been worsted in a recent battle and were
absolutely impoverished, had appealed to him for protection, which
he had temporarily afforded them. The pleasure of the government
was requested respecting the final disposition of these refugees. The
order was immediately sent to propose to them enlistment in the
army of the khalifate. The offer was accepted without hesitation, and
the inhabitants of Algeziras beheld with consternation and disgust
the disembarkation of a horde of ferocious warriors clothed in rags
and mounted on horses whose skeleton forms seemed hardly
capable of sustaining even the weight of their emaciated riders. But
the sagacious hajib, who recognized in these uncouth barbarians the
formidable instruments of a soaring ambition, entertained his new
protégés with royal hospitality. The finest arms and horses were
furnished them. Their boundless rapacity was gratified by every
concession that insolence could demand or prodigality afford. The
famished bandit, who had lately roamed the desert without shelter,
now revelled in the luxuries of a palace. The servile dependent who
a few months before had trembled at the voice of some vagabond
sheik was now the master of a hundred slaves. The news of this
astonishing good fortune was speedily transmitted to Africa.
Thousands of volunteers applied for admission to the service of so
generous a patron. The object of Ibn-abi-Amir was accomplished,
and with secret exultation he saw placed at his absolute disposal a
powerful body of troops, whose allegiance was due to himself alone,
who knew and cared nothing for patriotic sentiment, and who were
practically isolated from the existing military system. His efforts,
however, were not confined to the enlistment of Berber mercenaries.
From the opposite quarter of the compass, from a region and a
nation where one would least suspect a disposition to serve under
the banners of Islam, his army received important accessions. It
does not appear that before the reign of Hischem any systematic
attempt was made to attract to the service of the khalifate the
Christians of the North, whose hostility to their neighbors was
hereditary and instinctive, dictated as well by motives of patriotism
as by the prejudices and the distorted maxims of their religion. The
civil wars of fifty years; the uncertain allegiance claimed by a
succession of known usurpers and legal sovereigns of suspicious
title; the arrogance of the priesthood, which claimed ascendency
over the crown, had destroyed the unity and absorbed the limited
pecuniary resources of the kingdoms of Northern Spain. The
population had increased, while the means of subsistence had been
constantly diminishing. The insecurity of property discouraged
agriculture in a land where untiring industry was at all times
indispensable to procure the most common necessaries of life. The
country was overrun by armed men, who did not hesitate, when
occasion demanded, to rudely strip the unfortunate peasant of the
hard-earned fruits of his labor. The lofty stature and extraordinary
strength of these mountaineers, their unequalled powers of
endurance, their bravery and their steadiness in battle, rendered
them most desirable recruits. The emissaries of Ibn-abi-Amir
experienced no difficulty in convincing them of the benefits they
would receive by a change of masters. A considerable detachment
repaired to Cordova and entered the army of the Khalif. The minister
treated them with even greater indulgence than he had shown to the
Africans. They received double pay. They were lodged in palatial
quarters. They were magnificently armed and mounted, and
provided with every attainable comfort and luxury. The partiality of
the hajib for these favorite mercenaries sometimes even caused him
to depart from the equity which had heretofore characterized his
judicial conduct. In the controversies he was called upon, from time
to time, to settle between his Moslem subjects and his Christian
guards, his decisions were almost invariably rendered in favor of the
latter. The effects of this politic course soon became apparent. The
Castilians and Navarrese, like the Berbers, volunteered in larger
numbers than could be accommodated. Only picked men were
accepted by the recruiting officers; and a corps was formed which,
for physical strength, perfection of armament, and excellence of
discipline, had not its counterpart in Europe.
While Ibn-abi-Amir was thus, day by day, tightening his grasp
upon the civil and military departments of the government, he was, at
the same time, gradually undermining the support and weakening
the power of his rival. The custom of tribal organization, inherited
from the pre-Islamic era, still prevailed in the army. Members of the
same tribe, commanded by chiefs of their own kindred, were
mustered into the service together. In numerous instances, by
intermarriage with individuals of other races, the chain of relationship
had been broken. Clannish prejudice had, however, survived the
record of genealogies, for many were found enrolled among the
various tribes who evidently had not the remotest claim to such
association. The policy of Ibn-abi-Amir was directed to the final
abrogation of these ancient distinctions. The Arabs were distributed
among the strongest divisions of the Berber and Christian
mercenaries. By this means their identity was lost amidst a crowd of
foreigners ignorant alike of their customs, their traditions, and, not
infrequently, of their language. The favorite troops of Ghalib were, by
this means, quietly and expeditiously scattered beyond the hope of
reorganization. The discipline of the army was sedulously improved.
Officers were appointed to command whose first qualification was
devotion to the personal interests of the hajib, and whose second
was based upon their experience in war and their reputation for
courage. Military regulations were enforced with such severity that
even the accidental exposure of a sword during parade was
punished with death.
Having to his entire satisfaction obtained control of the army, Ibn-
abi-Amir now proposed to himself the audacious project of placing
and retaining the youthful Khalif in a condition of perpetual tutelage.
His mother, over whom the minister still retained his ascendency,
strange to relate, willingly lent her aid to the accomplishment of this
nefarious design. The talents of the young prince, at that time about
fifteen years old, are stated by contemporaneous writers to have
been far above mediocrity. Under favorable circumstances, it is
possible that he might have become a ruler not inferior to the most
distinguished of his line. But, unhappily, every effort was exerted to
dwarf his intellect and impair his physical powers. He was kept in
strict seclusion in the palace of Medina-al-Zahrâ. His teachers were
removed, and his education systematically neglected. It was
constantly inculcated upon him that his chief duties as a monarch
were the diligent perusal of the Koran and the distribution of alms.
His body was emaciated, and his intellectual faculties weakened, by
the frequent and protracted fasts which his religious advisers
enjoined. These regulations, sufficiently injurious to both the body
and the mind of youth, were not to be compared in their destructive
effects with the sensual excesses encouraged by the temptations of
the harem. In its retired and mysterious apartments everything was
favorable to the precocious development of the passions. Crowds of
beautiful slaves constantly surrounded him, and performed for his
amusement the licentious dances of the East. The rarest perfumes
diffused their intoxicating odors through the dimly-lighted
apartments. Here, safe from the frowning glances of faqui and
santon, could be quaffed, to the point of repletion and insensibility,
the delicious wines of Spain. The attendants received peremptory
instructions to lose no opportunity of corrupting and brutalizing their
helpless charge. In consequence, the unfortunate Hischem was
degraded by the habitual practice of the most revolting vices. His
prematurely failing powers were at first stimulated by aphrodisiacs.
His virility was afterwards permanently impaired by drugs
administered for that purpose by eunuchs in the pay of the minister.
With the advance of the prince in years, the conditions and
diversions of childhood remained unchanged. The same toys
amused his idle moments. The same devotional exercises were daily
enforced by his spiritual guides. His world was bounded by the walls
of the palace, within which no one unauthorized by the hajib could
enter. Alert and observant spies reported his most trivial speeches,
his most puerile actions. It was gravely suggested to him that the
burden of public affairs was too weighty for his shoulders; that the
favor of God—the object of every true Mussulman—was most easily
secured by devotional exercises; and that the administration of the
government should be confided to others who could assume the
responsibilities, without compromising the future hopes, of the
Commander of the Faithful. The Khalif’s voluntary acceptance of
these propositions—and especially of the last one—was proclaimed
far and wide by the omnipresent agents of the hajib. But the latter,
despite his apparent assurance, knew only too well the desperate
game he was playing. He was familiar with the uncertainty of popular
favor and the prodigious energy suddenly developed by revolutions.
His secret enemies, many of them able and determined men,
swarmed alike in the literary professions and among the populace of
the capital. The isolation of the Khalif was complete, but the
treachery of a sentinel or the venality of a slave might, at any time,
mature a conspiracy or effect the liberation of the royal prisoner. In
either of these contingencies, the life of the minister would not be
worth a moment’s purchase were he found within the walls of
Medina-al-Zahrâ. Impressed with this fact, he secured a large estate
east of Cordova, and erected there a residence which united the
twofold advantage of castle and palace, and to which he gave the
name of Zahira. The place was of great strength, and could
accommodate a numerous garrison. When it was completed, Ibn-
abi-Amir removed there all the public records, and in its halls were
henceforth framed the edicts which, issued in the Khalif’s name,
gave law to the people of the Peninsula. Buildings were erected for
the convenience of the great officials of the government, and Zahira
soon acquired the inhabitants and assumed the appearance of a city.
The employees of the court, the personal adherents of the minister,
and the herd of parasites who infested the purlieus of every palace,
together with a multitude of tradesmen and artificers, took up their
residence in the neighborhood; and an idea may be formed of the
extent of Zahira when it is remembered that, although the residence
of Ibn-abi-Amir was twelve miles from Cordova, the gardens of its
environs reached to the banks of the Guadalquivir immediately
opposite the capital, of which it, in fact, formed one of the most
attractive suburbs.
Of this villa a story is told by the Arab historians which illustrates
at once the wealth, the profusion, and the love of ostentation so
prominent in the character of the Oriental. With a view of impressing
the envoys of the King of Navarre with his power and opulence, the
hajib ordered a great lake in the gardens of Zahira to be planted with
water-lilies. Into each of the flowers, during the night, he caused to
be placed a gold or silver coin, large numbers of which he had
ordered struck especially for that purpose. The weight of the
precious metals required was two hundred pounds. At the audience,
which took place at sunrise, in addition to the grand civil and military
display usual on such occasions, a body of eunuchs, a thousand in
number and equally divided, stood on each side of the throne. All
were dressed in white silk. The robes of five hundred were
embroidered with gold, those of the others with silver. Sashes of gold
or silver tissue encircled their waists, and each carried a gold or
silver tray. As the first rays of the sun lighted up the splendors of the
scene, the eunuchs moved forward with military precision, gathered
the lilies, and emptied their precious contents at the feet of their
master in a great heap of glittering coin. The effect of this exhibition
upon the simple mountaineers of Navarre may be imagined. The
reputation of the hajib’s resources, already great, was magnified a
hundred-fold. Mystified by the apparent prodigy, the ambassadors
reported to their king that even the earth and the water surrendered
their hidden treasures at the command of the omnipotent
Mohammedan ruler.
While the astute and politic Ibn-abi-Amir was perfecting his
arrangements to secure absolute control of the empire, he treated
Ghalib with far more than ordinary consideration. He exhibited
towards him, on all occasions, the most distinguished courtesy. He
deferred to his opinion on questions of minor importance. He humbly
solicited his advice when satisfied that its acceptance would not
interfere with the accomplishment of his plans. But the shrewd old
soldier was not to be imposed upon by those flattering evidences of
esteem and attachment. Intensely loyal to the House of Ommeyah,
he had seen with disgust and apprehension the restraint of the Khalif
and the usurpation of his prerogatives. He had viewed with scarcely
less dismay the inordinate ambition of his colleague and the
predominance to which he had attained.
While he did not at first perceive the ultimate effect of the
reorganization of the military service, the disbanding and transfer to
distant and widely separated provinces of those divisions most
attached to his person, as well as the incorporation of his favorites
into the corps of foreign mercenaries, finally opened his eyes to the
consequences of the policy of his son-in-law. But it was then too late.
The mischief had already been accomplished. The indignation of the
general at first found vent in ineffectual reproaches. At length, during
an expedition into the enemy’s country, while the two ministers were
reconnoitering from the summit of a tower, after a violent quarrel
Ghalib drew his sword and attacked his associate. The latter, taken
by surprise, saw no other way to avoid instant death but by
precipitating himself from the battlements. His flowing robes caught
on a projection and saved his life. The incensed rivals separated with
threats of mutual defiance; war was at once declared between them;
and the diminished forces of Ghalib were strengthened by a
considerable number of horsemen furnished by the King of Leon.
The operations of the campaign were at first indecisive, but Ghalib,
having exposed himself recklessly in an engagement, was killed; his
followers were seized with a panic, and the victory remained with his
fortunate adversary.
Ibn-abi-Amir was now the sole master of the Khalifate of the West.
By sheer force of character, by dauntless resolution, by tireless
energy, he had realized his most cherished aspirations. Without
friends or the important aid of family connections, he had obtained
and had already long exercised a preponderating influence in the
state. His adroitness and liberality had organized a numerous faction
and a formidable army, both of which served his personal interests
with unswerving loyalty. The nominal sovereign of the country was
virtually his servant. The entire machinery of government, with its
treasures, the appointments of its officers, the distribution of its
rewards, the infliction of its punishments, the supervision of its civil
policy, the conduct of its campaigns, was in his hands. Such was the
exalted position attained by the former unknown and impecunious
student of the University, who had managed to obtain an uncertain
livelihood by writing petitions for applicants for royal favor, many of
whom were now his official subordinates. Through the changes of
many eventful years, amidst the perils, the trials, the excitements,
the triumphs, that attended his ascent to greatness, he had never
forgotten the scene in the garden, where, encouraged by the hilarity
of his companions, he had expressed what they considered
chimerical ideas of future power and distinction. Soon after the death
of Ghalib had left him free to indulge his arbitrary inclinations, he
caused his four collegiate acquaintances, who had participated in the
festivities of that now memorable occasion, to be brought before him.
Three received from the hands of the minister himself the
commissions conferring those employments which they had in
merriment solicited; the fourth, after having been sternly
reprimanded for the unprovoked insult he had inflicted in return for a
proffered honor, was deprived of all his possessions, and led forth by
slaves to perform the public and degrading penance which he
himself had voluntarily prescribed.
The restraints imposed upon Hischem were now increased in
severity. Formerly he had, at rare intervals, been permitted to show
himself to his subjects, but the jealousy of Ibn-abi-Amir could no
longer tolerate this indulgence, and the Khalif was henceforth
condemned to absolute seclusion in the palace of Medina-al-Zahrâ.
Even when he performed his devotions in public he was heavily
veiled, and remained in the royal gallery until the last of the
worshippers had left the mosque. He was not even permitted to
enter the walls of his own capital, embellished with the wealth, and
rendered illustrious by the renown, of a dynasty of great sovereigns
who had been his kinsmen, whose name and titles he had inherited,
but whose power he was destined never to enjoy. His name was
mentioned in the khotba, or prayer, offered on Fridays in the
mosques; it appeared on the coins side by side with that of the hajib,
and was embroidered on the skirt of his robes; but these were the
only surviving evidences of the existence and the authority of the last
of the Ommeyades.
In the new and radical policy which Ibn-abi-Amir had inaugurated
with respect to the army, he was far from being actuated by purely
selfish motives. He understood thoroughly the inconstant and
restless nature of the population which he ruled. Experience had
repeatedly shown the perilous conditions arising from a protracted
peace. The Koran enjoined perpetual war against the infidel. Such a
crusade was popular with all classes,—with the theologians, whose
religious animosities it gratified; with the merchants, whose trade it
increased and whose coffers it replenished; with the nobility, to
whom it opened an avenue to military distinction; with the soldiery,
who were attracted by the prospect of unlimited plunder. Every year,
from the date of his association with Ghalib in the administration,
Ibn-abi-Amir had proclaimed the Djihad, and had himself taken part
in two expeditions against the Christians. To this policy, whose
expediency was indisputable, he publicly declared his intention to
adhere. The people heard the announcement with exultation. The
faquis applauded the piety of the hajib with a fervor which they
scarcely vouchsafed to the deeds of the saints who filled the Moslem
calendar. The constant employment of a large number of troops in
hostile operations was a substantial guaranty against revolution.
With this potent safeguard, the dangers of sedition were no longer to
be apprehended. The passions and the energy of the nation were to
be expended in a war beyond the borders of the monarchy. But still
another consideration influenced the mind of the great statesman.
He was zealously solicitous for the honor, profoundly ambitious for
the glory, of his country. He desired to extend her frontiers; to
recover the territory that had been conquered from or basely yielded
by her sovereigns, as well as to chastise her blaspheming enemies.
Of the greater number of the fifty-two campaigns directed by Ibn-
abi-Amir, the chroniclers of the time have left us no record. Many of
them, doubtless, were mere marauding expeditions; but all were
uniformly and signally successful. Not the slightest reverse dimmed
the lustre of a single triumph. With each year the limits of the
Christian kingdoms became more and more contracted, until they
barely reached the southern slopes of the mountains. Beyond,
stretching away to the Moslem border, was a scene of desolation,
where once waving crops and verdant pastures met the eye. The
presence of an occasional pile of blackened ruins was the only
indication that the country had ever been inhabited. So complete
was this devastation that the plains of Leon and Castile have not yet
recovered from its effects. The forests then cut down have never
been replanted. The curse of sterility, and the freezing winds that
sweep over this cheerless region, seem to discourage the hope that
it will ever regain its former productiveness. The incessant march of
the Moorish armies for a quarter of a century obliterated every sign
of animal and vegetable life.
The ire of Ibn-abi-Amir was aroused by the reflection that the King
of Leon, despite the admonitions he had received, had dared to
assist his rival Moshafi, and, bent on revenge, he made preparations
for the most important expedition which had under his command
ever invaded the Christian territory. The strong city of Zamora,
defended by seven mighty walls and seven moats, was taken by
storm. Four thousand of the enemy were butchered, and as many
more led into captivity. A thousand settlements, surrounded by
evidences of the thrift of an industrious peasantry, were given to the
flames. A considerable number of monasteries and convents were
destroyed, and their inmates delivered to the Berbers to be insulted
and tortured with every device of ruthless barbarity. Realizing their
common danger, the Kings of Leon and Navarre formed a defensive
alliance with the Count of Castile, and ventured to resist the progress
of the Moslems. The hostile armies met at Rueda, not far from
Simancas. A great battle took place; the Christians were completely
routed, and victors and vanquished entered Simancas together. No
quarter was shown by the infuriated Saracens. Every Christian who
fell into their power was put to the sword. Winter was at hand, but
Ibn-abi-Amir, who understood the necessity of following up a victory,
without heeding cold or tempest, moved on Leon. The city, reduced
to extremity, was about to yield, when the intolerable hardships of
the season, which was one of unusual severity, compelled a retreat.
After the capture of Simancas, the enthusiastic soldiery conferred
upon their commander the appelation of Al-Mansur, The Victorious.
This name, by which the hajib was afterwards universally
designated, was, in imitation of the custom of the khalifs, accepted
by him as a title of honor. With its adoption he arrogated to himself
many other tokens of distinction hitherto considered the exclusive
privileges of royalty. His titles were woven in golden letters on the
hem of his garments. His name was associated with that of Hischem
in the khotba. Of all who approached him the most servile obeisance
was exacted. New and oppressive regulations were added to the
already complicated ceremonial of the court. The marks and
requirements of homage extended to every member of the hajib’s
family, even to infants in the cradle. None of the monarchs who
inherited the sceptre of Moorish Spain had ever enforced rules of
this kind with equal severity, or had environed their persons with
such a net-work of formal and frivolous etiquette. While the neglect
of these ceremonies was followed by exemplary punishment, the
least disparagement of the motives or the conduct of the minister
was a mortal offence. Giafar, Prince of Zab, who commanded the
first troop of Berbers enlisted in the service of Al-Mansur, actuated
by envy, permitted himself to publicly criticise the policy of the hajib.
The latter smiled but said nothing when the offensive language of the
Mauritanian chieftain, whom he had loaded with favors, was reported
to him. A magnificent banquet was soon afterwards given at Zahira,
where Giafar was distinguished by the favor and courtesy of Al-
Mansur above all who were present. The precepts of the law were
ignored in these festivities; the richest wines flowed in profusion; and
Giafar, while he was being conducted to his residence in a state of
helpless intoxication, was waylaid and pierced with the daggers of
assassins employed for that purpose by the minister.
The kingdoms of Christian Spain, none of which, in the tenth
century, could aspire to the importance of a modern principality, and
which were always at variance with each other, habitually
disregarded the vital principle of unity that alone could insure their
preservation. A rivalry which, under the circumstances, was suicidal
flourished even in the presence of the Saracen armies. The mutual
hatred engendered by provincial prejudice was incredibly intense
and bitter. The pride of nationality, the spirit of patriotism, were
unknown. Each state labored to defeat the undertakings of the
others, no matter how meritorious was their object. The seal of the
Church was branded upon all laws and political institutions. The
predominating ecclesiastical element still enacted statutes, elected
kings, levied taxes, commanded armies. Leon was seriously
weakened by intestine quarrels. The nobles were constantly aspiring
to the throne, and raising up a succession of incompetent
pretenders. The powerful appanage of Castile had been permanently
alienated from the crown, and enjoyed a nominal independence
without the resources to maintain its lofty pretensions. Many of the
bravest warriors of the North had been tempted by promises of high
pay and abundant booty to renounce their allegiance, and were now
serving under the standard of the khalifate. With the successes of
the Moslems, and the diminution of their own territory, the mutual
distrust of the Christian princes increased, and their isolation from
each other became more and more complete. Their domestic feuds
and irreconcilable antipathies induced them, in turn, to solicit the aid
of their natural enemies, a measure which led to the imposition of
tribute and the acknowledgment of vassalage. The city of Cordova
was filled with Christian exiles, who continually importuned the
government to embrace the cause of their several factions against
their kindred and their countrymen. Some of the most serious and
fatal revolutions which disturbed the peace of the northern states
were traceable to this source, and to the intrigues of proscribed
adventurers whose designs it was manifestly the interest of the
Moslems to promote. The difficulties which beset the youth and
inexperience of Ramiro III., King of Leon, caused him to appeal to
the court of Cordova for support against the usurper Bermudo, who
had deprived him of his capital and his crown. In return for the
desired assistance, the dethroned King announced his willingness to
become the feudatory of the Khalif. Before the treaty was concluded,
however, Ramiro died. The partisans of the latter were numerous
and powerful; the color of right as well as superiority of title would
invest any candidate whom they might select; and Bermudo
determined to anticipate their designs, follow the unworthy example
of his deceased rival, and, by the sacrifice of his personal honor and
the independence of his country, retain a portion of the authority he
had illegally acquired. The humiliating concessions demanded by Al-
Mansur were acquiesced in without hesitation by the cowardly
usurper; homage was rendered to the hajib as suzerain; and,
menaced by the presence of a Moslem army, the kingdom of Leon,
every foot of which had been won from the infidels at an immense
sacrifice of life and valor, for the third time since its conquest by the
Asturians descended to the position of a tributary principality.
Having reduced the kingdoms of the North to such a condition of
helplessness that he had nothing to fear from their hostility, Al-
Mansur now directed his attention towards a country which had long
enjoyed immunity from Moslem invasion. The County of Catalonia,
while a nominal appanage of France, was ruled by its chief
magistrate with all the attributes of despotic sovereignty. The
weakness or the apprehensions of former khalifs had deterred them
from provoking a contest which might bring upon them, in addition to
their domestic foes, the united forces of the French monarchy. These
fears, however, were ill founded. The provinces of that kingdom, like
those of Christian Spain, were a prey to internal discord. The society
of France was in a state of transition. A bitter contest was raging
between feudal pretensions and royal prerogative. The crown had no
resources to squander in the defence of a distant and unprofitable
dependency, and the haughty nobles would have resisted an attempt
to levy troops for a campaign of doubtful issue beyond the Pyrenees.
All these facts were known to Al-Mansur, whose spies infested every
court in Europe. His resolution formed, the minister caused the Holy
War to be proclaimed against the Catalans. It was the twenty-third
expedition of his reign. Elated by the hope of fresh victories,
volunteers responded by thousands. A great army was mustered,
which was met on the frontier by the Catalan troops commanded by
Count Borel in person. An engagement took place, but the
Christians, long unaccustomed to war, could not stand before the
veterans of the khalifate. They were defeated with serious loss, and,
five days afterwards, Barcelona was stormed and delivered over to
pillage. Of the inhabitants few escaped death or captivity excepting
the Jews, those constant sympathizers with the Moslems, who, early
recognizing the advantageous situation of Barcelona, had settled
there in large numbers, had accumulated vast fortunes, had risen to
unrivalled eminence in the knowledge and practice of medicine, and
had founded commercial establishments whose interests were
protected and whose influence was acknowledged in every country
of the globe. The Count preserved the remainder of his dominions
from a similar fate by the payment of an immense ransom. This
dearly-purchased immunity proved the salvation of Eastern Spain,
which, unable to withstand the attacks of the Moslems, and entirely
without hope of foreign aid, must otherwise have been eventually
added to the realm of Islam.
Turning his piercing glance towards every point of the compass
where a victory could be gained or an enemy humiliated, Al-Mansur
now determined to interfere once more in the affairs of Africa. In that
country the partisans of the House of Ommeyah, after many
vicissitudes, had once more regained the ascendency. But scarcely
was this result accomplished, when Ibn-Kenun, the last prince of the
Edrisite dynasty, who, at his own request, had been sent to Tunis by
Al-Hakem, on condition that he would never again set foot on his
ancient domain, appeared to assert his claims as hereditary
sovereign of Mauritania. For ten years he had been the guest of the
Fatimite Khalif of Egypt, whose real or pretended descent from a
common ancestor afforded a specious pretext for granting the exile
protection. Overcome by his importunities, the Sultan had at length
consented to assist his troublesome kinsman to regain his throne.
Negotiations were entered into with the Berbers. The Egyptian
monarch furnished a considerable sum of money and a detachment
of soldiers, and Ibn-Kenun was received by his former subjects with
every manifestation of loyalty. The Ommeyade cause speedily
declined; its partisans were put to flight in repeated skirmishes; their
strongholds fell into the hands of the enemy, and the dreadful
prospect of African invasion once more confronted the inhabitants of
the Peninsula.
It was the intelligence of these disasters, received at Barcelona,
which, far more than the great ransom offered by Count Borel,
determined Al-Mansur to relinquish the conquest of Catalonia. A
division of the victorious army, commanded by Askaledja, cousin of
the hajib, disembarked at Ceuta before Ibn-Kenun knew that Al-
Mansur intended to oppose him. The Edrisite prince was beaten, and
surrendered under condition of a safe-conduct to Cordova, with
permission to make that city his future residence. But in the signing
of this convention the self-esteem of the Saracen general had
permitted him to exceed his authority. The dangerous character of
Ibn-Kenun, as well as considerations of public safety, demanded the
adoption of a less indulgent policy towards such an inveterate foe of
the khalifate. The agreement of Askaledja was repudiated by Al-
Mansur, and Ibn-Kenun, having been brought a prisoner to
Algeziras, was beheaded without ceremony. This flagrant disregard
of a solemn treaty, a deed which not only impugned the honor of the
hajib’s lieutenant but was branded as a horrible sacrilege, caused
great dissatisfaction throughout Andalusia. The victim was one of the
descendants of Ali, regarded by a numerous sect as the incarnation
of divinity, and revered by a majority of believers throughout the
Moslem world. The indignation of the populace found vent in
murmurs and menaces. Askaledja, infuriated beyond measure, went
so far as to denounce his superior to the troops under his command.
The maintenance of order and the requirements of discipline could
not tolerate such an exhibition of insubordination; and the imprudent
officer was promptly arrested for treason, found guilty, and executed.
This act of justice, although approved by the Divan, only aggravated
the popular resentment. The minister once more realized that the
empire he had secured by intrigue must be constantly sustained by
arms. It was necessary to divert the attention of the people from the
severe measures indispensable to domestic tranquillity to
meritorious schemes of foreign conquest. An opportune pretext for a
rupture with the King of Leon had recently presented itself. The
Moorish force, entertained by Bermudo under pretence of
maintaining his authority, but really to overawe the usurper and
enforce the payment of tribute, had signalized its residence among
the infidels by the perpetration of every kind of outrage. It was in vain
that Bermudo remonstrated; his complaints were received by the
government at Cordova with silent contempt. Then, adopting the only
cause possible under the circumstances, he appealed to the
patriotism of his subjects, assembled an army, and drove out the
obnoxious intruders. The pride of Al-Mansur could not afford to brook
such an insult. A strong body of Moslems attacked Coimbra, whose
remote situation and distance from the usual field of operations had
hitherto insured its safety. It was taken; its buildings were burned and
demolished; and for seven years afterwards the site of this once
flourishing city remained desolate and uninhabited. From Coimbra,
crossing the Douro, the hajib directed his course straight to the
enemy’s capital. Formerly, protected by its massive fortifications and
aided by a winter of unusual severity, the garrison had been able to
defy his efforts to take it by storm. Leon was the strongest and most
important fortress of the North. Its defences dated from the era of the
Roman domination. Its walls, built by the architects of the Cæsars,
measured more than twenty feet in thickness. Lofty towers, protected
by barbicans, rose at frequent intervals of their extensive circuit,
which enclosed houses massed together and constructed principally
of stone. The gates were bronze and of prodigious weight. They
were hung in portals faced with marble and decorated with carvings
and statues. The citadel was considered absolutely impregnable.
The garrison was numerous, experienced in military operations, and
provided with every requisite for a protracted defence.
But the city once invested, the impetuosity and resolution of the
Moslems disappointed the hopes of the besieged, who expected that
the reverse attending the former attack would be repeated. The
reputation of Al-Mansur was staked upon the issue. Able officers,
skilled in the use of military engines which had descended from
Rome and Byzantium, directed the approaches and superintended
the mining of the walls. The resistance was most obstinate, but, a
breach having finally been made, the veterans of Al-Mansur rushed
to the assault. The governor of the city, Count Gonzalez, whom
severe illness had rendered incapable of action, advised of the
progress of the enemy, ordered his attendants to arm him and carry
him to the front. The exhortations and the sight of its emaciated
commander animated the garrison to conspicuous but unavailing
deeds of valor. The front ranks of the Christians were broken, and
the Moslems poured into the breach. The governor, helpless and
bleeding, was killed in his litter at the head of his troops, as became
a gallant and intrepid soldier. Exasperated by the stubborn
resistance they had experienced, the Moslems gave no quarter. The
city, after having been plundered, was razed. The enormous strength
of its defences, the tenacity of the Roman masonry, constructed to
defy alike the slow action of the elements and the destructive efforts
of man, availed nothing against the systematic havoc of the
implacable Al-Mansur. A solitary tower was left standing as a
specimen of the dimensions of those fortifications which had been
levelled with the ground. A vast heap of stones and rubbish marked
the site of the Christian capital, where a populous town had existed
from the time of Augustus, when the camp of the Legio Septima
constituted an important frontier outpost of the Roman empire.
The Saracen army in its march to Leon had flanked Zamora,
where Bermudo had taken refuge. Al-Mansur, on his return,
prepared to besiege that city, and Bermudo took advantage of the
prevailing confusion to escape with the remnant of his followers to
Oviedo. Zamora surrendered, and was forthwith delivered up to the
caprices of the licentious soldiery. Deserted by their monarch, the
Leonese nobles hastened to make peace with the conqueror. Most
of them did homage to him for their estates. The remainder, who
declined to sacrifice the prejudices of a lifetime and disobey the
admonitions of the Church for the enjoyment of a temporary
advantage, were rewarded for their loyalty with oppression and
insult. The territory which remained under the control of Bermudo at
the end of this campaign was less in extent than that formerly
possessed by one of his inferior vassals.
The absence of Al-Mansur had been improved by the malcontents
who infested the capital in the formation of a plot which
contemplated the assassination of all of the principal officials of the
government, as well as the Khalif, and the partition of the states of
the monarchy. Abd-al-Rahman-Ibn-Motarrif, governor of the northern
frontier, was the originator of the conspiracy. Abdallah, the oldest son
of the minister, several princes of the blood holding important
commands, and a number of civil and military functionaries whose
positions of trust rendered their complicity the more formidable, were
implicated in it. The spies of Al-Mansur detected this treasonable
enterprise before it was fully matured. The latter, pursuing the course
he ordinarily adopted to disarm suspicion, at first treated the
conspirators with conspicuous marks of favor, and then secretly
invited complaints against them for other offences. Nothing was
insinuated of the existence of a plot or of prosecutions for treason.

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Development 3rd Canadian Edition

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(eBook PDF) Literacy Development in the Early Years:

1 The Science of Child 2.1 MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY 49

FOCUS ON RESEARCH 4.3 THE DEVELOPING NERVOUS

3.4 THE NEWBORN 109

4 Growth and Health 120 5.2 COMPLEX PERCEPTUAL AND

7.2 PROBLEM SOLVING 243

7 Cognitive Processes and CULTURAL INFLUENCES

10 Emotional Development 350

CULTURAL INFLUENCES 10.3 ATTACHMENT 367

FOCUS ON RESEARCH CHILDREN’S LIVES

L ike many professors-turned-textbook-authors, Robert

Chapter 7 now has information on electronic media (TV, MEDIA SUPPLEMENTS

These labels are not perfect. Sometimes they blur

Robert V. Kail is a Distinguished Professor of

Anne M. C. Barnﬁeld is an Associate Professor of

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Setting the Stage Foundational Themes in Doing

1.1 Setting the Stage

Historical Views of Children and Childhood

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