Overview

Overview of
of grinding
grinding
 Grinding
Grinding machines
machines

• There are many different kinds of grinding

machines for:
– Precision grinding
– Rough grinding
 Types
Types of
of precision
precision grinding
grinding
• General purpose • Special purpose
– Cylindrical – Crankshaft
– Centreless – Roll
– Internal – Race or track
– Surface – Camshaft
– Tool/cutter – Ball
– Form – Thread
– Disc – Gear
– Honing – Spline
 Types
Types of
of rough
rough grinding
grinding
• Bench/pedestal • Portable (wheels)
• Swingframe • Portable (DCD)
• Steel conditioning • Portable (cut-off)
• Saw gumming • Portable (mtd.pts)
• Cut-off
• Tile polishing
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding

• The theory of grinding attempts to explain the

process of cutting at the chip level and derive
useful relationships between the size of the
chip and the cutting parameters.
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding
• A grinding wheel is a cutting tool consisting of
millions of tiny abrasive grains which can cut
virtually any material. Since the grains are
small, they become dull and must be released
periodically, so that fresh grains are exposed.
• The abrasive grains are held by the bond and
released gradually by a process of breakdown
of the grains and bond.
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding

There are several mechanisms of wear:

• Dulling of the grains
• Fracturing of the grains
• Fracture of the bond posts and release of
grains
• Charring of the bond and release of grains
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding
• All these mechanisms of wheel wear play a role in
keeping the wheel sharp and free cutting.
However, the “grade” of the wheel must be
selected properly to enable the wheel to function
efficiently.
• In precision grinding, unlike rough grinding, it
becomes necessary to dress the wheel periodically
as the inherent wear processes are inadequate.
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding

The reasons for dressing the wheel are:

• To remove dull grains and expose the
underlying sharp grains.
• To remove metal chips embedded on the
wheel surface.
• To restore the form of the grinding wheel.
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding
• A grinding wheel acts like a multipoint cutting
tool (e.g. a milling cutter)
• Each abrasive grain acts like an individual tooth in
a milling cutter and removes a tiny chip
• The chips have a wedge shape - thin at one end
and thicker at the other end. This is because the
grain depth of cut is initially zero and increases
gradually to a maximum
Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding

Wheel
Job
Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding
Wheel
T Job


 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding
Wheel D = Wheel diameter
T Job
d = Job diameter
N = Wheel rpm
n = Job rpm
 T = Depth of cut
 = Grain depth of cut
z = Grains/unit length
2 dn
   1 1  T
Z DN d D
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding
• Why are we interested in the grain depth of
cut - the “” value?
– It is a measure of the depth of the scratch on the
job surface and is linked to surface finish.
– It is a measure of the cutting force on the grain
and is linked to wheel wear.
• In fact, it is crucial to an understanding of
the process.
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding

• Larger values of  correspond to:

– Poorer surface finish
– Greater wheel wear
– Higher cutting forces
• Smaller values of  correspond to:
– Better surface finish
– Lesser wheel wear
– Lower cutting forces
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding
The equation:
2 dn
   1 1  T
Z DN d D

can also take the form

v
   1 1  T
2
Z V d D
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding

Keeping other parameters constant:

– Higher wheel speeds
– Lower job speeds
– Lower depth of cut
– Finer grit size
• Enable better finish
• Reduce cutting force
• Reduce wheel wear
• Cause harder action (glazing)
 Mechanics
Mechanics of
of grinding
grinding
+ve rake
The grains in a wheel
tool have a large negative
rake angle. This results in
higher radial force com-
pared to the tangential
-ve rake force. The rake angle
grain increases when the grain
dulls
Cutting
Cutting forces
forces in
in grinding
grinding
Py

• The ratio of Py:Pz

is about 2 for a
Pz
freshly dressed
Py wheel and increases
as the wheel
Pz becomes dull

Time
 Cutting
Cutting forces
forces in
in grinding
grinding
• Cutting forces are very important in grinding
as they cause deflections of the system and
influence dimensional and geometrical
accuracy.
• This is why some modern precision machines
work on the “controlled-force” principle to
achieve better accuracy.
 Heat
Heat in
in grinding
grinding

• The grinding process is characterized by high heat

generation. This is obvious from the shower of sparks
during grinding.
• Instantaneous surface temperature at the cutting zone often
exceeds the melting point of the material in rough
grinding.
• The high temperature leads to problems of surface
integrity (burns, cracks) which adversely affect job quality.
 Heat
Heat in
in grinding
grinding

Reasons for high grinding temperatures:

• Over 80% of the grains merely rub and do
not cut. Hence, intense frictional heat.
• Grain geometry is unfavorable - high
negative rake angles.
• Poor cooling conditions in the cutting zone
 Power required for grinding
• The power required for grinding is given by
the equation:

N PzV
102
where:
N is in kW
Pz is in kgf
V is in m/sec
 Power required for grinding
• The equation indicates that power
requirements increase when the tangential
cutting force and/or wheel speed become
higher.
• Thus, modern high speed machines require
more power.
• This combination of high speed and high
power is termed as “abrasive machining”.
 Automation

• Machine tool automation requires:

– In-process gauging
– Automatic grinding cycles
 Automation
• In-process gauging is the term used for
devices which measure the job size during
grinding.
• There are numerous types of mechanical,
pneumatic and electronic gauging devices
which can, not only measure the job size, but
also control the automatic cycle and stop
grinding when the desired size is reached.
 Automation
The main principles of automatic grinding cycles
are:
– Reducing idle time by using rapid advance and
sensing the moment of contact with the job.
– Removing the bulk of the allowance at high feeds.
– Removing the residual allowance at low feeds to
ensure proper quality.
– Retracting the wheel when the size is reached.
 Automation
Automatic grinding cycle
1
Feed
1. Rapid advance
2 2. Roughing feed
3. Finishing feed
MRR
3
4. Spark-out
4
Time
How
How To
To Select
Select A
A
Grinding
Grinding Wheel
Wheel
 Material To Be Ground
Alo - For Ferrous Materials
Sic - For Non-Ferrous Materials
Select type of Alo based on hardness and type.
• Finer grit for hard brittle materials.
• Coarser grit for soft and ductile materials.
• Softer grade for hard materials.
• Harder grade for soft materials.

ABRASIVE GRIT GRADE STR BOND

X X X
 Stock Removal and Finish
Use coarser grit for heavy stock material and
not critical finishes.

• Use finer grit for better finishes.

ABRASIVE GRIT GRADE STR BOND

X
 Wet or Dry ?
• Select abrasive and grade to suit the mode of
operation.
• Select softer grade and cooler cutting abrasives
for dry grinding.

ABRASIVE GRIT GRADE STR BOND

X
 Speed
• Grade adjustment essential based on the speed.
• Go softer for higher speed application.

ABRASIVE GRIT GRADE STR BOND

X
 Wheel Speeds

Types of Operation Common Operation

Speed in meters/second
• Cylindrical Grinding 25 - 45
• Surface Grinding 20 - 35
• Tool Grinding 25 - 35
• Thread Grinding 33 - 60
• Centreless Grinding 33 - 45
 Area of Contact
• Use coarser grit opener structure and softer
bond for large area of contact operation.
• Use finer grit and harder grades for intricate
shapes and forms.

ABRASIVE GRIT GRADE STR BOND

X X X
 Severity of Operation
• Use tougher abrasives like A, NZ for severe
grinding operations.
• Use 38A, 86A for precision grinding
application.
• Harder grades can be choosen for severe
grinding application.

ABRASIVE GRIT GRADE STR BOND

X X
 Loading
• Ground metal chips getting lodged in the pores of the wheel.
• Tends to reduce the clearance in the wheel, resulting in excessive
rubbing and high heat generation. This tends to reduce the
grinding efficiency.

Glazing
• The dulling of the cutting particles of a grinding wheel resulting in a
decreased rate of cutting.

Dressing
• This is done to restore the sharp cutting edge of the grinding face.
 Dressing
• Select correct size of diamond.
• Use large amount of coolant.
• Hold diamond dresser rigidly.
• Hold diamond in correct position
– 5 to 15° inclined in the direction of wheel
– 10 to 15° inclined to the wheel face
• Typical dressing depth 0.025 mm.
• Fast traverse - produces open wheel
• Slow traverse - produces closed wheel.
Functions of A Cutting Fluid
• Reduce heat from cutting zone.
• Lubrication.
• Wash away the chips from cutting zone.
• “Clean” the cutting tool face.
• “Soften” the material.
• Temporary corrosion resistance.
 Types of Cutting Fluids
• Chemical true solutions (Synthetic fluids)
• Surface active chemical fluids
• Emulsions (Water Soluble oil)
• Semi-Chemical fluids (Semi Synthetic)
• Cutting oils, Neat oils, Straight oils.
 COOLANT REQUIREMENTS
LARGE AREA Vs. SMALL AREA

Grinding Wheel

Small De
Large De
Large Area of Contact
Cooling and Lubrication
More Critical
Poor Coolant Application Better Coolant Application
Into Grinding Good Coolant
Zone Application
But Cooling Very
Important

Large Area Smaller Area Extreme Thin Section

COOLANT REQUIREMENTS

THIN Vs. THICK COMPONENT

Grinding Wheel

Thin Cross Section

Thick Cross Section Cooling More Critical
Cooling Lubricity Important
Solid Component Thin Wall Component