HPGD 1103

TAKE HOME EXAMINATION

HPGD 1103

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

NO. MATRIKULASI :

NO. KAD PENGENALAN :

PART A

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Q1 (a)

The first curriculum was published in 1918 by Franklin Bobbit, who said that the term
originated from the Latin currere, meaning "to run," in his book. In most cases, course and
degree programs outline in their curricula the specific information, abilities, and dispositions
that students should gain by participating in such programs. To ensure the course is delivered
effectively, they should outline the primary methods of instruction, learning, and evaluation,
as well as the learning materials that will be needed. Based on this, it may be inferred that a
curriculum serves as a framework for facilitating learning. Numerous writers, each reflecting
their respective ideologies and beliefs, have sought to summarize the essence of curricula
during the last few decades. This has led to a plethora of different approaches to curriculum
development. The "Process Model" and the "Objective Model" are two competing
frameworks for designing educational programs.

One such benefit is that the learners are not treated as objects or basic materials to be
manipulated in this model. They actively participate in the development of their own learning
experience. Interaction is emphasized; results are no longer the defining characteristic.
Instead of predetermined behavioral objectives and methods, this model of curriculum theory
and practice posits that content and means are collaboratively developed by students and
instructors. This may cause a transition in focus from instruction to learning. The
implementation of a pre-established plan or program within the product model serves to
guide and direct attention. A process approach to curriculum theory and practice emphasizes
the teacher's primary responsibility being the learning process. It organizes practices and
activities in accordance with what is known about the students. This rationale supports the
designation of this methodology as "child-centered" (Kelly, 1999). This is due to the fact that
this mode of thought places significant emphasis on interpretation and comprehension, as
every classroom and exchange is unique and requires interpretation. Grundy was published in
1987.

Additionally, this method encourages critical thought. It does not consist of a syllabus or a
collection of materials that is transferred from instructor to student. For instance, the
Deliberative model (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004) provides students with the autonomy to
select the content and structure of their learning. The model posits a collaborative procedure
in which educators communicate their thoughts to the students and collaboratively devise an

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educational trajectory, with the plan being continuously revised in response to student
feedback.

Similar to any other curriculum development model, the process model is not without its
limitations. Stenhouse (1975) highlights the challenges associated with evaluating student
work. As opposed to being a grading or labeling model, the process model is critical. As a
result, it is not entirely subjective, and instructor evaluations of performance may differ. One
potential solution is to implement an examination; nevertheless, this approach may result in a
decline in quality as the examination's standards take precedence over the standards inherent
in the process approach. Although students may still be assessed, examinations should be
conducted at a level and tempo that is appropriate for them and their individual objectives.

Additionally, there is the matter of educators. The process model's reliance on the caliber of
instructors is both its greatest flaw and, in fact, its greatest asset (Stenhouse, 1975). The
efficacy of the approach is contingent upon the classroom's cultivation of wisdom and the
construction of meaning. If the educator fails to meet this standard, there will be significant
constraints on educational progress. While teacher development and training could potentially
mitigate this issue, the current demands placed on contemporary educators cause the problem.

Both approaches to curriculum have their own strengths and disadvantages. However, the
crucial factor in choosing an approach for curriculum creation is to evaluate the specific
requirements of today's society. The positive link between schools and society necessitates
that schools cultivate individuals who are well-adapted to daily life in society. The increasing
prevalence of global education, which mandates universal standards for student knowledge,
underscores the need of well defined goals and objectives.

Q1 (b).

Curriculum and Instruction:

Curriculum refers to the overall content, learning experiences, and educational programs
designed to meet specific learning objectives and outcomes. It encompasses what students are
expected to learn, the goals of education, the scope and sequence of instruction, as well as the
methods and materials used to facilitate learning. Curriculum development involves planning,
implementing, and evaluating the instructional design and delivery of educational programs
to ensure that students acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, and competencies.

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Instruction on the other hand, refers to the strategies, techniques, and activities teachers use to
facilitate learning and engage students in the curriculum. Instruction focuses on how teachers
deliver content, provide guidance, give feedback, and assess student progress. Effective
instruction involves a variety of pedagogical approaches, teaching methods, and assessment
practices tailored to meet the diverse needs of learners and promote meaningful learning
experiences.

Relationship between curriculum and Instruction:

The relationship between curriculum and instruction is essential for ensuring high-quality
teaching and learning outcomes.

Alignment: Curriculum and instruction should be aligned to ensure that what is taught
(curriculum) matches how it is taught (instruction). Thies alignment helps create a coherent
and purposeful learning experience for students.

Integration: Effective instruction integrates the key concepts, skill, and objectives outlined in
the curriculum. Teachers need to use instructional strategies that align with the goals and
content of the curriculum to support student learning.

Adaptation: Teachers adapt their instructional practices based on the needs, interests, and
learning styles of their students while remaining faithful to the curriculum goals and
standards. This flexibility allows for personalized learning experiences that cater to individual
student needs.

Assessment: Assessment is an integral part of both curriculum and instruction. Assessments

are used to measure student progress, evaluate the effectiveness of instructional strategies,
and determine, and determine whether curriculum goals are being met.

Continuous Improvement: The dynamic interplay between curriculum and instruction drives
continuous improvement in educational practices. Teachers reflect on their instructional
approaches, curriculum implementation, and student outcomes to make informed decisions
and enhance teaching and learning processes.

In summary, curriculum provides the framework and content for teaching and learning, while
instruction involves the methods and strategies used to deliver that content and engage
students in meaningful learning experiences. The effective integration and alignment of

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curriculum and instruction help create a cohesive and student-centered educational

environment that promotes learning, growth, and development.

Q2.

Reconstructionism is a philosophical doctrine that places great emphasis on the creation of an

improved society and the establishment of global democracy. Reconstructionist educators
prioritise a curriculum that emphasises education's goal of social improvement. Means to
educate individuals in order to facilitate the establishment of this new societal structure.

Reconstructionists prioritise a curriculum that centres on the student's own experience and
encourages them to actively address real-world issues, such as violence, famine, international
terrorism, inflation, and injustice. These practices are referred to as community-based
learning and incorporating global perspectives into the classroom.

Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi, also known as Alpharabius, was a highly accomplished
Muslim scholar and intellectual who made significant contributions to science and
philosophy in Persia and the Islamic world during the late 9th and early 10th century. In
addition to being a cosmologist, he had expertise in logic, music, psychology, and sociology.

Al-Farabi, also known as Al-Farabi, was born in Wasij, a town located in the province of
Farab in Turkestan, in the year 872 AD (259 AH). He was born into a noble family. He passed
away at the age of 80. The user's father, who was of Persian descent, had the position of an
army commander in the Turkish court. (Sherzai Dilawar, 2013).

Al-Farabi pursued an education in language, logic, philosophy, music, mathematics, and

sciences in Baghdad. In addition, he excelled as a translator and interpreter of Greek
philosophy by Abu Bishr Matta b. Yunus. He received education from Yuhanna b. Haylan,
namely in the field of Nestorianism, while in Harran. Consequently, he is associated with the
Alexandrian school of thought. Through years of study, he acquired a profound understanding
of philosophy, earning him the title of the 'Second Teacher' in relation to Aristotle, who is
known as the 'First Teacher'. His profound disillusionment with the prospects of transforming
his culture led him to embrace Sufism.

Al-Farabi had a profound longing to comprehend the cosmos and the nature of humanity. He
practiced the precise old philosophy of Plato and Imam Al-Ghazali with great care. The
concept of Platonic and neo-Platonic solids was incorporated into the Arabic-Islamic culture
during its earlier stages. He believed that communal and national unity could be attained via

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the convergence of thinking, knowledge, and religion, respectively. The fundamental

principles of unity and the development of an unbiased governing body. The Quran is solely
derived from its original source and scientific principles.

Al-Farabi, a Muslim philosopher, was the founder of Islamic Philosophy. Al-Farabi was
proficient in philosophy and embraced Islamic teachings, accepting them through the use of
reason and argument.Within the realm of education, al-Farabi's philosophical system places
great significance on the human soul. It emphasises the need to prepare individuals from a
young age to become active members of society, attain personal excellence, and ultimately
fulfil their purpose in life.

In al-Farabi's perspective, education encompasses the process of a person acquiring values,

knowledge, and practical skills within a certain timeframe and cultural context. The objective
of education is to guide individuals towards achieving perfection, since humans were
designed for this reason. Furthermore, the ultimate aim of humanity's presence in this planet
is to obtain bliss, which represents the greatest level of perfection and the ultimate good.

Al-Farabi posits that the ideal human being, known as al-insan al-kamil, is someone who has
achieved theoretical virtue, therefore attaining complete intellectual understanding, and has
also gained practical moral virtues, thereby attaining perfection in their moral conduct. The
ideal that he anticipates from education is a harmonious fusion of knowledge and virtuous
conduct, including both pleasure and moral excellence simultaneously.

PART B

Q1 (a).

Behaviourist pedagogy, or behaviourism, looks at the observable actions of students and

assesses whether they are learning as effectively as possible. The central belief of a
behaviourist is that students learn through reinforcement - constant feedback that tells them
whether what they are doing is right or wrong. This comes in the form of test scores,
homework marks and more.

However, behaviourism has its critics. Some say that the approach disregards student identity
and individuality, whilst other pedagogical theorists claim it studies actions of the body rather
than that of the brain, and is therefore inept at assessing real learning. Despite this, schools

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still employ behaviourist techniques in the classroom on a regular basis. Whilst it might not
be effective in its purest form, elements of behaviourism are still crucial to the modern
curriculum and the teaching of our students.

The five principles that you need to consider if you are interested in applying a behavioristic
approach to curriculum development are:

- Learning is a behavior: According to behaviorism, learning is a behavior that can be

observed, measured, and manipulated.
- Learning occurs through reinforcement: Behaviorists believe that learning occurs
through reinforcement, which is the process of increasing the likelihood that a
behavior will be repeated in the future.
- Learning is shaped by the environment: The environment in which learning occurs
can shape the behaviors that are learned.
- Learning is learned through trial and error: Behaviorists believe that learning occurs
through trial and error, which involves making errors and learning from those errors.
- Punishment : Involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a
particular response (i.e., students who fight are immediately sent to the principal).

Q1 (b).

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

- Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years

- Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7
- Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11
- Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up

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Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little
scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids
interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

Birth to 2 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

- Know the world through movements and sensations

- Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
- Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
- Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them
- Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

2 to 7 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

- Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects
- Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others
- Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete
terms

7 to 11 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

- Begin to think logically about concrete events

- Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short,
wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
- Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete

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- Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general

principle

Age 12 and Up

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:

- Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems

- Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
- Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

Q3 (a).

The Tyler Model, developed by Ralph Tyler in the 1940’s, is the quintessential prototype of
curriculum development in the scientific approach. One could almost dare to say that every
certified teacher in America and maybe beyond has developed curriculum either directly or
indirectly using this model or one of the many variations.

Tyler did not intend for his contribution to curriculum to be a lockstep model for
development. Originally, he wrote down his ideas in a book Basic Principles of Curriculum
and Instruction for his students to give them an idea about principles for to making
curriculum.

Step one is determining the objectives of the school or class. In other words, what do the
students need to do in order to be successful? Each subject has natural objectives that are
indicators of mastery. All objectives need to be consistent with the philosophy of the school
and this is often neglected in curriculum development. For example, a school that is
developing an English curriculum may create an objective that students will write essays.
This would be one of many objectives within the curriculum.

Step two is developing learning experiences that help the students to achieve step one. For
example, if students need to meet the objective of writing an essay. The learning experience

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might be a demonstration by the teacher of writing an essay. The students than might practice
writing essays. The experience (essay demonstration and writing) is consistent with the
objective (Student will write an essay).

Step three is organizing the experiences. Should the teacher demonstrate first or should the
students learn by writing immediately? Either way could work and preference is determined
by the philosophy of the teacher and the needs of the students. The point is that the teacher
needs to determine a logical order of experiences for the students.

Lastly, step four is evaluation of the objectives. Now the teacher assesses the students’ ability
to write an essay. There are many ways to do this. For example, the teacher could have the
students write an essay without assistance. If they can do this, it is evidence that the students
have achieved the objective of the lesson.

Q3 (b).

Here are five reasons from Taba's perspective why teachers should be the main decision
makers in curriculum development:

- Expertise and Experience: Teachers are the ones who work directly with students on a daily
basis. They have a deep understanding of their students' needs, abilities, and interests. This
firsthand experience allows them to make informed decisions about what content, methods,
and resources will be most effective in engaging and benefiting their students.

- Personalization and Differentiation: Teachers are best positioned to tailor the curriculum to
meet the diverse learning styles and needs of their students. They can adapt and modify the
curriculum to ensure that all students have opportunities to succeed and reach their full
potential.

- Flexibility and Adaptability: Teachers are able to respond quickly to changes in student
performance, interests, or external circumstances. They can make on-the-spot adjustments to
the curriculum to better meet the evolving needs of their students, ensuring that learning
remains relevant and engaging.

- Ownership and Buy-In: When teachers are actively involved in the curriculum development
process, they feel a sense of ownership and investment in the curriculum. This leads to

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greater buy-in and commitment, as teachers are more likely to implement the curriculum
effectively and enthusiastically.

- Continuous Improvement: Teachers are in a unique position to assess the effectiveness of

the curriculum through ongoing feedback and evaluation. By involving teachers in decision-
making processes, schools can promote a culture of continuous improvement, where
curriculum is regularly reviewed and refined based on feedback and outcomes.

By empowering teachers to take the lead in curriculum development, schools can ensure that
curriculum is responsive, effective, and meaningful for all students.

Q4 (a).

In the context of education, curriculum development and curriculum design are closely
related but distinct process

1. Curriculum Development

Definition: Curriculum development refers to the process of creating, reviewing, and

revising the overall structure and content of a curriculum. It involves determining the
goals and objectives of the curriculum, selecting appropriate content and learning
experiences, and defining how assessments will be used to measure student learning.

Focus: The focus of curriculum development is on the broader aspects of curriculum

planning, such as establishing educational goals, designing assessment strategies, and
ensuring alignment with educational standards and outcomes.

Scope: Curriculum development typically encompasses the entire curriculum

framework, including the scope and sequence of content, learning outcomes,
instructional strategies, and assessment methods.

2. Curriculum Design:

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Definition: Curriculum design, on the hand, refers to the specific process of

structuring and organizing the elements of a curriculum in a coherent and effective
manner. It involves making detailed decisions about how content will be presented,
what teaching and learning activities will be used, and how assessment tasks will
align with learning objectives.

Focus: The focus of curriculum design is on the detailed organization and

implementation of the curriculum components, such as selecting textbooks,
developing lesson plans, integrating technology, and creating learning materials.

Scope: Curriculum design deals with the practical and operational aspects of
curriculum development, translating the broader goals and objectives into specific
instructional plan, activities, and resources.

In essence, curriculum development sets the overall direction and goals of the
curriculum, while curriculum design involves the concrete implementation and
organization of the curriculum to ensure effective teaching and learning. Both
processes are essential for creating a coherent and purposeful curriculum that meets
the needs of students and aligns with educational standards.

Q4 (b).

Subject-CenteredDesign:

Subject-centered design is a curriculum approach that organizes learning experiences around

specific subject areas or disciplines. In this design, the focus is primarily on the content
knowledge and skills associated with individual subjects such as mathematics, science,
language arts, social studies, etc. Subject-centered designs typically involve organizing the
curriculum based on the key concepts, principles, and topics within each subject area, with a
strong emphasis on mastery of subject-specific content.

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Reasons for Popularity:

Subject-centered design is considered one of the most popular approaches to curriculum

design for several reasons.

1. Clarity and Focus: It provides a clear structure and organization for the curriculum,
making it easier for educators to identify learning objectives, content standards, and
assessment criteria.
2. Specialization: It allows for in-depth exploration and mastery of specific subject
areas, catering to the needs of students who may have a particular interest or aptitude
in certain subjects.
3. Traditional Emphasis: Subject-centered designs have been traditionally used in
many educational systems, making them familiar and widely accepted among
educators and stakeholders.
4. Measurable Outcomes: Subject-centered designs often lend themselves well to
assessing student achievement and progress within specific subject areas, as learning
objectives are clearly defined and aligned with subject-specific standards.

Criticism of Subject-Centered Design:

Despite its popularity, subject-centered design has faced criticism for some
limitations:
1. Lack of Interdisciplinary Connections: Subject-centered designs may lead to
compartmentalized learning, where students struggle to see the connections
between different subjects or apply their knowledge across disciplines.
2. Rote Memorization: Emphasis on subject-specific content may prioritize
memorization of facts and information over critical thinking, problem-solving,
and application of knowledge in real-world contexts.
3. Narrow Focus: Overreliance on subject-centered design may limit opportunities
for holistic and integrated learning experiences that address the needs of the whole
child and promote a well-rounded education.
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4. Inflexibility: Subject-centered designs can be rigid and inflexible, potentially

hindering innovation, creativity, and personalized learning experiences for
students with diverse learning styles and interests.

In light of these criticisms, many educators advocate for a more balanced and
integrated approach to curriculum design that combines subject-specific content
with interdisciplinary connections, 21st-century skills development, and student-
centered pedagogies to create a comprehensive and engaging learning experience
for all learners.

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