UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY, ESSIKADO

SCHOOL OF RAILWAY AND INFRASTRUCTURE

DEVELOPMENT

SURVEY MEASUREMENT

(GM 170)

LECTURER: MR FELIX TABASE

ESSIKADO, 2021
COURSE OUTLINE (SYLLABUS) 2020/2021 Academic
Year

The Course Outline is as follows:

• INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY MEASUREMENTS

• UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES OF TAKING HORIZONTAL MEASUREMNTS

• TAKING VERTICAL MEASUREMENTS

• TAKING ANGULAR MEASUUREMENTS

• MEASUREMENT OF TOTAL COORDINATES

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

Contents Page

TABLE OF CONTENT ii

CHAPTER 1 1

OVERVIEW OF SURVEY MEASUREMENTS 1

1.1 Distance Measurements 1

1.1.1 Units of Linear Measurement 1

The Yard 2

The Meter 4

Taping 5

1.2 Other Methods of Distance Measurements 7

1.2.1 Pacing 7

1.2.2 Odometer 8

1.2.3 Subtense Bar 8

1.2.4Stadia or Tacheometry 10

1.3 Devices and Accuracy 12

CHAPTER 2 13

ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS 13

2.1 Classification of EDM Instruments 13

2.2 Principles of Operation 14

2.3 Electro-Optical Instruments 17

2.3.1 Microwave Instruments 17

2.3.2 Total Station Instruments 18

2.3.3 Errors in Electrical Distance Measurement 18

CHAPTER 3 19

VERTICAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS 19

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 3.1 Importance of Vertical Distance Measurements 19

3.2 Levelling Equipment 20

3.2.1 The Levelling Staff 20

3.2.2 Level Instruments 22

3.2.3 Levelling Procedure 24

3.3 Precise Levelling 25

3.3.1 Precise Levelling Equipment 26

The Parallel Plat Micrometer 26

The levelling staff 27

Tilting level type 30

3.4 Reciprocal Levelling 31

CHAPTER 4 34

ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS 34

4.1 Errors, Corrections, and Precautions 34

4.1.1 Instrumental Factors 35

4.1.2 Personal Factors 36

4.2 Theodolites 38

4.2.1 Components 39

4.2.2 Theodolite Set Up 40

CHAPTER 5 45

TOTAL COORDINATES MEASUREMENTS 45

5.1 Total Station 45

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 COURSE PLAN 2020/2021 Academic
Year

Calendar

Week Activity

Course Plan and Overview

Introduction to Survey Measurements

Horizontal Distance Measurements

Horizontal Distance Measurements Cont.

Quiz 1, Vertical Distance Measurements

Vertical Distance Measurements Cont.

Continuous Assessment

8 Angular Measurements

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9 Angular Measurements cont.

10

Quiz 2, Angular Measurements cont.

11 Total Coordinates Measurements

12

Quiz3, Total Coordinates Measurements Cont.

13 Revision Week,

14

END OF SEMESTER EXAMS

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COURSE ASSESSMENT 2020/2021
Academic Year

ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS

The student’s assessment will be in two forms: Continuous Assessment (40%) and End of
Semester Examination (60%). The Continuous Assessment shall include Quizzes, Class
Attendance, and Lab. Work. The results of the CWA will be made known to students at least
one week before the start of the Semester Examinations. The End of Semester shall be
marked over 60.

ASSESSEMENT OF THE LECTURER

At the end of the course each student will be required to evaluate the course and the
lecturer’s performance by answering a questionnaire specially prepared to obtain the views
and opinions of the students about the course and the lecturer. This will help improve quality
of delivery and also improve the performance of students.

vi
 CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF SURVEY MEASUREMENTS

With advent of modern technological, equipment for survey measurements, survey

measurements have become easier compared to the past, however, the ability to observe and
measure angles, distances and elevations using fairly basic equipment and methods will
always be required. Everyone involved in survey measurements must be able to use a steel
tape for measuring distances or use a conventional theodolite for measuring angles and
should be able to determine heights by leveling.

1.1 Distance Measurements

This section introduces you to distance measurements. During this study you should be
aware that distances are defined as slope, horizontal and vertical (see Figure 1). Two
methods can be used to measure distances, direct and indirect. The section deals with direct
measurements by taping, and electronic method by Electronic Distance Measurement
(EDM) and Total Stations.

1.1.1 Units of Linear Measurement

Several methods are used to measure distances. They range from rather inaccurate estimates
to very precise instrumental procedures. Most early measurement units were derived from
physical dimensions associated with parts of the human body. For example, the cubit, digit,
palm, hand, span, foot, yard, pace, and fathom can be traced to human anatomy. Many
others, such as the rod, pole, perch, chain, furlong, mile, and league are extensions of these
basic units (See table 1).

Table 1 Units of Length.

Unit Inches Feet Yards Rods Chains Meters
(in.) (ft) (yd) (rd) (ch) (m)
1 inch 1 0.08333 0.02778 0.00505 0.00126 0.02540
1 foot 12 1 0.3333 0.0606 0.01515 0.3048
1 yard 36 3 1 0.1818 0.04545 0.9144
1 rod 198 16.5 5.5 1 0.25 5.0292
1 chain 792 66 22 4 1 20.1158
1 mile 63 360 5280 1760 320 80 1609.35
1 meter 39.37 3.281 1.094 0.199 0.04971 1

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Many old units have been discarded in favor of the basic ones, yard and meter. Much of the
world has now converted to the meter-decimal system (SI units) as illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2 Metric Units of Length.

Units Micro- Millimete Centimete Decimete Mete Kilomet

meters rs rs rs rs ers

(μm) (mm) (cm) (dm) (m) (km)

1 1 0.001 0.0001
micromete
r

1 1 000 1 0.1 0.01 0.001

millimeter

1centimete 10 000 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.00001

r

1 100 000 100 10 1 0.1 0.0001

decimeter

1 meter 1 000 000 1 000 100 10 1 0.001

1 100 000 10 000 1 000 1

kilometer

The Yard
The yard dates back to A.D. 960 when it was defined as an official standard yard by King
Edgar as the length of a hexagonal brass rod kept at Winchester. During the reign of Ricahrd
I (1189-1199), the yard was used in the measurement of land for tax purposes, it was even
said that his officers had iron yard bars to help them in their tax collecting although at that
time there were no subdivisions of yard.

In 1216 Richard I tried to standardize the width of cloth but this could not materialized until
the time of Edward I (1272-1307), when the first table of relations appeared (see Table 3).

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 Table 3 Relations of units of measure.

Unit of Measure Equivalent

3 grains of barley (dry and round) 1 inch

12 inches 1 foot

3 feet 1 Ulna

5.5 1 rod

(40 x 4) rods 1 acre

The Ulna in this table was a material primary standard made of iron in 1305 and which
formed the basis of several subsequent standards. Even after this, however, there were still
two “feet” coexisting in England for a long time. These were the British foot of
approximately 12 inches and the Belgic foot of 13.2 inches. The latter became known as the
“hard and handful” to distinguish it, but was made illegal by Henry IV (1439).

In 1490 a new yard standard in the form of a roughly subdivided octagonal bar was
introduced by Henry VII. By 1588, however, a new half-inch-square brass rod standard
yard, based on the bronze yard of Henry VII, which in turn was based on the Ulna of 1305,
was approved by Queen Elizabeth I (1588-1603). This remained as the standard until 1824.
Various sources gave various lengths for these old standards, but publication in 1798 gave
the following relations:

• 36 inches of Henry VII standard yard of 1490 = 35.924 inches of Troughton scale
1796.
• 36 inches of Elizabeth I standard yard of 1588 = 36.015 inches of the Troughton
scale 1796.

During the same year a brass standard based on the Elizabethan standard of 1588 was made
for the Royal Society and had a value in terms of the Troughton scale of 35.99955 inches.
A further standard, based on that of Elizabeth, was made in the form of a bronze bar 1 inch

3
square by 39 inches long, with two gold plugs bearing fine marks. Legalized in 1824, it was
quoted as 36.00023 inches of the Troughton scale.

In 1946 the Empire Scientific Conference proposed a redefinition of the yard as exactly
0.9144 m. This agrees quite closely with the ratio found at the N.P.L. in 1947 of 1 meter to
be 3.2808488 feet or 1 yard to be 0.9143975 meter. Further study revealed that the Imperial
Yard could only be compared to 0.00002 inch whereas the meter permitted comparison to
0.000004 inch. As a result, the adoption of metric units of measure was recommended.

The Meter
Within the period of six years i.e., 1792 to 1798, Mechain and Delabre surveyed the 9º 39'
of arc Dunkirk to Barcelona, and as result the new standard meter measure was calculated
in terms of the toise used by them. Even so, in the meantime there had been further
uncertainty over whether to use the length of a second pendulum, a fraction of a parallel at
the Equator or a fraction of the Meridian, but they did eventually agree for the latter.

As the survey progressed, based on La Cailles’s value of 1º of the meridian at 45º of 57027
toises, it was recommended that the meter be 443.443 Paris lignes, and a brass of this length
was produced by Borda and Brisson. However, when the arc was finally completed in 1798
the Commission gave the relation as follows:

1 meter = 443.295 936 Paris lignes at 0º C, and a new scale was ordered from Lenuar, i.e.

1 meter = 513 0740 x 864 x 10-7 = 443.295 396 Paris lignes or

1 French foot = 144 lignes = 0.324 839 meters.

In 1865 Clarke came out with much comparison of the standards, the most notable results
were as shown in table 4 below.

Table 4 Comparison of the Standards of Measure

Equivalent Yards Millimeter

The Yard 1.000 00000 914.391 80 mm

Y55 at 62ºF 0.999 99960 914.391 43

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 Ordnance Bar O1 at 62ºF 3.333 33717 3047.976 16

Ordnance Bar OI1 at 62ºF 3.3333 35432 3047.991 84

Ordnance Toise at 61.25ºF 2.131 66458 1949.176 60

Ordnance meter at 61.25ºF 1.093 74800 1000.114 20

Royal Society meter at 32ºF 1.093 60478 999.983 24

The toise 2.131 51116 1949.036 32

The meter 1.093 62311 1000.000 00

Since Ordnance toise To = Toise of Peru T + 153.42 x 10-6

And T = 2.131 51201 Y55

And the meter by definition is 443.296 lignes of the Toise of Peru, then:

Meter = 1.093 62355 Y55

The value of the meter derived from the Royal Society Platinum meter was

Meter = 1.093 62446 Y55.

In 1960, Cadmium (Cd) 114 was used to define the meter, and then the laser was discovered.
In 1973, the speed of light was connected to the meter, this was 100 times better than the
previous measurements, bringing about the current definition of the meter as the length of
the path traveled in vacuum within a time interval of 1/299 792 458.

Taping
Throughout recorded history, people have always had some method of measuring distances.
Measuring techniques are direct, such as applying a graduated tape against the marks to be
measured, or indirect, such as measuring related parameters, for example, the time required
for light waves to be reflected to a source as in EDM work, and then computing the required
(horizontal) distance.

Survey tapes are available in various lengths up to 100 m, but 30 m is the most common
length. They are either encased in steel or plastic boxes with recessed winding lever. Closed

5
case tapes prevent an excess of dirt getting onto the blade and are cleaned by wiping with a
cloth or glove as the tape is rewound after use in muddy or gritty conditions. Open frames
make cleaning easier by simply rinsing the tape in a bucket of water or by hosing, but the
tape must be allowed to dry after cleaning.

At the end of most tapes are designs for good grips. Most of them incorporate a small loop
or grip at the end of it. Usually, the claw end loop is fitted as standard to most tapes in the
UK. Because the position of the zero mark varies, it is essential to check where this is before
using any tape. When the tape is manufactured, its printed graduations are protected by
covering them with coats of polyester or nylon which give a tape its characteristic colour,
yellow or white. All steel tapes are manufactured so that they measure their nominal length
at a specific temperature and under a certain pull. These standard conditions (20 ºC, 50 N)
are normally printed at the first meter of the tape. The effects of the variations from the
standard conditions are corrected for. With care, it is possible to take measurements with a
steel tape with an accuracy of better than 1 in 10,000 (a precision of 3 mm for a 30 m
measured distance.

Figure 1.1 Tapes

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 Figure 1.2 The ends of tapes

1.2 Other Methods of Distance Measurements

Other methods of distance measurements apart from tapping include Pacing, Odometer,
Subtense Bar, Stadia or Tacheometer and EDM. The EDM will be treated fully in Chapter
two.

1.2.1 Pacing
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces in a required distance. The length
of a pace varies with different persons.

Pace Factor = Distance / Average number of steps

See example in Figure 3.

Figure 1.3 Distance Measurements by Pacing

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1.2.2 Odometer
This is normally termed distance measurement by mechanical means. This method can often
be used to advantage on preliminary surveys where precise distances are not necessary. That
is for low precision surveys or for quick measurements. Odometer or measuring wheel
converts the number of revolutions of a wheel of known circumference to a distance.
Example is as shown in Figure 1.4

Figure 1.4 Distance Measurement by Odometer

1.2.3 Subtense Bar

Subtense bar targets are held at 2 meters (see Figure 1.5a and 1.5b) apart by invar wires
under slight tension.

Figure 1.5 (a) A Subtense Bar

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 Figure 1.5 (b) Subtense Bar centered and levelled

The subtense bar is normally mounted on a tripod and is centered and levelled of point B
(see Figure 6). This is then aligned toward a theodolite set up over point A. The theodolite
is used to align the subtense bar exactly perpendicular to the line AB by noting the sighting
device on the subtense bar. Note that the sighting mark can only be clearly seen when the
bar is perpendicular to the line of sight. The accuracy of this method is comparable to steel
tape over a short distance.

Figure 1.6 The Method of Subtense Bar

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1.2.4Stadia or Tacheometry
Stadia is a form of tacheometry that utilizes a telescopic cross-hair (see Figure 7a and 7b)
configuration to assist in determining distances. A series of leveling staff readings are taken with a
theodolite and the resulting intervals used to determine distances. This is purely based on the optical
geometry of the instruments employed and is indirect method of distance measurements.

The factors involved include:

• Refinement with which the instrument was manufactured

• Skill of the observer

• Length of measurement

• Effects of refraction

Figure 1.7a Stadia and Cross Hairs in Tacheometry

Figure 1.7b Stadia and Staff Readings

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In this method the distance to be measured is given by the formula given below (see Figure
8):

D = Ks + C

where,

D = Horizontal Distance

K = Stadia interval factor of the instrument

S = difference between the upper and lower stadia hair readings

C = Stadia constant

Figure 1.8 Tacheometry readings

Figure 1.9 Horizontal Sight

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1.3 Devices and Accuracy
The accuracies of some of the devices used in measuring distances are listed below.

Older Technologies

• Pacing: 1:50

• Optical Rangefinders: 1:50

• Odometers: 1:200

• Tacheometry/Stadia: 1:500

• Subtense Bar: 1:3 000

• Tapes: 1:10 000

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 CHAPTER 2

ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

Electronic distance measurement instruments (EDMIs) were first introduced in the late
1950s as Geodimeter, and has since then undergone several changes and continual
refinements. The early EDMs were known for high precision and long-range
capabilities, they were also known for bulk and relatively cumbersome operating
procedures. Surveyors who have back-packed heavy EDMs long distances into the bush
appreciate the compact size of modern day EDMs. Short- range (3 km) EDMs have
found wide acceptance with engineering and legal surveyors who seldom require longer-
range capabilities. These infrared, laser and microwave instruments, when used in
conjunction with theodolites, can provide horizontal and vertical position of one point
relative to another. That is, the slope distance provided by the EDM can be reduced to
its horizontal equivalent when the slope angle can be determined with the theodolite.
Modern EDMs have built-in micro-processors which can be utilized to provide slope
distance reduction to horizontal.

2.1 Classification of EDM Instruments

The EDM instruments utilize either microwaves (i.e. Radio Waves) or light waves
(including laser and infrared). The microwave systems require a transmitter receiver at both
ends of the measured line, whereas, light-wave systems use a transmitter at one end and a
reflector at the other end. Microwave systems are often used in hydrographic surveying and
have a usual upper limit of 60 km in measuring range. Although microwave systems can be
used in poorer weather conditions (fog, rain, etc.) than light wave systems, the uncertainties
caused by varying humidity conditions over the line result in lower accuracy expectations.

Long-range land measurements can be taken with laser instruments that have a distance
capability of up to 60 km at night time and a somewhat reduced capability during
daylight hours. The power source can be low powered, as with the helium neon laser;
although low-powered lasers present little or no danger to the operator or to the public,
care should be taken to ensure that the laser beam does not directly strike the eye. Most
short-range (0 to 3000 m) instruments now in use are infrared instruments. These
instruments are lightweight and relatively inexpensive. There are however, several

13
short-rang laser EDMs that are price competitive. Laser instruments have one advantage
over infrared in that the beam is visible: the visibility of the beam can be helpful in some
difficult sighting situations.

One system for classifying EDMs is by wavelength of transmitted electromagnetic energy.

The following categories exist:

i. Electro-optical Instruments: which transmit either modulated laser or infra-red

light having wavelengths within or slightly beyond the visible region of the
spectrum.
ii. Microwave Equipment: transmits frequencies in the range of 3 to 35 GHz
corresponding to wavelengths of about 1.0 to 8.6 mm:

Another classification system for EDMs is by operational range. It is rather subjective but
in general there are two divisions fit into this system: SHORT and MEDIUM range. The
short-range group includes those devices whose maximum measuring capabilities do not
exceed about 5 km. Most equipment in this division is the electro-optical type and use
infra-red light. These instruments are small, portable easy to operate, suitable for a wide
range of field surveying work and used by many practitioners.

Instruments in the medium range group have measuring capabilities extending to about 100
km and are either electro-optical (using laser light) or microwave type. Although frequently
used in precise geodetic work, they are also suitable for land and engineering surveys.
Longer-range devices also available can measure lines longer than 100 km but are generally
not used in ordinary survey work. Most operate by transmitting long radio waves but some
employ microwaves. They are used primarily in oceanic and hydrographic surveying and
navigation.

2.2 Principles of Operation

In general, EDM equipment measure distances by comparing a line, of unknown length, to
a known wavelength of modulated electromagnetic energy. This is similar to relating a
needed distance to the calibrated distance of a steel tape. Electromagnetic energy propagates
through the atmosphere in accordance with following equation:

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 λ = υ/ʄ (1)
where,
λ = wavelength in meters
υ = velocity of km/s
ʄ = frequency in hertz (one cycle per second)
1.
1. The velocity of electromagnetic energy in a vacuum is 299,792.5 km/sec. If
speed is slowed somewhat in the atmosphere according to the equation

υ = cɳ (2)

where,
c = the velocity in a vacuum;
ɳ = the atmospheric index of refraction which varies but is approximately equal to
1003.
2. The hertz (Hz) is a unit of frequency equal to cycle/sec.

With EDMs, frequency can be precisely controlled but velocity varies with atmospheric
temperature, pressure and humidity. Thus, wavelength and frequency must vary in
conformity
with the equation (1). For accurate electronic distance measurement, the atmosphere must
be sampled and corrections variations in atmospheric conditions applied.
The generalized procedure of measuring distance is depicted in the Figure 3. An EDM
device centered by means of a plumb bob or optical plummet over station A transmits a
carrier signal of electromagnetic energy upon which a reference frequency has been
superimposed or modulated. The signal is returned from station S to the receiver so its
travel path is double the slope distance AS. In the Figure, the modulated electromagnetic
energy is represented by a series of sine waves having wavelength. Any position along a
given wave can be specified by its phase angle, which is OO at the midpoint and 3600 at
its end.
EDM devices used in surveying operate by measuring-phase shift. In this procedure the
return energy undergoes a complete 3600 phase change for even multiple of exactly one-
half the wavelength separating the lines endpoints. If therefore the distance is precisely
equal to a full multiple of the half-wavelength, the indicated phase change will be zero. In

15
the Figure, for e.g., stations A and S are exactly 8 half-wavelengths apart, hence the phase
change is zero. When a line is not exactly an even multiple of the half-wavelength (the
usual case), the fractional part is measured by the instrument as a non-zero phase angle or
phase change. If the precise length of a wave is known, the fractional part can be converted
to distance (principles)
EDMs directly resolve the fractional wavelength but do not count the cycles
undergone however, by transmitting additional signals of lower frequency and
longer wavelength. Figure 10 illustrates the theory.

Figure 2.1 Concept of Horizontal Distance Measurement by The EDM

The EDM operates by measuring phase shift/change to resolve horizontal distances.

When electromagnetic energy (EME) is transmitted from the instrument, the return energy
undergoes a phase change of 3600 for each multiple of half the wavelength separating the
endpoints of the line to be measured. If the distance is precisely equal to the full multiple
of the half wavelength, the phase change is zero.

• When a line is not exactly on an even multiple of the half-wavelength, the

fractional part is then measured by the instruments a non-zero phase
angle/change.
• This way, if the precise length of the wave is known, the fractional part can be
converted to the horizontal distance required.
Thus, the EDMI resolves the fractional wavelength but does not count the full
cycles undergone by the returned energy in traveling its double path.

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2.3 Electro-Optical Instruments

Electro-optical EDMs of today transmit either laser or infra-red light as their carrier
signals. Their range is restricted to a few kilometers by the power limitations of the gallium
arsenide (GaAs) diode which provides the infra-red light. But for much routine surveying,
this is adequate. Perhaps the greatest advantage of infra-red light as a carrier is that its
intensity can be directly modulated, thus considerably simplifying equipment using this
source of radiation. These instruments have become so small (some weigh less than 1 kg)
that they can be mounted directly on theodolites. This enables distance and angle
measurements to be made with a single setup.
Local atmospheric ground temperature and pressure are determined by an operator at the
time of the measurement and an environmental correction factor is taken from a chart. A
correction factor is dialed into the transmitter to slightly vary the frequency so a constant
wavelength is maintained, despite atmospheric variations, thereby eliminating the need to
mathematically adjust measured distances later. Humidity has a negligible effect on
propagation of infra-red light and hence it is not measured.

2.3.1 Microwave Instruments

The measurement signal used by the microwave device consists of frequency modulation
(FM) superimposed on the carrier wave. Like electro-optical instruments, microwave
equipment operates on the phase shift principle and uses varying frequencies to resolve
ambiguities in the unknown number of full wavelengths in a distance. The range of
microwave devices is comparatively long and they can operate in fog or light rain.
Measurements made in such adverse weather conditions are somewhat limited in range
however.
A complete microwave EDM system consists of 2 portable identical units. Each includes
all components necessary to make measurements: transmitter, receiver, antenna, circuitry
and built-in communications arrangement. Units are centered by plumb bobs or optical
plummets over the terminal points of the course, with 'one instrument functioning as the
'master' or remote by simply changing a switch position. Measurements with microwave
devices require an operator at each end of the line to take a set of readings while using the
instrument in its master mode. Since both instruments contain temperature-stabilized
wavelength calibration, this procedure gives two independent measurements of the distance
and a valuable check. The operators, who may not be in sight of each other, co-ordinate

17
their work procedure by communicating on the built-in radio-telephone.

The Micro fix 100C is a lightweight and compact microwave EDMI. It can be adapted to
fit standard theodolites and measure distances up to 60 km to an accuracy of ± (15 mm + 3
ppm). The measurement system is fully automatic and after pointing has been
established, takes only 5 sec. This device can only operate in a tracking mode.

2.3.2 Total Station Instruments

Total-station instruments (also called electronic tachometers) combine an EDMI,
electronic digital theodolite and computer in one unit. The electronic digital theodolite
automatically measures and displays horizontal and vertical angles. Total-station
instruments simultaneously measure distance, as well as direction, and transmit the result
automatically to the computer. The horizontal and vertical angles and the slope distance
can be displayed. The, upon keyboard commands, horizontal and vertical distance
components are instantaneously computed and displayed. If co-ordinates of the occupied
station and reference azimuth are input into the system, co-ordinates of the sight point are
immediately obtained. All this information can be stored on magnetic tape or in solid-state
memory devices, thereby eliminating the need to manually record data. These instruments
are of tremendous vale in all types of surveying.

2.3.3 Errors in Electrical Distance Measurement

Sources of error in EDM work may be personal, instrumental or natural.
Personal errors include misreading, improper setting over stations and incorrect measuring
of meteorological factors and instrument heights.
If EDM is carefully adjusted and precisely calibrated, instrumental errors should be
extremely small. For very long distances, the constant error negligible and the proportional
part becomes more important. EDM equipment should be checked against a 1st order base
line at regular time intervals to assure its accuracy and reliability. By comparing the baseline
length and distance obtained electronically, a measurement constant is ascertained. A
correction for thus systematic error can be applied to all subsequent measurements. The
constant thus determined combines the amount by which the 'electrical center' of the
instrument is offset forward or back of the plummet and, for electro-optical instrument, the
reflector constant (any offset of the 'optical center' of the reflector).

18
 CHAPTER 3

VERTICAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

In addition to the horizontal position of points and features as determined by the previously
described linear and angular measurement, the complete survey requires vertical
measurements. Such vertical measurements establish the elevation of points in relation to a
datum that extends through and beyond the project limits. In the coordinate survey, the
horizontal position is described by X and Y coordinates and the elevation described by the
letter Z (or H.) The complete description of a point being (X, Y, Z).

Vertical angular measurements are also required to reduce slope measured distances to
horizontal distances. Most EDM instruments used by the Department are equipped with
zenith sensing devices that provide the reduction internally. These instruments display the
operator’s choice of slope, horizontal or vertical distance.

Some older EDMs that are mounted on top of a theodolite measure the slope distance only.
The theodolite is then used to make the angular measurement and the horizontal distance
(X) is computed from the zenith angle (0) and slope distance (D). A correction for the earth's
curvature and atmosphere must be applied to determine the true horizontal distance and
difference in elevation (Y).

3.1 Importance of Vertical Distance Measurements

The determination of accurate elevations is an extremely important part of the information

required for the design of highway projects. Grade lines, drainage structures and other
highway features are designed in relation to existing and final elevations. Volumetric
quantities are determined by preliminary (before) and final (as constructed) cross sections.
Additionally, accurate elevations are very important in ensuring the reliability of
photogrammetric mapping and orthophoto products.

Due to its importance in all other phases of the project development, vertical measurements
to establish primary elevation control are made at an early stage of the survey. For example,
in traversing, vertical angle elevations are established for all traverse control monuments to
aid in the computation process. The control monuments become benchmarks. Subsequent
fixed end loops between the control monuments established, again by differential levelling,

19
are used to establish benchmarks for photogrammetric, preliminary, construction or other
control networks.

3.2 Levelling Equipment

There are three instruments in levelling tilting, automatic and digital levels. Working in the
field we need the following set of instruments to work effectively:

• Levelling Stafff
• Automatic levels
• Tilting levels
• Digital levels

3.2.1 The Levelling Staff

Levelling involves the measurement of vertical distance with reference to a horizontal plane
or surface. To do this, a leveling staff is needed to measure vertical distances and an
instrument known as a level is required to define the horizontal plane. A levelling staff is
the equivalent of a long ruler and it enables distances to be measured vertically from the
horizontal plane established by a level to points where heights are required. Many types of
staff are in current use and these can have lengths of up to 5 m. The staff is usually telescopic
but can be socketed in as many as five sections for ease of carrying and use and it is made
of aluminum or non-conductive figureless. The staff markings can take various forms but
the E-type staff face.

In the Figure 3.1, both a metric (left) and imperial (right) levelling staffs are seen. This is a
two-sided aluminum staff, coated white with markings in contrasting colours. The imperial
side has a bright yellow background.

20
 Figure 3.1 Levelling Staff

The metric staff has major numbered graduations in meters and tenths of meters (e.g., 18 is
1.8 m - there is a tiny decimal point between the numbers). Between the major marks are
either a pattern of squares and spaces in different colours or an E shape (or its mirror image)
with horizontal components and spaces between of equal size. In both parts of the pattern,
the squares, lines or spaces are precisely one centimeter high. When viewed through an
instrument's telescope, the observer can easily visually interpolate a 1 cm mark to a quarter
of its height; yielding a reading with accuracy of 2.5 mm; usually, readings are interpolated
to mm. On this side of the rod, the colours of the markings alternate between red and black
with each meter of length.

The imperial graduations are in feet (large red numbers), tenths of a foot (small black
numbers) and hundredths of a foot (unnumbered marks or spaces between the marks). The
tenths of a foot point is indicated by the top of the long mark with the upward sloped end.
The point halfway between tenths of a foot marks is indicated by the bottom of a medium
length black mark with a downward sloped end. Each mark or space is approximately 3 mm,
yielding roughly the same accuracy as the metric staff, see Figure 3.2.

21
 Figure 3.2 Staff Reading

Figure 3.3 Reading on the levelling staff

3.2.2 Level Instruments

Spirit levelling employs a spirit level, an instrument consisting of a telescope with a
crosshair and a tube level like that used by carpenters, rigidly connected. When the bubble
in the tube level is centered the telescope's line of sight is supposed to be horizontal (i.e.,

22
perpendicular to the local vertical). See Figure 3.4 (a) and (b).

Figure 3.4 (a) Dumpy Level

Figure 3.4 (b) Automatic Level Instrument

The spirit level is on a tripod with sight lines to the two points whose height difference is to
be determined. A graduated levelling staff or rod is held vertical on each point; the levelling
staff may be graduated in centimeters and fractions or tenths and hundredths of a foot. The
observer focuses in turn on each rod and reads the value. Subtracting the "back" and
"forward" value provides the height difference.

If the instrument is placed equidistant from the two points to be measured, any small errors

23
in its adjustment and the effects of earth curvature and refraction will tend to cancel out.

3.2.3 Levelling Procedure

A typical procedure is to set up the instrument within 100 metres (110 yards) of a point of
known or assumed elevation. A levelling staff is held vertical on that point and the
instrument is used manually or automatically to read the leveling staff scale. This gives the
height of the instrument above the starting (backsight) point and allows the height of the
instrument (H.I.) above the datum to be computed [see Figure 3.5 (a) and (b)].

Figure 3.5 (a) Principle of Levelling

Figure 3.5 (b) Principle of Levelling

24
The levelling staff is then held on an unknown point and a reading is taken in the same
manner, allowing the elevation of the new (foresight) point to be computed. The procedure
is repeated until the destination point is reached. It is usual practice to perform either a
complete loop back to the starting point or else close the traverse on a second point whose
elevation is already known. The closure check guards against blunders in the operation, and
allows residual error to be distributed in the most likely manner among the stations (Figure
3.6).

Figure 3.6 Levelling Measurements

Some instruments provide three crosshairs which allow stadia measurement of the foresight
and backsight distances. These also allow use of the average of the three readings (3-wire
leveling) as a check against blunders and for averaging out the error of interpolation between
marks on the rod scale.

There are two main types of leveling namely, single-levelling as already described, and
double-levelling (Double-rodding). In double-levelling, a surveyor takes two foresights and
two backsights and makes sure the difference between the foresights and the difference
between the backsights are equal, thereby reducing the amount of error. Double-levelling
costs twice as much as single-levelling.

3.3 Precise Levelling

Precise levels possess a high magnification, and measure to the highest accuracy. They are
used for geodetic leveling and precise engineering works. They can also be used to measure

25
small vertical displacements of structures, especially during monitoring; and in the checking
and alignment of machinery.

3.3.1 Precise Levelling Equipment

Most of the equipment used in current precise levelling works are Tilting and Automatic
precise levels. Most of the time in order to use the level instrument for precise levelling
works, a parallel plate micrometer is attached to the objective end of the telescope.

The Parallel Plat Micrometer

The parallel plate micrometer is an essential feature of these instruments, and may be either
an integral part of the device or an attachable unit. In this latter case the level itself could
well be referred to as a universal level, because it can be used at different accuracies. This
unit enables the enables the interval between the horizontal cross-hair and the nearest staff
division to be read directly to 0.1 mm rather than be estimated.
It is a parallel plate glass micrometer - an attachable unit - in front of the objective lens or
an integrated part of the device enabling readings to be made direct to 0.1 mm and estimated
to 0.001 mm. This is because for precise levelling, the estimation of 1 mm is not sufficiently
accurate. The parallel plate is an essential feature of the precise level. The device consists
essentially of a parallel glass plate fitted in from of the object lens and given a tilting motion
by the rotation of a micrometer head at the eye end of the telescope. Due to refraction a ray
of light parallel to the telescope axis is displaced upwards or downwards according to the
direction of tilt, and by an amount varying with the angle of tilt; when the plate is vertical
no displacement occurs. Figure 3.7 illustrates the theory.

26
 Figure 3.7 (a) The Parallel Plate Micrometer

Figure 3.7 (b) The Working Principle of Parallel Plate Micrometer

The levelling staff

The levelling staff has its own graduations precisely marked on invar strip which are
attached to wooden or aluminum frames. The strip is rigidly fixed to the base of the staff
and held in position by a spring-loaded tensioning device at the top. The difference in the
BS and FS reading for each side should be equal to within ±1 mm; thus, the least count on
the leveling staff is 0.01 or 0.001 m. For precise work the two staffs used must be carefully
matched in every detail. A circular bubble built into the staff is essential to ensure verticality
during observation. The staff used is being supported by means of steadying poles or
handles. Other precautions needed to achieve high performance are as follows:

i. The staff must have its circular bubbles tested-at frequent intervals using a plumb
bob.
ii. Warping of the staff if any is to be detected by stretching a fine wire from end to
end.
iii. Graduation and zero error to be counteracted by regular calibration and
iv. For the highest accuracy the temperature of the strip should be measured by a field
thermometer in order to apply scale correction. Figure 3.8 shows an example of a
staff in action.

27
 Figure 3.8 Levelling staff in action

Procedure
A precise level run was undertaken to constrain the network in the vertical component and
to subsequently determine orthometric and ellipsoidal heights for each station after the least
squares adjustment in Columbus. Observations were carried out as per specifications for
differential levelling in SP1 to achieve a class LA levelling run. Several “braces” were
observed in the network between SS23 and SS22, SS12 and SS18 (including each station in
between) and SS07 to SS21 so that more redundant observations were included in the least
squares adjustment. A list of the equipment used in the precise levelling run is below.
• Zeiss Ni1 Precise Level - Serial Number 81392
• 1 Tripod
• 2 Invar Staves – Serial Numbers 36446011, 36446012
• 2 Change Plates
• 2 Range Poles
• 50 m Measuring tape

The methodology adopted to carry out the precise levelling run is outlined in the following
few points. Before undertaking the precise level run, a two-peg test was undertaken to
determine the collimation error of the instrument. Following from here, staff A was set up
on SS00 and staff B on a change plate (less than 80m away from SS00 as the line of sight
must be no longer than 40m). The instrument was then set up half way between these two

28
points.

i. The observation procedure of BS: L, BS: R, FS: L and FS: R was then carried out.
ii. An observation error was then calculated by subtracting the foresight value on the
from the backsight value on the left and right scales of the staves. If this difference
was below 0.00020m than the level run was continued otherwise the set up was
observed again.
iii. This process was carried out until each point in the campus network had been
levelled.

Field Procedure (Automated

levels)
For this type of levelling of the highest accuracy, intermediate sights are avoided. The BS
and FS observation distances are made equal in length to about 0.100m and limited to 25m.
Very often these points are established in advanced of the actual fieldwork with the
instrument position clearly indicated. With the use of two double scale rods the sequence
of observation would be:

i. BS left-hand scale on staff A

ii. FS left-hand scale on staff B
iii. BS right-hand scale on staff B
iv. FS right-hand scale on staff A
Then 1 - 2 = L\H1
4 -3 = L\H2

If these differences agree within the tolerances specified (± 1 mm) the mean is accepted.
Staff A is then leap-frogged to the next position and the above procedure repeated starting
with staff A.
The levelling technique for levelling the circular bubble on automatic levels is applied as a
matter of course if the telescope is aimed at staff A each time, then centering the circular
bubble. The staff should never be sighted lower than 0.5m above the ground for reasons
due, to shimmering that bend light rays up on the ground. The instrument should be shielded
from the direct sun, hear to prevent differential expansion of its glass and metal points. The

29
levelling points will all be CPs and possibly TBMs, therefore must be constructed to assure
their complete stability through the duration of their use. Rounded supports should be fixed
on the TBMs for the staffs thereby providing excellent CPs.

Currently used is made of an electronic data logger as an adjunct to the procedure mentioned
above suitably programmed to compute the data as they are recorded, thus providing useful
checks at each instrument station. A well designed and rigorously observed levelling
network with interrelated and interdependent cross-checks to give extra degree of freedom,
would produce excellent results after a least squares estimation. Typical tolerance limit for
precise levelling vary from ±2 mm.JK to ±4 mm.JK where K is the distance levelled in
kilometers.

Tilting level type

The Wild N3 precision level is used. Its three-foot screw rest on a circular base plate which
is attached to the tripod and a circular bubble is available for initial setting up. After pointing
to the staff the tubular level is observed by viewing from the eye piece end and the two half-
images and brought into coincidence. Using the small graduated tilting screw. This is
mounted concentric with the (larger) micrometer knob which activates the parallel plate. A
clamp and tangent screw allow motion about the vertical axis of the instrument and the
vertical graticule line can be set on the center of the staff using these devices, after
approximate alignment by an optical sight on the other side.

The parallel plate forming the optical micrometer gives a maximum deflection of 10mm
(one graduation interval on the Wild invar staves). Its movement is registered by a scale
which can be observed in the same eye piece as the split bubble. The scale readings range
from 0 to 100 with 50 as the vertical position for the plate and estimated is possible to 0.01
mm. The graticule contains two short stadia lines apart from the vertical line, and the line
of sight is defined partly by a pair of wedge lines, which can be set symmetrically by rotating
the parallel plate. The Wild Staff contain two sets of graduations at 10mm intervals with the
high - numbered row acting as a check against errors of observation during geodetic
levelling because it is displaced with respect to the other. .

30
3.4 Reciprocal Levelling
In surveying practices, it always advisable to keep BS and FS distances roughly equal so
that instrumental and natural errors will cancel out. IN some situations, such as in river or
valley crossings, it is not always possible to balance BS and FS distances. In these situations,
the reciprocal leveling is applied. If taking levels across Wide River, for example, an
instrument would be set up near a staff held at A and sights taken on this staff and on another
staff held on the far bank B, as shown in Figure 18. Immediately afterwards, similar readings
would be made with a second instrument set up on the opposite bank, as in Figure 18.

Scenario Level (1)

Apparent difference in level between A and B = Ax1 –By1

The true difference in level will be the apparent difference in less the total correction for
curvature and refraction, say = a. Then, the true difference will be:

Ax1 – [By1 – a]

Ax1 – By1 + a equation (1)

Apparent difference at A + a

Where, Ax1 is staff readings at A position and By1 is staff readings at position B.

Scenario Level (2)

Apparent difference in level between A and B = Ax2 –By2

Where, Ax2 is staff readings at A position and By2 is staff readings at position B.

The true difference will also be:

Ax2 – [By2 – a]

Ax2 – By2 + a equation (2)

Apparent difference at B + a

Add equations (1) and (2)

31
Therefore, the true difference in level = ½[sum of apparent differences]

Example: In leveling across a river, reciprocal leveling observations gave the following
results for staffs vertically at X and Y from level stations A and B on each bank respectively:

Staff reading of X from A = 1.753 m

Staff reading of X from B = 2.080 m
Staff reading of Y from A = 2.550 m
Staff reading of Y from B = 2.895 m

If the RL of X is 90.370 m above datum, obtain that of Y.

Solution:

Instrument at A; Apparent difference = 2.550 – 1.753 = 0.797 m

Instrument at B; Apparent difference = 2.895 – 2.080 = 0.815 m

Therefore, the true difference = (0.797 + 0.815)/2 = 0.806 m

Therefore, the RL of Y = 90.370 – 0.806 = 89.564 m

EXAMPLES

(a) Under what condition does a surveyor apply the method of reciprocal levelling?
(b) State the procedure in carrying out reciprocal levelling.
(c) Reciprocal levelling across a river gives the following readings in meters from a set up
near A: on A, 2.558; on B, 1.883, 1.886, and 1.885. At the setup near B: on B, 1.555; on A,
2.228, 2.226, and 2.229. The elevation of A is 158.618 m. Determine the elevation of B.
(d) What error in meters will results if the curvature and refraction correction is neglected
in trigonometric leveling for sights of 500 m long?
ANS

a. Condition to apply reciprocal levelling

When obtaining the relative levels of two points on opposite sides of a wide gap such as a
river, it is impossible to keep the length of sights short and equal. Collimation error, Earth
curvature and refraction affect the longer sight much more than the shorter one. In order to
minimize these effects, the method of reciprocal levelling is used.

32
b. Procedure
A level is set up on one side of a river at say X, near A (where the staff is placed), and staff
readings are taken on points A and B (staff position on the other side of the river). Since XB
is very long, several readings are taken for averaging. Reading, turning the levelling screws
to throw the instrument out of level, relevelling, and reading again, does this. The process
is repeated two, three, four, or more times. Then the instrument is moved close to Y
(instrument position at the other side of the river) and the same procedure followed. That is,
if the two points between which the difference of level is required to be determined are A
and B then in reciprocal levelling, the first set of staff readings (a1 and b1) is taken by placing
the staff on A and B, and instrument close to A. The second set of readings (a2 and b2) is
taken again on A and B by placing the instrument close to B. The difference of level between
A and B is given by:

h =
( a1 − b1 ) + ( a2 − b2 )
2

c. Elevation of B
1.883 + 1.886 + 1.885
From A: Elev = 2.558 − = 0.6733
3
2.228 + 2.226 + 2.229
From B: Elev = − 1.555 = 0.6727
3
0.6733 + 0.6727
h = = 0.673
2
Elevation of point B = 158.618 + 0.673 = 159.291 m

d. Error

(c + r )m or h f = 0.0675 K (km)
2

2
 500 
(c + r ) m or h f = 0.0675  = 0.016875 m
1000 

33
 CHAPTER 4

ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

Points on the ground or on a map are related to each other through a horizontal distance and
a horizontal angle (or direction.) Horizontal angular measurements are made between survey
lines to determine the angle between the lines. A horizontal angle is the difference between
two measured directions. Horizontal angles are measured on a plane perpendicular to the
vertical axis (plumb line).

Vertical angular measurements are measured to determine slope of survey lines from the
horizontal plane (level line). When the vertical angle is applied to the slope distance, the
horizontal and vertical distances may be calculated. Vertical angles are measured on a plane
passing through the vertical axis perpendicular to the horizontal plane. In order to facilitate
the trigonometric calculations of horizontal and vertical distance, the reference or zero angle
is on the vertical axis directly above the instrument, which is termed the zenith angle.

In the United States, the sexagesimal system of angular measurement is used. In the
sexagesimal system, there are 360° in the circumference of a circle. The basic unit is the
degree (°), which is further divided into 60 minutes (60'), and the minute is subdivided into
60 seconds (60"), and decimals thereof.

4.1 Errors, Corrections, and Precautions

Direct measurement of angles and line direction by total station, theodolite, compass, or
transit is familiar to all surveyors. However, many surveyors are not completely familiar
with specific procedures that will achieve specified results. This section discusses errors
involved in angular measurements and outlines procedures that will enable the surveyor to
achieve specified results.

As mentioned earlier, errors in a measurement stem from various sources. Generally,

angular measurements can be impacted by four classes of errors. These four classes are:
instrumental, personal, natural, and miscellaneous errors. In the subsequent sections these
factors and how to minimize them are discussed in detail.

34
4.1.1 Instrumental Factors

• Adjustment: Adjustments should be made at regular intervals and particularly

before work on any control survey is started. Such adjustments should be made under
the most ideal conditions available, normally in the highway yard or shop.
Adjustment should be done in accordance with the user’s manual of the specific
instrument.
• Servicing: Instruments requiring major adjustments should be serviced at an
authorized repair shop as specified by the Survey Operations.
• Level Bubbles and Optical Plummet: Normal measuring procedures do not
compensate for maladjustment of either the plate bubble(s) or the optical plummet.
These components must be checked more frequently than others. On base and
control traverse projects, the optical plummet should be checked at least once each
day. The plate bubbles should be routinely checked on each setup.
• Double Centering: Double centering compensates for lack of adjustment of almost
all components of the instrument and should be standard practice for all angles
measured. Double centering consists of two repetitions (one direct and one reverse)
with a transit.
• Parallax: Parallax occurs when the focal point of the eyepiece does not coincide
with the plane of the cross hairs. The condition varies for each observer because the
focal length depends in part on the shape of the observer’s eyeball. Parallax is also
a major concern in the optical plummet.
• When to Check: Parallax should be checked by each instrument person when
beginning to operate a new instrument or one that has been operated by someone
else. The optical plummet should be checked on every setup, particularly if the
instrument height is significantly different from the last setup.
• How to Check: Focus the telescope on some well-defined distant object. Slowly
move the head back and forth, about an inch from the eyepiece, while watching the
relationship of the object to the cross hairs. If the object appears to move, parallax
exists.
• Eliminate: Rotate the knurled eyepiece ring until apparent object movement is no
longer present. It may be necessary to refocus the cross hairs.

35
4.1.2 Personal Factors

A. Setting up Instrument

• Be sure the tripod is in good condition and all hardware is tightly fitted.
• Push the tripod shoes firmly into the ground. Pressure should be parallel to each leg.
Keep your foot lightly on foot piece when adjusting leg lengths.
• Place the legs in a position that will require a minimum of walking around the setup.
In windy conditions, additional stability can be achieved if one leg is set downwind.
• If the ground is soft or muddy, drive long 50 x 100-millimeter (2" x 4") wedges or
iron pipes 19 millimeters x 1 meter (3/4" x 36") in the ground to support the tripod
legs. Use duck boards to support the instrument man.
• On warm asphalt pavement set the tripod shoes on stakes that have been nailed to
the pavement. Shading tripod feet from direct sun may also be helpful.
• Be sure that the instrument is exactly over the point.
• Check the optical plummet after the instrument is set up and just before moving to
another point. If the instrument has moved, check the angle just measured.
• Recheck the instrument level. The bubble should hold one position when the
instrument is smoothly turned through one circle.
• Protect the instrument from direct exposure to the sun. Use a umbrella if necessary.

B. Setting Sights

When tribrach mounted targets are used, take the same precautions as when setting up an
instrument. With this equipment, "forced centering" between targets and theodolite (and
vice versa) will greatly decrease the effects of plumbing errors in traverse closures. Forced
centering is especially beneficial in short course traverses. Forced centering is the traverse
procedure whereby backsight, instrument point and foresight are "leapfrogged". Once a
tribrach is set over a point, it must stay mounted on the tripod over that point for all uses.
The instrument and sights are transferred from point to point without disturbing the tribrach
setup.

Before picking up the instrument or the target, check to see that the tribrach or the sighting
device has not moved.

36
When setting a pole sight, plumb it with a precision equal to that required for the total
survey. A twenty second error results from a sight that is 0.1 meters (0.32 feet) out of plumb
at 1,000 meters (3280.8 feet) away.

If a sight is set near ground level, check the line of sight for obstructions or for excessive
heat waves. When excessive heat waves are present, ground level sights are not advisable.

C. Pointing

Tangent screw use: When moving sighting device onto a target, always make the last turn
of the tangent screw clockwise. Clockwise movement increases the tension on the loading
springs. A final turn counterclockwise releases tension and the spring can hang up, causing
a “backlash" error.

Cross Hair Use

A. Consistency: Sight each object with the same part of the cross hair, preferably near
the center of the field of view. This practice will minimize small residual adjustment
errors.
B. Technique: The human eye can estimate the center of a wide object more accurately
than it can line up two objects. For this reason, different pointing techniques should
be used depending on the type and apparent size of the sight in the telescope. When
pointing on narrow sights, such as the center of a red and white target or distant
range pole, straddle the sight with the double cross hairs. When pointing on wide
sights, such as a lath or range pole at close range, split the sight with the single cross
hair.
C. Split Bubble Image: A frequent error in zenith angle measurement is failure to
adjust the split bubble image into coincidence before reading the angle. If
coincidence is not made, the scale is not indexed to the vertical and significant errors
can result. Always set the bubble before each reading.
D. Measuring Angles: Measure angles as rapidly as comfortably possible with a
uniform rhythm. Take the first reading at an object, rather than fidgeting with the
tangent screw trying to improve the pointing. Too much pointing time increases the
probability of error through instrument settlement or atmospheric changes. Speed

37
 should not be cultivated at the expense of good results. Accuracy is more important
than speed.
E. Reading the Circles and the Micrometer

• Call Outs: Carefully read and call out each reading to the recorder. Call out the
entire reading each time so any large blunders will be caught. Have the recorder
repeat the reading to the instrument man after it is recorded.
• When using the old-style instruments, always check the ten-minute interval. This
is done by counting the number of graduations between opposite, corresponding
degree marks, after the circle has been brought into coincidence.

F. Analyzing Observation Sheets: Many recording errors and inconsistencies can be

caught by carefully analyzing observation sheets. The following most important
items should be checked in the field by the recorder and then rechecked in the office.
They are:

• Spreads between the seconds of direct and reverse readings should be consistent
and in the same direction throughout the set.
• Ten-minute reading errors can frequently be located by examining a set of
positions. This is the reason that it is highly recommended that the circle be
closed (angle between foresight and backsight observed and recorded) for each
observation. If one observation disagrees with all others by ten minutes, it is safe
to assume that a reading or recording error was made.
• When a direct and reverse observation of a position is in different minutes, be
sure the average second value is coupled with the correct minutes value.
• When checking the direction to a station and either the minutes or the seconds
value of the backsight mean observation are greater than corresponding values
to another station, be sure the subtraction is correct.
• Using the entire set of averaged angles in the calculation will normally prevent
errors in either of the above instances.

4.2 Theodolites
Theodolites or Transits are surveying instruments designed to precisely measure horizontal
and vertical angles. They are also used to:
• Establish straight and curved lines.

38
 • Establish or measure distance (Stadia)
• Establish Elevation when used as a level (i.e., When we set the vertical angle to 90°)

4.2.1 Components

Theodolites have the following components:

• 3 screw level base

• Glass horizontal and vertical circles, these are read directly or through
micrometer.

• Right angle prism (optical plummet)

• High precision Bubbles; Refer to Figure 7:

Figure 4.1 Theodolite and Its Parts

'

After centering and leveling the three axes should be perpendicular to each other.

39
4.2.2 Theodolite Set Up
1. Place the instrument over the point with the tripod plate as level as possible and with
two tripod legs on the downhill side, if applicable.
2. Stand back a pace or two and see if the instrument appears to be over the station; if
it does not, adjust the location and check again from a pace or two away.
3. Move to a position 90° opposed to the original inspection location and repeat step 2.

4. Check that the station point can now be seen through the optical plummet (or that
the laser plummet spot is reasonably close to the setup mark). Then push the tripod
legs firmly by pressing down on the tripod shoe spurs
5. While looking through the optical plumb (or at the laser spot), manipulate the
leveling screws (one, two or all the three at a time) until the cross hair (bull’s-eye)
of the optical plummet or the laser spot is directly on the station mark. 6. Level the
theodolite circular bubble by adjusting the tripod legs up or down

Figure 4.3 Theo 020 theodolite and its most important parts

40
Circle Reading

We use only graduated microscope (Zeiss Theo 020). For example:

Vertical circle reading 256°52’00’’
Horizontal circle reading 235°05’02’’

Figure 4.4 Readings on a graduated microscope

Measurement of horizontal and vertical angles

Station W
Horizontal circle
Point Face left Face right Mean Reduced Horizontal
direction collimation
X 0 03 48 180 04 30 0 04 09 0 00 00 +21
Y 17 22 12 197 23 12 17 22 42 17 18 33 +30
Z 83 58 54 264 0 0 83 59 27 83 55 18 +33

Clockwise XWY = 17°18’30” or XWZ = 83°55’10”

Station W
Vertical circle
Point Face left Face right Sum Zenith angle Vertical
collimation

41
 X 88 10 30 271 50 18 360 0 48 88 10 06 -24
Y 89 32 48 270 27 30 360 0 18 89 32 39 -9

In order to be able to measure the directions to A, B and C, it may be necessary to establish

targets at these points. All targets should be centered correctly and exactly, whether this is
over a ground marker, a nail in a peg or some other survey point, and it should be easy to
take accurate sightings to them.
A

X B

C
Figure 4.5 Angular measurements

The targets used for the majority of observations o site are specially manufactured for this
purpose and are often combined with a reflecting prism to enable distances t be measured t
a given point at the same time as angles. A typical arrangement is as shown. When the
tribrach has been leveled and centered, the points for measuring horizontal and vertical angle
are set in their correct positions. This type of target is used when taking measurements with
a total station.
As an alternative to a tripod mounted target, a detail pole can be held on a control or setting
out point during a survey. However, if care is not taken, centering errors will be introduced
into angular observations if the pole is not held vertically. To avoid this error, most poles
are flitted with a circular bubble which helps keep it vertical when hand held. The
effect of miscentering a target or theodolite is discussed further in later section. Most of the
time, it is waste of time trying to observe a direction to a detail pole when the line of sight
is short, since accurate bisection is difficult.
Assuming suitable targets are in place at A, B, and C as in Figure 21, the observation

42
procedure at X starts with the horizontal angles. For this, one of the points has to be chosen
as the reference object (RO). Point A was chosen in this case and all the horizontal angels
are referred to this point, in which the horizontal angles AXB and AXC are to be measured.
Table chows some example readings for both the horizontal and vertical angles observed at
point X.

All observations require the operator to bisect each target exactly. To do this, one of the
sights on the telescope (or collimators) is first used to point the telescope approximately at
a target and the horizontal and vertical clamps are tightened. For horizontal angles, it is
necessary that the vertical hair of the cross hairs is made coincident with the target when
viewed through the telescope. To do this, the target is sighted by adjusting the horizontal
tangent screw such that the vertical hair bisects the target exactly. This is very important
because any small difference between the target and hair will cause an error in the displayed
angle.
Measuring angles at Point X
Point Face Left Face Right Mean Angle

A (RO) 00 03 50 180 04 30 00 04 10

B 17 22 10 197 23 10 17 22 40 17 18 30

C 83 58 50 264 00 00 83 59 25 83 55 15

A (RO) 45 12 30 225 13 30 45 13 00

B 62 31 10 242 32 10 62 31 40 17 18 40

C 129 07 30 309 08 40 129 08 05 83 55 05

Final Horizontal
Angles

43
 AXB = 17 18 35

AXC = 83 55 10

POINT FACE LEFT FACE RIGHT REDUCED REDUCED

with FACE LEFT FACE RIGHT
height

A 1.16 m 88 10 30 271 51 20 +01 49 30 +01 51 20

B 1.52 m 89 34 50 270 27 30 +00 25 10 +00 27 30

C 1.47 m 92 48 20 267 13 40 -02 48 20 -02 46 20

Vertical
Angles
A = +01 50 C = -02 47 20
25 B = +00 26 20

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 CHAPTER 5

TOTAL COORDINATES MEASUREMENTS

5.1 Total Station

Total stations are used extensively in surveying, civil engineering and construction because
they can measure bother distances and angles simultaneously, with relative ease and to a
high degree of precision. This section serves as an introduction to the total station and its
application in surveying.

The appearance of a total station is very similar to an electronic theodolite, but the difference
is that it is combined with distance measurement components which are fitted around the
telescope. Because the instrument combines both angle and distance measurement in the
same unit, it is known as an integrated total station which can measure horizontal and
vertical angles as well as slope distance. Using the vertical angle, the total station can
calculate the horizontal and vertical distance components of the measured slope distance
and display these.

Total stations are capable of performing a number of different survey tasks and associated
calculations and they can store relatively large amounts of data. As with the electronic
theodolite, all the functions of a total station are controlled by its microprocessor (or
computer) which is accessed through a keyboard and display. Different models of total
stations have been manufactured by different companies for use.

To use a total station, it is set over one end of the line to be measured and some form of
reflector is positioned at the other end such that the line of sight between the reflector is
unobstructed. This is done by placing the reflector on a metallic pole or a tripod. The
telescope is aligned and pointed at the prism, the measuring sequence is initiated and a signal
is transmitted from the instrument towards the reflector, where part of it is returned to the
instrument. This is processed, in a few seconds, to give the slope distance together with the
horizontal and vertical angles.

A total station can also be used in reflector less mode, in which telescope is aimed at the
point to be measured but without using a reflector. Some instruments have motorized drives
and a use automatic target recognition to search and lock onto a prism – this process is fully

45
automated and does not require an operator. Taking this a stage further, some total stations
can be controlled from the detail pole, enabling surveys to be carried out by one person.

A total station is centered and leveled in the same way as the theodolite and procedures are
as described earlier for measuring angles and setting out with a theodolite, and all can be
done with a total station as well. However, an integrated total station can perform many
more measurement and setting out tasks than an electronic theodolite, as will be described
in later sections.

Most total stations have a distance measuring range of up to a few kilometers when using a
single prism, a range of at least 100 m in a reflectorless mode and an accuracy of 2-3 mm at
short ranges, which will decrease to about 4-5 mm at 1 km. Most of them have angular
accuracies varying from 1̊ to 10̊.

LOOKING AT IT IN TOTALITY
• The advantage of the total station compared with other survey equipment is that it
can measure angles, distances and heights.
• Although an integrated total station can be a highly sophisticated precision
instrument, its basic function is simply to measure angles and distances. However,
it is also a computer that is capable of storing and processing survey data in many
different ways, which can be useful for site surveying.
• Even though they are relatively easy to operate, total stations must be used properly
and must be checked regularly in order to ensure that the high degree of accuracy
they are capable of is achieved.
• In common with other survey equipment, the development of total stations continues
and new models are introduced at regular intervals by each manufacturer

DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
When a distance is measured with a total station, an electromagnetic wave or pulse is used
for the measurement – this propagated though the atmospheric from instrument to reflector
or target and back during a measurement. Distances are measured by one of two methods:
The phase shift method, which uses continuous electromagnetic waves, or the pulse laser
method, in which pulses of laser radiation are used.

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EXAMPLES
1. Explain how the total station measures the 3D coordinates of the proceeding station

ANS

With the instrument levelled and centered, key in the coordinates of the occupied station.
Sight the forward or proceeding station and press the appropriate button on the key board.
Coordinates of the sight point or proceeding station is obtained and displayed on the LCD
of the instrument.

2. State and explain the three basic methods of Electromagnetic Distance Measurement

ANS
The three basic methods are:
Method of Distance Measurement by Pulse (Pulse Method): The distance (D) to the
target is attainable if the travel time (t) is directly measured between the transmitted pulse
(dominant wave) and the reflected pulse (echo) from the target. With this, the distance can
be obtained with a measurement performed only once, the measurement range varying from
several kilometers to hundreds of thousands of kilometers. The precision generally reaches
centimeter levels. Such a pulse method is chiefly used for measurements of low accuracy or
long distances, such as the front-line tactical reconnaissance and distance measurements
from Earth to the Moon and from Earth’s surface to artificial satellites.

Method of Distance Measurement by Phase (Phase Difference Method): The phase

difference between the transmitted signal and the echo to get the travel time is directly
measured. The difference of the phase angle of the reflected signal and the phase angle of
the transmitted signal is the phase difference. The measuring accuracy of such a method is
better than the millimeter level and its measurement range is within dozens of kilometers. It
is commonly used in precision distance measurement on the ground.

Method of Distance Measurement by Interference (Interferometric Method)

47
This method adopts the physical principle of optical interference for precise distance
measurement with higher accuracy than that of distance measurement by phase. Its precision
generally reaches micrometer levels. It is normally used for calibrating distance measuring
instruments and for precise short-distance measurement.

3. State any differences between the Total Station and the EDM Instrument

Any of the following:

✓ The total station can measure angles, horizontal, slope and vertical distance.
The EDMI can measure only slope or horizontal distance.
✓ The EDM devices measure lengths by indirectly determining the number of
full and partial waves of transmitted electromagnetic energy required in
traveling between the two ends of a line. The total station automatically
computes the lengths between two points from a single setup.
✓ The total station is a fully integrated instrument that captures all the spatial
data necessary for a 3-D position fix whereas the EDMI captures information
about the lengths between two points
✓ The total station is an integrated unit of digital theodolite, an EDM unit, a
microprocessor, keyboard and data storage unit. However, the EDMI consist
only of the EDM or distance meter.

GPS Measurements
GPS is the shortened form of NAVSTAR GSP. This is an acronym for NAVigation System
with Time and Ranging Global Positioning System. GPS is a satellite - based system that
uses a constellation of 24 satellites to give a user an accurate position.

The idea behind GPS is to use the satellite in space as reference points for location of
controls on earth. This is made possible by measuring the distance from three satellites to
triangulate a position anywhere on earth.

The GPS and the constellation of 24 satellites acting as reference points have their positions
transmitted via radio signals so that a receiver on any control station on the surface of the
earth will have it position fix determined accurately by calculations. Thus GPS can make
available accurate position information, using satellite and computers to compute positions

48
 anywhere on earth. This position information is captured by receivers whose position is
calculated from the positions to satellites and the distances to them. Distances are calculated
from time; a radio signal travels between satellite and receiver.

Basically, satellite positioning is a trilateration problem. From the known positions of three
satellites and the measured distances between them and the receiver, coordinates of the
receiver position can be calculated. The distances are determined by multiplying the
traveling time of the radio signals by the speed of light.

GPS Segments

GPS consists of the following three segments.

Space: - Consisting of a minimum of 24 operational Navstar satellites in space. They are 27

but the number keeps on changing constantly as satellites are commissioned and
decommissioned. They orbit the earth every 12 hours at an altitude of about 20,200 km.
They are grouped into 6 orbits each inclined at 550 to the equatorial plane and evenly spaced
at 600 apart. Each transmitting radio signals marked with unique identifying codes. High
precision atomic clocks on the satellites control the generation of these signals and codes.

Control Stations: - This is the main ground station that act as data processing centre for all
information including that collected at the remote stations. This segment is the "brain" of GPS. The
US DOD controls the system using a master station and 4 ground-based monitor/upload stations.
The monitor stations continuously track the satellites and provide this data to the master station. The
master station acting as the brain station calculates corrections to synchronize the atomic clocks
aboard the satellites and reuses orbital information. It then forwards these results to upload stations.
The upload stations update each individual satellite using the information provided by the master
station.

NB: these ground segments monitor and control the position of the GPS satellites.
• The master station at the Falcon Air Force Base Col6rado Springs USA.
• Remote Stations in Hawaii, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia and Kwajalun.

USER: These are the receivers which are used for position determination and Navigation.
Application can be found in surveying, Agriculture, Aviation, Emergency Services and

49
Vehicle tracking

SURVEYING WITH THE GPS

Proper planning and preparation are essential ingredients of a successful survey with the
GPS as well as an awareness of the capabilities and limitations. There are several measuring
techniques that can be used and this is determined by how the GPS receivers are arranged
in this regard. It is the surveyor, who chooses the appropriate technique for the application.

The techniques are listed as follows:

Static - Used for long lines, geodetic networks, tectonic plate studies etc. the technique
offer high accuracy over long distances but is comparatively slow.

Rapid Static - Used for establishing local control networks, network densification etc. This
offers high accuracy on baselines up to about 20 km and is much faster than Static technique.

Kinematic – Is used for detail surveys and measuring many points in quick succession. It
is a very efficient way of measuring many points that are close together. However, if there
are obstructions to the sky such as bridges, trees, tall buildings, etc., and less than 4 satellites
are tracked, the equipment must be reinitialized which can take 5-10 minutes to accomplish.
On the fly (OTF) processing technique eliminates this.

Real Time Kinematic (RTK) - Uses a radio data link to transmit satellite data from the
Reference to the Rover. This enables coordinates to be calculated and displayed in real time
as the survey is being carried out. It is used for similar applications like the Kinematic. 1t is
very affective way for measuring details as results are presented as work carried out. This
technique is however reliant upon radio link, which is subject to interference from other
radio sources and also line of sight blockage.

Procedures For the Various Techniques

In Rapid Static surveys, a Reference Point is chosen and one of more Rovers operates with
respect to it. When starting work in an area where no GPS surveying has previously taken
place, the first task is to observe a number of points, whose coordinates are accurately
known in the local system. This will enable a transformation to be calculated and all hence
points measured with GPS in that area can be easily converted into the local system.

50
At least 4 known points on the perimeter of the area of interest should be observed. The
transformation calculated will then be valid for the area enclosed by those points. The
reference Receiver is usually set up at a known point and can be included in the calculations
of the transformation parameters. if no known point is available, it can be set up anywhere
within the network. The Rover receivers then visit each of the known points. The length of
time that the Rovers must observe for at each point is related to the baseline length from the
reference and the GDOr. The data is recorded and post processed back at the office.

Checks should then be carried out to ensure that no gross error exists in the measurements
and this can be ensured by repeating the measurement at the same point the next day

When working with two or more Rovers receivers, an alternative is to ensure that all rovers
operate at each occupied point simultaneously. Thus, allowing data from each station to be
used as either Reference or Rover during post processing. This is the most efficient way to
work even though most difficult to synchronize. When redundant data is required, two
reference stations are set up and one rover used in occupying the points as shown in the
sketch provided and shown *.

The Kinematic technique is typically used for detail surveying, recording trajectories etc.,
although RTK has come in to replace this. The technique involves a moving Rover whose
position can be calculated relative to Reference.

The field procedure involves initializing the Rover. This initialization is essentially the same
as the same as measuring a Rapid static point that enables the post processing software
resolve any ambiguity in the office. in the field operation the Reference and Rover are
switched on and made to remain so absolutely for about 5-20min, collecting data. The actual
time for this exercise depends on the baseline length from the Reference and the number of
satellites observed. After this period the Rover may then move freely
The user then can record position at predefined recording rate, or record a combination of
the two (kinematic chain). It is important that during kinematic surveys moving too close to
objects that block the satellites signals from the Rover receiver is avoided. Also, if at any
point in time satellites tracked are less than 4, work must be halted and movement made to
position where 4 or more satellites are tracked for initialization to be performed before

51
continuing.

Kinematic on the Fly is a processing method that is applied to the measuring during post
processing. At the start of measurement, the operator can simply begin walking with the
Rover receiver and record data, if a point is reached where the satellites are lost, upon getting
to a place where satellite presence is restored, the system will automatically reinitialize.

Tips during operation

• A record is required to be tilled for each point surveyed.
• Measure height of the antenna correctly at the beginning and end of occupation.
• With Kinematic and RTK Surveys the antenna is usually mounted on a pole of
constant height
• With Static and Rapid Static, the GPS antenna should be kept totally still as
movement in the antenna can adversely affect the result.

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