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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Preface
TO THE STuDENT
Authors of books live with the hope that someone actually reads them. Contrary to
what you might believe, almost everything in a typical college-level mathematics text
is written for you and not the instructor. True, the topics covered in the text are chosen
to appeal to instructors because they make the decision on whether to use it in their
classes, but everything written in it is aimed directly at you, the student. So I want
to encourage you—no, actually I want to tell you—to read this textbook! But do not
read this text as you would a novel; you should not read it fast and you should not skip
anything. Think of it as a workbook. By this I mean that mathematics should always
be read with pencil and paper at the ready because, most likely, you will have to work
your way through the examples and the discussion. Before attempting any problems in
the section exercise sets, work through all the examples in that section. The examples
are constructed to illustrate what I consider the most important aspects of the section,
and therefore, reflect the procedures necessary to work most of the problems. When
reading an example, copy it down on a piece of paper and do not look at the solution in
the book. Try working it, then compare your results against the solution given, and, if
necessary resolve any differences. I have tried to include most of the important steps in
each example, but if something is not clear you should always try—and here is where
the pencil and paper come in again—to fill in the details or missing steps. This may not
be easy, but it is part of the learning process. The accumulation of facts followed by
the slow assimilation of understanding simply cannot be achieved without a struggle.
Specifically for you, a Student Resource Manual (SRM) is available as an op-
tional supplement. In addition to containing solutions of selected problems from the
exercises sets, the SRM contains hints for solving problems, extra examples, and a
review of those areas of algebra and calculus that I feel are particularly important
to the successful study of differential equations. Bear in mind you do not have to
purchase the SRM; you can review the appropriate mathematics from your old pre-
calculus or calculus texts.
In conclusion, I wish you good luck and success. I hope you enjoy the text and
the course you are about to embark on—as an undergraduate math major it was one
of my favorites because I liked mathematics that connected with the physical world.
If you have any comments, or if you find any errors as you read/work your way
through the text, or if you come up with a good idea for improving either it or the
SRM, please feel free to contact me through Cengage Learning:
spencer.arritt@cengage.com.
TO THE INSTRuCTOR
In case you are examining this text for the first time, Differential Equations with
Boundary-Value Problems, Ninth Edition, can be used for either a one- or two-
semester course that covers ordinary and partial differential equations. The shorter
version of the text, A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling Applica-
tions, Eleventh Edition, is intended for either a one-semester or one-quarter course
in ordinary differential equations. This text ends with Chapter 9. For a one-semester
course, it is assumed that the students have successfully completed at least two semes-
ters of calculus. Since you are reading this, undoubtedly you have already examined
vii
viii PrefaCe
the table of contents for the topics that are covered. You will not find a “suggested
syllabus” in this preface; I will not pretend to be so wise as to tell other teachers
what to teach. I feel that there is plenty of material here to choose from and to form
a course to your liking. The text strikes a reasonable balance between the analytical,
qualitative, and quantitative approaches to the study of differential equations. As far
as my “underlying philosophy” goes, it is this: An undergraduate text should be writ-
ten with the students’ understanding kept firmly in mind, which means to me that
the material should be presented in a straightforward, readable, and helpful manner,
while keeping the level of theory consistent with the notion of a “first course.”
For those who are familiar with the previous editions, I would like to mention a
few improvements made in this edition.
● Many exercise sets have been updated by the addition of new problems. Some
of these problems involve new and, I think, interesting mathematical models.
● Additional examples, figures, and remarks have been added to many sections.
● Throughout the text I have given a greater emphasis to the concepts of
piecewise-linear differential equations and solutions that involve
nonelementary integrals.
● Appendix A, Integral-Defined Functions, is new to the text.
● The superposition principle has been added to the discussion in Section 12.4,
Wave Equation.
● Section 12.6, Nonhomogeneous Boundary-Value Problems, has been rewritten.
● Modified Bessel functions are given a greater emphasis in Section 13.6, Polar
and Cylindrical Coordinates.
Student Resources
● Student Resource Manual (SRM), prepared by Warren S. Wright and
Roberto Martinez (ISBN 978-1-305-96573-7, accompanies A First Course
in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, Eleventh Edition, and
ISBN 978-1-305-96581-2 accompanies Differential Equations with Boundary-
Value Problems, Ninth Edition) provides important review material from
algebra and calculus, the solution of every third problem in each exercise
set (with the exception of the Discussion Problems and Computer Lab
Assignments), relevant command syntax for the computer algebra systems
Mathematica and Maple, and lists of important concepts, as well as helpful
hints on how to start certain problems.
● MindTap for Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems, Ninth
Edition, is a digital representation of your course that provides you with the tools
you need to better manage your limited time, stay organized, and be successful.
You can complete assignments whenever and wherever you are ready to learn
with course material specially customized for you by your instructor and
streamlined in one proven, easy-to-use interface. With an array of study tools, you
will get a true understanding of course concepts, achieve better grades, and set the
groundwork for your future courses. Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap.
Instructor Resources
● Instructor’s Solutions Manual (ISM), prepared by Warren S. Wright and Roberto
Martinez, provides complete worked-out solutions for all problems in the text. It is
available through the Instructor Companion website at cengage.com.
● Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible online system
that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content, create multiple
test versions in an instant, and deliver tests from your learning management
system (LMS), your classroom, or wherever you want. This is available online
at www.cengage.com/login.
● Turn the light on with MindTap for Differential Equations with Boundary
Value Problems, Ninth Edition. Through personalized paths of dynamic
PrefaCe ix
assignments and applications, MindTap is a digital learning solution and

representation of your course.
The Right Content: With MindTap’s carefully curated material, you get the
precise content and groundbreaking tools you need for every course you teach.
Personalization: Customize every element of your course—from
rearranging the Learning Path to inserting videos and activities.
Improved Workflow: Save time when planning lessons with all of the
trusted, most current content you need in one place in MindTap.
Tracking Students’ Progress in Real Time: Promote positive outcomes
by tracking students in real time and tailoring your course as needed based on
the analytics.
Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Compiling a mathematics textbook such as this and making sure that its thousands of
symbols and hundreds of equations are accurate is an enormous task, but since I am
called “the author,” that is my job and responsibility. But many people besides myself
have expended enormous amounts of time and energy in working toward its eventual
publication. So I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincerest apprecia-
tion to everyone—most of them unknown to me—at Cengage Learning and at MPS
North America who were involved in the publication of this edition. A special word
of thanks goes to Spencer Arritt, Kathryn Schrumpf, Jennifer Risden, Vernon Boes,
and Jill Traut for their guidance in the labyrinth of the production process.
Finally, over the years, this text has been improved in a countless number of
ways through the suggestions and criticisms of the reviewers. Thus it is fitting to
conclude with an acknowledgement of my debt to the following generous people for
sharing their expertise and experience.
REVIEWERS OF PAST EDITIONS

William Atherton, Cleveland State University
Philip Bacon, University of Florida
Bruce Bayly, University of Arizona
William H. Beyer, University of Akron
R. G. Bradshaw, Clarkson College
Bernard Brooks, Rochester Institute of Technology
Allen Brown, Wabash Valley College
Dean R. Brown, Youngstown State University
David Buchthal, University of Akron
Nguyen P. Cac, University of Iowa
T. Chow, California State University–Sacramento
Dominic P. Clemence, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
Pasquale Condo, University of Massachusetts–Lowell
Vincent Connolly, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Philip S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University
Bruce E. Davis, St. Louis Community College at Florissant Valley
Paul W. Davis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Richard A. DiDio, La Salle University
James Draper, University of Florida
James M. Edmondson, Santa Barbara City College
John H. Ellison, Grove City College
Raymond Fabec, Louisiana State University
Donna Farrior, University of Tulsa
Robert E. Fennell, Clemson University
W. E. Fitzgibbon, University of Houston
Harvey J. Fletcher, Brigham Young University
Paul J. Gormley, Villanova
Layachi Hadji, University of Alabama
Ruben Hayrapetyan, Kettering University
x PrefaCe
Terry Herdman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Zdzislaw Jackiewicz, Arizona State University
S. K. Jain, Ohio University
Anthony J. John, Southeastern Massachusetts University
David C. Johnson, University of Kentucky–Lexington
Harry L. Johnson, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Kenneth R. Johnson, North Dakota State University
Joseph Kazimir, East Los Angeles College
J. Keener, University of Arizona
Steve B. Khlief, Tennessee Technological University
Helmut Knaust, The University of Texas at El Paso
C. J. Knickerbocker, Sensis Corporation
Carlon A. Krantz, Kean College of New Jersey
Thomas G. Kudzma, University of Lowell
Alexandra Kurepa, North Carolina A&T State University
G. E. Latta, University of Virginia
Cecelia Laurie, University of Alabama
Mulatu Lemma, Savannah State University
James R. McKinney, California Polytechnic State University
James L. Meek, University of Arkansas
Gary H. Meisters, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Stephen J. Merrill, Marquette University
Vivien Miller, Mississippi State University
George Moss, Union University
Gerald Mueller, Columbus State Community College
Philip S. Mulry, Colgate University
Martin Nakashima, California State Polytechnic University–Pomona
C. J. Neugebauer, Purdue University
Tyre A. Newton, Washington State University
Brian M. O’Connor, Tennessee Technological University
J. K. Oddson, University of California–Riverside
Carol S. O’Dell, Ohio Northern University
Bruce O’Neill, Milwaukee School of Engineering
A. Peressini, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
J. Perryman, University of Texas at Arlington
Joseph H. Phillips, Sacramento City College
Jacek Polewczak, California State University Northridge
Nancy J. Poxon, California State University–Sacramento
Robert Pruitt, San Jose State University
K. Rager, Metropolitan State College
F. B. Reis, Northeastern University
Brian Rodrigues, California State Polytechnic University
Tom Roe, South Dakota State University
Kimmo I. Rosenthal, Union College
Barbara Shabell, California Polytechnic State University
Seenith Sivasundaram, Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University
Don E. Soash, Hillsborough Community College
F. W. Stallard, Georgia Institute of Technology
Gregory Stein, The Cooper Union
M. B. Tamburro, Georgia Institute of Technology
Patrick Ward, Illinois Central College
Jianping Zhu, University of Akron
Jan Zijlstra, Middle Tennessee State University
Jay Zimmerman, Towson University
Dennis G. Zill
Los Angeles, CA
Differential Equations
with Boundary-Value Problems
1
Introduction to Differential Equations
Kevin George/Shutterstock.com
1.1 Definitions and Terminology
1.2 Initial-Value Problems
1.3 Differential Equations as Mathematical Models
Chapter 1 in review
T
he words differential and equations suggest solving some kind of
equation that contains derivatives y9, y0, Á . Analogous to a course in
algebra, in which a good amount of time is spent solving equations such
2
as x 1 5x 1 4 5 0 for the unknown number x, in this course one of our tasks
will be to solve differential equations such as y0 1 2y9 1 y 5 0 for an unknown
function y 5 (x). As the course unfolds, you will see there is more to the study of
differential equations than just mastering methods that mathematicians over past
centuries devised to solve them. But first things first. In order to read, study, and be
conversant in a specialized subject you have to learn some of the terminology of that
discipline. This is the thrust of the first two sections of this chapter. In the last section
we briefly examine the link between differential equations and the real world.
1.1 DEFINITIONs aND TERmINOlOgy 3
1.1 Definitions and Terminology

INTRODUCTION The derivative dyydx of a function y 5 (x) is itself another
2
function 9(x) found by an appropriate rule. The exponential function y 5 e0.1x is
differentiable on the interval (2`, `) and by the Chain Rule its first derivative is
2 2
dyydx 5 0.2xe0.1x . If we replace e0.1x on the right-hand side of the last equation by
the symbol y, the derivative becomes
dy
5 0.2xy. (1)
dx
Now imagine that a friend of yours simply hands you equation (1)—you have no idea
how it was constructed—and asks, What is the function represented by the symbol y?
You are now face to face with one of the basic problems in this course:
How do you solve an equation such as (1) for the function y = (x)?
A Definition The equation that we made up in (1) is called a differential

equation. Before proceeding any further, let us consider a more precise definition
of this concept.
DEFINITION 1.1.1 Differential Equation

An equation containing the derivatives of one or more unknown functions (or
dependent variables), with respect to one or more independent variables, is
said to be a differential equation (DE).
To talk about them, we shall classify differential equations according to type, order,
and linearity.
ClAssifiCAtion by type If a differential equation contains only ordinary

derivatives of one or more unknown functions with respect to a single independent
variable, it is said to be an ordinary differential equation (ODE). An equation
involving partial derivatives of one or more unknown functions of two or more inde-
pendent variables is called a partial differential equation (PDE). Our first example
illustrates several of each type of differential equation.
ExamplE 1 Types of Differential Equations

(a) The equations
an ODE can contain more
than one unknown function
p p
dy d 2 y dy dx dy
1 5y 5 e x, 2 1 6y 5 0, and 1 5 2x 1 y (2)
dx dx 2 dx dt dt
are examples of ordinary differential equations.
(b) The following equations are partial differential equations:*

−2u −2u −2u −2u −u −u −v
1 5 0, 5 2 22 , 52 . (3)
−x2 −y2 −x2 −t −t −y −x
*Except for this introductory section, only ordinary differential equations are considered in A First Course
in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, Eleventh Edition. In that text the word equation
and the abbreviation DE refer only to ODEs. Partial differential equations or PDEs are considered in the
expanded volume Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems, Ninth Edition.
4 CHapTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIal EqUaTIONs
Notice in the third equation that there are two unknown functions and two indepen-
dent variables in the PDE. This means u and v must be functions of two or more
independent variables. .
notAtion Throughout this text ordinary derivatives will be written by using

either the Leibniz notation dyydx, d 2yydx 2, d 3yydx 3, . . . or the prime notation y9, y0,
y-, . . . . By using the latter notation, the first two differential equations in (2) can be
written a little more compactly as y9 + 5y = e x and y0 − y9 + 6y = 0. Actually, the
prime notation is used to denote only the first three derivatives; the fourth derivative
is written y (4) instead of y00. In general, the nth derivative of y is written d nyydx n or
y (n). Although less convenient to write and to typeset, the Leibniz notation has an
advantage over the prime notation in that it clearly displays both the dependent and
independent variables. For example, in the equation
unknown function
or dependent variable
d 2x
–––2 1 16x 5 0
dt
independent variable
it is immediately seen that the symbol x now represents a dependent variable,

whereas the independent variable is t. You should also be aware that in physical
sciences and engineering, Newton’s dot notation (derogatorily referred to by some
as the “flyspeck” notation) is sometimes used to denote derivatives with respect
to time t. Thus the differential equation d 2sydt 2 = −32 becomes s̈ = −32. Partial
derivatives are often denoted by a subscript notation indicating the indepen-
dent variables. For example, with the subscript notation the second equation in (3)
becomes u xx = u tt − 2u t.
ClAssifiCAtion by orDer The order of a differential equation (either ODE

or PDE) is the order of the highest derivative in the equation. For example,
second order first order

d 2y
( )
dy 3
––––2 1 5 ––– 2 4y 5 e x
dx dx
is a second-order ordinary differential equation. In Example 1, the first and third

equations in (2) are first-order ODEs, whereas in (3) the first two equations are
second-order PDEs. A first-order ordinary differential equation is sometimes written
in the differential form
M(x, y) dx 1 N(x, y) dy 5 0.
ExamplE 2 Differential Form of a First-Order ODE

If we assume that y is the dependent variable in a first-order ODE, then recall from
calculus that the differential dy is defined to be dy 5 y9dx.
(a) By dividing by the differential dx an alternative form of the equation

(y 2 x) dx 1 4x dy 5 0 is given by
dy dy
y 2 x 1 4x 5 0 or equivalently 4x 1 y 5 x.
dx dx
(b) By multiplying the differential equation

dy
6xy 1 x2 1 y2 5 0
dx
by dx we see that the equation has the alternative differential form
(x2 1 y2) dx 1 6xy dy 5 0. .
In symbols we can express an nth-order ordinary differential equation in one

dependent variable by the general form
F(x, y, y9, . . . , y(n)) 5 0, (4)
where F is a real-valued function of n + 2 variables: x, y, y9, . . . , y (n). For both
practical and theoretical reasons we shall also make the assumption hereafter that
it is possible to solve an ordinary differential equation in the form (4) uniquely
for the highest derivative y (n) in terms of the remaining n + 1 variables. The dif-
ferential equation
d ny
5 f (x, y, y9, . . . , y (n21)), (5)
dx n
where f is a real-valued continuous function, is referred to as the normal form of (4).
Thus when it suits our purposes, we shall use the normal forms
dy d 2y
5 f (x, y) and 5 f (x, y, y9)
dx dx2
to represent general first- and second-order ordinary differential equations.
ExamplE 3 Normal Form of an ODE

(a) By solving for the derivative dyydx the normal form of the first-order differential
equation
dy dy x 2 y
4x 1 y 5 x is 5 .
dx dx 4x
(b) By solving for the derivative y0 the normal form of the second-order differential
equation
y0 2 y9 1 6 5 0 is y0 5 y9 2 6y. .
ClAssifiCAtion by lineArity An nth-order ordinary differential equation (4)

is said to be linear if F is linear in y, y9, . . . , y(n). This means that an nth-order ODE
is linear when (4) is an(x)y(n) + an−1(x)y(n−1) + Á + a1(x)y9 + a0(x)y − g(x) = 0 or
d ny d n21y dy
an(x) n 1 an21(x) 1 Á 1 a1(x) 1 a0 (x)y 5 g(x). (6)
dx dx n21 dx
Two important special cases of (6) are linear first-order (n 5 1) and linear second-
order (n = 2) DEs:
dy d 2y dy
a1(x) 1 a0(x)y 5 g(x) and a2(x) 2 1 a1(x) 1 a0(x)y 5 g(x). (7)
dx dx dx
In the additive combination on the left-hand side of equation (6) we see that the char-
acteristic two properties of a linear ODE are as follows:
● The dependent variable y and all its derivatives y9, y0, . . . , y (n) are of the
first degree, that is, the power of each term involving y is 1.
● The coefficients a 0, a1, . . . , a n of y, y9, . . . , y (n) depend at most on the
independent variable x.
A nonlinear ordinary differential equation is simply one that is not linear. Nonlinear
functions of the dependent variable or its derivatives, such as sin y or ey9, cannot
appear in a linear equation.
ExamplE 4 Linear and Nonlinear ODEs

(a) The equations
d 3y dy
(y 2 x) dx 1 4x dy 5 0, y0 2 2y 1 y 5 0, x3 1x 2 5y 5 ex
dx3 dx
are, in turn, linear first-, second-, and third-order ordinary differential equations. We
have just demonstrated in part (a) of Example 2 that the first equation is linear in the
variable y by writing it in the alternative form 4xy9 + y = x.
(b) The equations
nonlinear term: nonlinear term: nonlinear term:

coefficient depends on y nonlinear function of y power not 1
d 2y d 4y
(1 2 y)y9 1 2y 5 ex, ––––2 1 sin y 5 0, and ––––4 1 y 2 5 0
dx dx
are examples of nonlinear first-, second-, and fourth-order ordinary differential equa-
tions, respectively. .
solutions As was stated on page 2, one of the goals in this course is to solve,
or find solutions of, differential equations. In the next definition we consider the con-
cept of a solution of an ordinary differential equation.
DEFINITION 1.1.2 solution of an ODE

Any function f, defined on an interval I and possessing at least n derivatives
that are continuous on I, which when substituted into an nth-order ordinary
differential equation reduces the equation to an identity, is said to be a solution
of the equation on the interval.
In other words, a solution of an nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is a

function f that possesses at least n derivatives and for which
F(x, (x), 9(x), . . . , (n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.
We say that f satisfies the differential equation on I. For our purposes we shall also
assume that a solution f is a real-valued function. In our introductory discussion we
2
saw that y 5 e0.1x is a solution of dyydx = 0.2xy on the interval (−`, `).
Occasionally, it will be convenient to denote a solution by the alternative
symbol y(x).
intervAl of Definition You cannot think solution of an ordinary differential

equation without simultaneously thinking interval. The interval I in Definition 1.1.2
is variously called the interval of definition, the interval of existence, the interval
of validity, or the domain of the solution and can be an open interval (a, b), a closed
interval [a, b], an infinite interval (a, `), and so on.
ExamplE 5 Verification of a Solution

Verify that the indicated function is a solution of the given differential equation on
the interval (−`, `).
dy 1 4
(a) 5 xy1/2; y 5 16 x (b) y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 0; y 5 xex
dx
sOlUTION One way of verifying that the given function is a solution is to see, after
substituting, whether each side of the equation is the same for every x in the interval.
(a) From
dy 1 1
left { hand side: 5 (4 ? x 3) 5 x 3,
dx 16 4
1 2 114 x 2 5 41 x ,
1/2
1 4
right { hand side: xy1/2 5 x ? x 5x? 2 3
16
we see that each side of the equation is the same for every real number x. Note that
y1/2 5 14 x2 is, by definition, the nonnegative square root of 16
1 4
x.
(b) From the derivatives y9 = xe x + e x and y0 = xe x + 2e x we have, for every real

number x,
left { hand side: y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 (xe x 1 2e x ) 2 2(xe x 1 e x ) 1 xe x 5 0,

right { hand side: 0. .
Note, too, that each differential equation in Example 5 possesses the constant
solution y 5 0, −` < x < `. A solution of a differential equation that is identically
zero on an interval I is said to be a trivial solution.
y solution Curve The graph of a solution f of an ODE is called a solution

curve. Since f is a differentiable function, it is continuous on its interval I of defini-
tion. Thus there may be a difference between the graph of the function f and the
1 graph of the solution f. Put another way, the domain of the function f need not
be the same as the interval I of definition (or domain) of the solution f. Example 6
x
1 illustrates the difference.
ExamplE 6 Function versus Solution

(a) function y 5 1/x, x ? 0
(a) The domain of y = 1yx, considered simply as a function, is the set of all
y
real numbers x except 0. When we graph y = 1yx, we plot points in the xy-plane
corresponding to a judicious sampling of numbers taken from its domain. The
rational function y = 1yx is discontinuous at 0, and its graph, in a neighborhood
1 of the origin, is given in Figure 1.1.1(a). The function y = 1yx is not differen-
tiable at x = 0, since the y-axis (whose equation is x = 0) is a vertical asymptote
1 x of the graph.
(b) Now y = 1yx is also a solution of the linear first-order differential equation
xy9 + y = 0. (Verify.) But when we say that y = 1yx is a solution of this DE, we
mean that it is a function defined on an interval I on which it is differentiable and
(b) solution y 5 1/x, (0, ∞)
satisfies the equation. In other words, y = 1yx is a solution of the DE on any interval
FIgURE 1.1.1 In Example 6 the function that does not contain 0, such as (−3, −1), _12, 10+, (−`, 0), or (0, `). Because the
y = 1yx is not the same as the solution solution curves defined by y = 1yx for −3 < x < −1 and 12 , x , 10 are simply
y = 1yx segments, or pieces, of the solution curves defined by y = 1yx for −` < x < 0 and
0 < x < `, respectively, it makes sense to take the interval I to be as large as pos-
sible. Thus we take I to be either (−`, 0) or (0, `). The solution curve on (0, `) is
shown in Figure 1.1.1(b). .
expliCit AnD impliCit solutions You should be familiar with the terms
explicit functions and implicit functions from your study of calculus. A solution
in which the dependent variable is expressed solely in terms of the independent
variable and constants is said to be an explicit solution. For our purposes, let us
think of an explicit solution as an explicit formula y = f(x) that we can manipulate,
evaluate, and differentiate using the standard rules. We have just seen in the last
1 4
two examples that y 5 16 x , y = xex, and y = 1yx are, in turn, explicit solutions
1/2
of dyydx = xy , y0 − 2y9 + y = 0, and xy9 + y = 0. Moreover, the trivial solu-
tion y = 0 is an explicit solution of all three equations. When we get down to the
business of actually solving some ordinary differential equations, you will see that
methods of solution do not always lead directly to an explicit solution y = f(x).
This is particularly true when we attempt to solve nonlinear first-order differential
equations. Often we have to be content with a relation or expression G(x, y) = 0 that
defines a solution f implicitly.
DEFINITION 1.1.3 Implicit solution of an ODE

A relation G(x, y) = 0 is said to be an implicit solution of an ordinary differen-
tial equation (4) on an interval I, provided that there exists at least one function
f that satisfies the relation as well as the differential equation on I.
It is beyond the scope of this course to investigate the conditions under which a
relation G(x, y) = 0 defines a differentiable function f. So we shall assume that if
the formal implementation of a method of solution leads to a relation G(x, y) = 0,
then there exists at least one function f that satisfies both the relation (that is,
G(x, f(x)) = 0) and the differential equation on an interval I. If the implicit solution
G(x, y) = 0 is fairly simple, we may be able to solve for y in terms of x and obtain
one or more explicit solutions. See (iv) in the Remarks.
ExamplE 7 Verification of an Implicit Solution

The relation x 2 + y 2 = 25 is an implicit solution of the differential equation
dy x
52 (8)
dx y
on the open interval (−5, 5). By implicit differentiation we obtain
d 2 d 2 d dy
x 1 y 5 25 or 2x 1 2y 5 0. (9)
dx dx dx dx
Solving the last equation in (9) for the symbol dyydx gives (8). Moreover, solving
x2 + y2 = 25 for y in terms of x yields y 5 6Ï25 2 x2. The two functions
y 5 1(x) 5 Ï25 2 x2 and y 5 2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2 satisfy the relation (that is,
x2 + 21 = 25 and x2 + 22 = 25) and are explicit solutions defined on the interval
(−5, 5). The solution curves given in Figures 1.1.2(b) and 1.1.2(c) are segments of the
graph of the implicit solution in Figure 1.1.2(a).
y y y
5 5 5
5 5 5
x x x
25
(a) implicit solution (b) explicit solution (c) explicit solution

x 1 y 5 25
2 2 y1 5 Ï25 2 x , 2 5 , x , 5
2
y2 5 2Ï25 2 x 2, 25 , x , 5
FIgURE 1.1.2 An implicit solution and two explicit solutions of (8) in Example 7 .
Because the distinction between an explicit solution and an implicit solution

should be intuitively clear, we will not belabor the issue by always saying, “Here is
an explicit (implicit) solution.”
fAmilies of solutions The study of differential equations is similar to

that of integral calculus. When evaluating an antiderivative or indefinite integral
in calculus, we use a single constant c of integration. Analogously, we shall see
in Chapter 2 that when solving a first-order differential equation F(x, y, y9) 5 0
we usually obtain a solution containing a single constant or parameter c. A solu-
tion of F(x, y, y9) 5 0 containing a constant c is a set of solutions Gsx, y, cd 5 0
called a one-parameter family of solutions. When solving an nth-order differen-
tial equation F(x, y, y9, Á , y(n)) 5 0 we seek an n-parameter family of solutions
G(x, y, c1, c2, Á , cn) 5 0. This means that a single differential equation can possess
an infinite number of solutions corresponding to an unlimited number of choices for
the parameter(s). A solution of a differential equation that is free of parameters is
called a particular solution.
The parameters in a family of solutions such as G(x, y, c1, c2, Á , cn) 5 0 are
arbitrary up to a point. For example, proceeding as in (9) a relation x2 1 y2 5 c
y
formally satisfies (8) for any constant c. However, it is understood that the relation
c.0 should always make sense in the real number system; thus, if c 5 225 we cannot say
c50 that x2 1 y2 5 225 is an implicit solution of the differential equation.
x
c,0
ExamplE 8 Particular Solutions
(a) For all real values of c, the one-parameter family y 5 cx 2 x cos x is an explicit
solution of the linear first-order equation
FIgURE 1.1.3 Some solutions of DE in
xy9 2 y 5 x2 sin x
part (a) of Example 8
on the interval (−`, `). (Verify.) Figure 1.1.3 shows the graphs of some particular
solutions in this family for various choices of c. The solution y = −x cos x, the blue
y
graph in the figure, is a particular solution corresponding to c = 0.
(b) The two-parameter family y = c1e x + c 2xe x is an explicit solution of the linear
second-order equation
x y0 − 2y9 + y = 0
in part (b) of Example 5. (Verify.) In Figure 1.1.4 we have shown seven of the “dou-
ble infinity” of solutions in the family. The solution curves in red, green, and blue
FIgURE 1.1.4 Some solutions of DE in are the graphs of the particular solutions y = 5xe x (cl = 0, c2 = 5), y = 3e x (cl = 3,
part (b) of Example 8 c2 = 0), and y = 5ex − 2xex (c1 = 5, c2 = 2), respectively. .
Sometimes a differential equation possesses a solution that is not a member of

a family of solutions of the equation—that is, a solution that cannot be obtained by
specializing any of the parameters in the family of solutions. Such an extra solution
1 4
is called a singular solution. For example, we have seen that y 5 16 x and y = 0
1/2
are solutions of the differential equation dyydx = xy on (−`, `). In Section 2.2
we shall demonstrate, by actually solving it, that the differential equation dyydx = xy1/2
2
possesses the one-parameter family of solutions y 5 _14 x2 1 c+ , c $ 0. When c = 0,
1 4
the resulting particular solution is y 5 16 x . But notice that the trivial solution y = 0
2
is a singular solution since it is not a member of the family y 5 _14 x2 1 c+ ; there is
no way of assigning a value to the constant c to obtain y = 0.
In all the preceding examples we used x and y to denote the independent and
dependent variables, respectively. But you should become accustomed to seeing
and working with other symbols to denote these variables. For example, we could
denote the independent variable by t and the dependent variable by x.
ExamplE 9 Using Different Symbols

The functions x = c1 cos 4t and x = c2 sin 4t, where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants
or parameters, are both solutions of the linear differential equation
x0 1 16x 5 0.
For x = c1 cos 4t the first two derivatives with respect to t are x9 = −4c1 sin 4t
and x0 = −16c1 cos 4t. Substituting x0 and x then gives
x0 1 16x 5 216c1 cos 4t 1 16(c1 cos 4t) 5 0.
In like manner, for x = c 2 sin 4t we have x0 = −16c 2 sin 4t, and so
x0 1 16x 5 216c2 sin 4t 1 16(c2 sin 4t) 5 0.
Finally, it is straightforward to verify that the linear combination of solutions, or the
two-parameter family x = c1 cos 4t + c 2 sin 4t, is also a solution of the differential
equation. .
The next example shows that a solution of a differential equation can be a

y piecewise-defined function.
c51
ExamplE 10 Piecewise-Defined Solution
x
c 5 21 The one-parameter family of quartic monomial functions y = cx 4 is an explicit solu-
tion of the linear first-order equation
xy9 − 4y = 0
(a) two explicit solutions on the interval (−`, `). (Verify.) The blue and red solution curves shown in
Figure 1.1.5(a) are the graphs of y = x4 and y = −x4 and correspond to the choices
y c = 1 and c = −1, respectively.
The piecewise-defined differentiable function
c 5 1,
5
x$0 2x4, x , 0
y5
x x4, x . 0
c 5 21,
x,0 is also a solution of the differential equation but cannot be obtained from the family
y = cx4 by a single choice of c. As seen in Figure 1.1.5(b) the solution is constructed
from the family by choosing c = −1 for x < 0 and c = 1 for x $ 0. .
(b) piecewise-defined solution
FIgURE 1.1.5 Some solutions of DE in systems of DifferentiAl equAtions Up to this point we have been dis-
Example 10 cussing single differential equations containing one unknown function. But often
in theory, as well as in many applications, we must deal with systems of differ-

ential equations. A system of ordinary differential equations is two or more
equations involving the derivatives of two or more unknown functions of a single
independent variable. For example, if x and y denote dependent variables and
t denotes the independent variable, then a system of two first-order differential
equations is given by
dx
5 f (t, x, y)
dt
(10)
dy
5 g(t, x, y).
dt
A solution of a system such as (10) is a pair of differentiable functions x = f 1(t),

y = f 2(t), defined on a common interval I, that satisfy each equation of the system
on this interval.
REmaRks
(i) It might not be apparent whether a first-order ODE written in differential
form M(x, y) dx 1 N(x, y) dy 5 0 is linear or nonlinear because there is
nothing in this form that tells us which symbol denotes the dependent variable.
See Problems 9 and 10 in Exercises 1.1.
(ii) We will see in the chapters that follow that a solution of a differential equa-
tion may involve an integral-defined function. One way of defining a function
F of a single variable x by means of a definite integral is:
# g(t) dt.
x
F(x) 5 (11)
a
If the integrand g in (11) is continuous on an interval [a, b] and a # x # b, then

the derivative form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that F is
differentiable on (a, b) and
# g(t) dt 5 g(x)
d x
F9(x) 5 (12)
dx a
The integral in (11) is often nonelementary, that is, an integral of a function g

that does not have an elementary-function antiderivative. Elementary functions
include the familiar functions studied in a typical precalculus course:
constant, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric,

and inverse trigonometric functions,
as well as rational powers of these functions; finite combinations of these func-
tions using addition, subtraction, multiplication, division; and function com-
2
positions. For example, even though e2t ,Ï1 1 t3, and cos t2 are elementary
2
functions, the integrals ee2t dt, eÏ1 1 t3 dt, and e cos t2 dt are nonelementary.
See Problems 25–28 in Exercises 1.1. Also see Appendix A.
(iii) Although the concept of a solution of a differential equation has been
emphasized in this section, you should be aware that a DE does not necessarily
have to possess a solution. See Problem 43 in Exercises 1.1. The question of
whether a solution exists will be touched on in the next section.
(continued)
(iv) A few last words about implicit solutions of differential equations are in
order. In Example 7 we were able to solve the relation x 2 + y 2 = 25 for y in terms
of x to get two explicit solutions, 1(x) 5 Ï25 2 x2 and 2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2,
of the differential equation (8). But don’t read too much into this one example.
Unless it is easy or important or you are instructed to, there is usually no need
to try to solve an implicit solution G(x, y) = 0 for y explicitly in terms of x. Also
do not misinterpret the second sentence following Definition 1.1.3. An implicit
solution G(x, y) = 0 can define a perfectly good differentiable function f that is
a solution of a DE, yet we might not be able to solve G(x, y) = 0 using analyti-
cal methods such as algebra. The solution curve of f may be a segment or piece
of the graph of G(x, y) = 0. See Problems 49 and 50 in Exercises 1.1. Also,
read the discussion following Example 4 in Section 2.2.
(v) It might not seem like a big deal to assume that F(x, y, y9, . . . , y (n) ) = 0
can be solved for y (n), but one should be a little bit careful here. There
are exceptions, and there certainly are some problems connected with this
assumption. See Problems 56 and 57 in Exercises 1.1.
(vi) If every solution of an nth-order ODE F(x, y, y9, . . . , y (n)) = 0 on an inter-
val I can be obtained from an n-parameter family G(x, y, c1, c 2, . . . , cn ) = 0 by
appropriate choices of the parameters ci, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, we then say that the
family is the general solution of the DE. In solving linear ODEs, we shall im-
pose relatively simple restrictions on the coefficients of the equation; with these
restrictions one can be assured that not only does a solution exist on an interval
but also that a family of solutions yields all possible solutions. Nonlinear ODEs,
with the exception of some first-order equations, are usually difficult or impos-
sible to solve in terms of elementary functions. Furthermore, if we happen to
obtain a family of solutions for a nonlinear equation, it is not obvious whether
this family contains all solutions. On a practical level, then, the designation
“general solution” is applied only to linear ODEs. Don’t be concerned about
this concept at this point, but store the words “general solution” in the back
of your mind —we will come back to this notion in Section 2.3 and again in
Chapter 4.
ExErcIsEs 1.1 Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-1.
In Problems 1 – 8 state the order of the given ordinary differential 7. (sin u)y- − (cos u)y9 = 2
equation. Determine whether the equation is linear or nonlinear by
x?2 ?
matching it with (6).
1. (1 − x)y0 − 4xy9+ 5y = cos x
$
1
8. x 2 1 2
3 2
x1x50
2. x
d 3y
dx 3
2 SD
dy
dx
4
1y50 In Problems 9 and 10 determine whether the given first-order dif-
ferential equation is linear in the indicated dependent variable by
matching it with the first differential equation given in (7).
3. t5y(4) − t 3y0 + 6y = 0
9. (y2 − 1) dx + x dy = 0; in y; in x
d 2u du
4. 2 1 1 u 5 cos(r 1 u) 10. u dv + (v + uv − ueu) du = 0; in v; in u
dr dr
5.
d 2y
dx 2
5 Î 11 1dx2
dy 2
In Problems 11–14 verify that the indicated function is an explicit
solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate
interval I of definition for each solution.
d 2R k
6. 52 2
dt 2
R 11. 2y9 + y = 0; y = e−x/2
1.1 Definitions anD terminology 13
dy 6 6 29. Verify that the piecewise-defined function

12. 1 20y 5 24; y 5 2 e220t
dt 5 5
52xx ,,
2
x,0
3x y5
13. y0 − 6y9 + 13y = 0; y = e cos 2x 2
x$0
14. y0 + y = tan x; y = −(cos x) ln(sec x + tan x) is a solution of the differential equation xy9 − 2y = 0 on
(−`, `).
In Problems 15–18 verify that the indicated function y = f(x) is an 30. In Example 7 we saw that y = f1(x) = Ï25 2 x2 and
explicit solution of the given first-order differential equation. Pro- y 5 2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2 are solutions of dyydx = −xyy on the
ceed as in Example 6, by considering f simply as a function and give interval (−5, 5). Explain why the piecewise-defined function
its domain. Then by considering f as a solution of the differential
5Ï2Ï252522x x ,
2
equation, give at least one interval I of definition. 25 , x , 0
y5 2
0#x,5
15. (y 2 x)y9 5 y 2 x 1 8; y 5 x 1 4Ïx 1 2
is not a solution of the differential equation on the interval (−5, 5).
16. y9 = 25 + y2; y = 5 tan 5x
17. y9 = 2xy2; y = 1y(4 − x2) In Problems 31–34 find values of m so that the function y = emx is a
solution of the given differential equation.
18. 2y9 = y3 cos x; y = (1 − sin x)−1/2
31. y9 + 2y = 0 32. 5y9 = 2y
In Problems 19 and 20 verify that the indicated expression is an im- 33. y0 − 5y9 + 6y = 0 34. 2y0 + 7y9 − 4y = 0
plicit solution of the given first-order differential equation. Find at
least one explicit solution y = f(x) in each case. Use a graphing util- In Problems 35 and 36 find values of m so that the function y = xm is
ity to obtain the graph of an explicit solution. Give an interval I of a solution of the given differential equation.
definition of each solution f. 35. xy0 + 2y9 = 0
2X 2 1
1 2
dX 36. x2y0 − 7xy9 + 15y = 0
19. 5 (X 2 1)(1 2 2X); ln 5t
dt X21
In Problems 37–40 use the concept that y = c, −` < x < `, is a
20. 2xy dx + (x2 − y) dy = 0; −2x2y + y2 = 1 constant function if and only if y9 = 0 to determine whether the given
differential equation possesses constant solutions.
In Problems 21–24 verify that the indicated family of functions is a
37. 3xy9 + 5y = 10 38. y9 = y2 + 2y − 3
solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate
interval I of definition for each solution. 39. (y − 1)y9 = 1 40. y0 + 4y9 + 6y = 10
dP c1et In Problems 41 and 42 verify that the indicated pair of functions is a

21. 5 P(1 2 P); P 5 solution of the given system of differential equations on the interval
dt 1 1 c1et
(−`, `).
dy 2
22. 1 4xy 5 8x3; y 5 2x2 2 1 1 c1e22x dx d 2x
dx 41. 5 x 1 3y 42. 5 4y 1 et
dt dt 2
d 2y dy dy d 2y
23. 24 1 4y 5 0; y 5 c1e 2x 1 c2xe 2x 5 5x 1 3y; 5 4 x 2 et;
dx 2 dx dt dt 2
d3y d 2y dy x 5 e22t 1 3e6t, x 5 cos 2t 1 sin 2t 1 15 et,
24. x 3 1 2x 2 2x 1 y 5 12x 2;
dx 3 dx 2 dx y 5 2e22t 1 5e6t y 5 2cos 2t 2 sin 2t 2 15 et
y 5 c1x21 1 c2x 1 c3x ln x 1 4x2

Discussion Problems
In Problems 25–28 use (12) to verify that the indicated function is 43. Make up a differential equation that does not possess any real
a solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate solutions.
interval I of definition of each solution.
44. Make up a differential equation that you feel confident
possesses only the trivial solution y = 0. Explain your
# et
dy x 23t
25. x 2 3xy 5 1; y 5 e3x dt reasoning.
dx 1
45. What function do you know from calculus is such that its first
#
dy x cos t
26. 2x 2 y 5 2x cos x; y 5 Ïx dt derivative is itself? Its first derivative is a constant multiple k of
dx 4 Ït itself? Write each answer in the form of a first-order differential
equation with a solution.
# sint t dt
dy 5 10 x
27. x2 1 xy 5 10 sin x; y 5 1
dx x x 1 46. What function (or functions) do you know from calculus is such
that its second derivative is itself? Its second derivative is the
# e dt
dy 2 2
x
t2 negative of itself? Write each answer in the form of a second-
28. 1 2xy 5 1; y 5 e2x 1 e2x
dx 0 order differential equation with a solution.
47. The function y 5 sin x is an explicit solution of the first-order 57. The normal form (5) of an nth-order differential equation
dy is equivalent to (4) whenever both forms have exactly the
dx Ï
differential equation 5 1 2 y2. Find an interval I of
same solutions. Make up a first-order differential equation
definition. [Hint: I is not the interval (−`, `).] for which F(x, y, y9) = 0 is not equivalent to the normal form
48. Discuss why it makes intuitive sense to presume that the linear dyydx = f (x, y).
differential equation y0 + 2y9 + 4y = 5 sin t has a solution of 58. Find a linear second-order differential equation F(x, y, y9, y0) = 0
the form y = A sin t + B cos t, where A and B are constants. for which y = c1x + c2x2 is a two-parameter family of solutions.
Then find specific constants A and B so that y = A sin t + B cos t Make sure that your equation is free of the arbitrary parameters
is a particular solution of the DE. c1 and c2.
In Problems 49 and 50 the given figure represents the graph Qualitative information about a solution y = f(x) of a
of an implicit solution G(x, y) = 0 of a differential equation differential equation can often be obtained from the equation
dyydx = f (x, y). In each case the relation G(x, y) = 0 implicitly de- itself. Before working Problems 59–62, recall the geometric
fines several solutions of the DE. Carefully reproduce each figure significance of the derivatives dyydx and d2yydx2.
on a piece of paper. Use different colored pencils to mark off seg- 2
ments, or pieces, on each graph that correspond to graphs of so- 59. Consider the differential equation dyydx 5 e2x .
lutions. Keep in mind that a solution f must be a function and (a) Explain why a solution of the DE must be an increasing
differentiable. Use the solution curve to estimate an interval I of function on any interval of the x-axis.
definition of each solution f.
y
(b) What are lim dyydx and lim dyydx? What does this
x S 2` xS`
49. y 50. suggest about a solution curve as x S 6`?
(c) Determine an interval over which a solution curve is
1
concave down and an interval over which the curve is
x concave up.
1
1 (d) Sketch the graph of a solution y = f(x) of the differential
equation whose shape is suggested by parts (a) – (c).
1 x
60. Consider the differential equation dyydx = 5 − y.
FIgURE 1.1.6 Graph for FIgURE 1.1.7 Graph for (a) Either by inspection or by the method suggested in
Problem 49 Problem 50 Problems 37– 40, find a constant solution of the DE.
(b) Using only the differential equation, find intervals on the
51. The graphs of members of the one-parameter family y-axis on which a nonconstant solution y = f(x) is
x3 + y3 = 3cxy are called folia of Descartes. Verify that this increasing. Find intervals on the y-axis on which y = f(x)
family is an implicit solution of the first-order differential is decreasing.
equation 61. Consider the differential equation dyydx = y(a − by), where
dy y( y3 2 2x3) a and b are positive constants.
5 .
dx x(2y3 2 x3)
(a) Either by inspection or by the method suggested in
52. The graph in Figure 1.1.7 is the member of the family of folia in Problems 37– 40, find two constant solutions of the DE.
Problem 51 corresponding to c = 1. Discuss: How can the DE in
(b) Using only the differential equation, find intervals on the
Problem 51 help in finding points on the graph of x3 + y3 = 3xy
y-axis on which a nonconstant solution y = f(x) is increas-
where the tangent line is vertical? How does knowing where
ing. Find intervals on which y = f(x) is decreasing.
a tangent line is vertical help in determining an interval I of
definition of a solution f of the DE? Carry out your ideas (c) Using only the differential equation, explain why
and compare with your estimates of the intervals in Problem 50. y = ay2b is the y-coordinate of a point of inflection of the
graph of a nonconstant solution y = f(x).
53. In Example 7 the largest interval I over which the explicit
solutions y = f1(x) and y = f2(x) are defined is the open (d) On the same coordinate axes, sketch the graphs of the
interval (−5, 5). Why can’t the interval I of definition be the two constant solutions found in part (a). These constant
closed interval [−5, 5]? solutions partition the xy-plane into three regions. In
each region, sketch the graph of a nonconstant solution
54. In Problem 21 a one-parameter family of solutions of the DE
y = f(x) whose shape is suggested by the results in
P9 = P(1 − P) is given. Does any solution curve pass through
parts (b) and (c).
the point (0, 3)? Through the point (0, 1)?
62. Consider the differential equation y9 = y2 + 4.
55. Discuss, and illustrate with examples, how to solve differential
equations of the forms dyydx = f (x) and d 2yydx 2 = f (x). (a) Explain why there exist no constant solutions of the DE.
2 3
56. The differential equation x(y9) − 4y9 − 12x = 0 has the form (b) Describe the graph of a solution y = f(x). For example,
given in (4). Determine whether the equation can be put into the can a solution curve have any relative extrema?
normal form dyydx = f (x, y).
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always and to remember that the modern woman owes it to herself to go out
of the home and keep abreast with the times?”
But it was not a question. It was a statement. Freda made no reply and
her mother changed the subject with the satisfied air of the sower of seed.
“When you come to Ireland,” she told her father laughingly that night,
“you will sit on the doorstep and learn to smoke a pipe. And Gregory will
be president of the Republic. And I will be—(ask mother)—a model
housewife, chasing the pigs—”
They laughed with an abandonment which indicated some joke deeper
than the banality about the pigs.
“It’s a worthy task,” said her father. “I’ll come—and I’ll enjoy learning
to smoke a pipe and see Gregory run the government—and as for you—
whatever you do you’ll be doing it with spirit.”
She nodded.
“I’ve just begun to break my trail.”
Then the day came when they must leave the little frame house and after
the excitement of getting extremely long railway tickets at the station and
checking all Freda’s luggage through to New York, they said good-by to the
Thorstads and left them standing together, incongruous even in their
farewells to their daughter.
They were to stop at St. Pierre over night. Mrs. Flandon had written to
urge them to do so and Freda would not have refused, if she had been
inclined to, bearing the sense of her obligation to them. She had not told her
father of that. It amused her to think that her father and Gregory each felt
the other responsible for those Fortunatus strings of railway ticket. But she
wanted Gregory to meet the Flandons again that the debt might be more
explainable later on.
St. Pierre was familiar this time when they entered it in mid-afternoon as
she had on that first arrival with her mother. It was pleasant to see Mrs.
Flandon again and to taste just for a moment the comfortable luxury of the
Flandon house. Freda felt in Mrs. Flandon a warmth of friendliness which
made it easy to speak of the money and assure her of Gregory’s ability to
pay it a little later.
“You’re not to bother,” said Helen, “until you’re quite ready. We were
more glad to send it than I can tell you. It’s a hostage to fortune for us.”
Then she changed the subject quickly.
“I wonder if you’ll mind that I asked a few people for dinner to-night.
You married a celebrity and you want to get used to it. So many people
were interested in the news item about your marriage and wanted to meet
Gregory and you. I warned them not to dress so that’s all right.”
“It’s very nice,” said Freda, “I’ll enjoy it and I think—though I never
dare to speak for Gregory—that he will too. I remember having a beautiful
time at dinner here before. When I was here visiting the Brownleys you
asked me—do you remember?”
“I asked the Brownleys to-night. They were in town—all but Allie. I
asked the elder two and Bob and her young man—Ted Smillie, you know.”
She looked at Freda a little quizzically and Freda looked back,
wondering how much she knew.
“Think they’ll want to meet me?” she asked straight-forwardly.
“I do, very much. I think it’s better, Freda, just to put an end to any silly
talk. It may not matter to you but you know I liked your father so much and
it occurred to me that it might matter to him if any untrue gossip were not
killed. And it’s so very easy to kill it.”
“You take a great deal of trouble for me,” protested Freda.
Helen hesitated. She was on the verge of greater confidence and decided
against it.
“Let me do as I please then, will you?” she said smilingly and Freda
agreed.
Helen felt a little dishonest about it. The dinner was another hostage to
fortune. It was gathering up the loose ends neatly—it was brushing out of
sight bits of unsightly thought—establishing a basis which would enable
her later to do other things.
She had an idea that it would please Gage, though he had been non-
committal when she had broached the idea of having Gregory and his wife
for a brief visit. Helen had seen but little of Gage of late. She knew he was
working hard and badly worried about money. They had sold a piece of
property to raise that thousand for the Macmillans and he had told her
definitely of bad times ahead for him. She offered to reduce the expenses of
the household and he had agreed in the necessity. They must shave every
expense. But it invigorated Helen. She had amends to make to Gage and the
more practical the form the easier it was to make them. Neither of them
desired to unnecessarily trouble those dark waters of mental conflict now.
Helen guessed that Gage’s mind was not on her and that the bad tangle of
his business life absorbed him. Brusque, haggard, absorbed, never
attempting or apparently needing affection, he came and went. Never since
Carpenter’s death had they even discussed the question of separation. That
possibility was there. They had beaten a path to it. But hysteria was too
thoroughly weeded out of Gage to press toward it. Without mutual reproach
they both saw that separation in the immediate future was the last
advantageous thing for the work of either of them and flimsy as that
foundation seemed for life together, yet it held them. They turned their
backs upon what they had lost or given up and looked ahead. Helen heard
Gage refer some political question to her for the first time, with a kind of
wonder. She suspected irony, then dropped her own self-consciousness as it
became apparent that he really did not have any twisted motive behind the
query. She began to see that in great measure he had swung loose from her,
substituting some new strength for his dependence on her love. And, when
some moment of emotional sorrow at the loss of their ardors came over her,
she turned as neatly as did he from disturbing thought to the work, which
piled in on her by letter and by conference.
They sat at dinner in the long white-paneled dining-room, twelve men

and women. The three Brownleys and young Ted Smillie—Jerrold Haynes
because Helen wanted to have him meet Freda and Emily Haight because
she fitted in with Jerrold now that Walter Carpenter was gone. To these
Helen had added the young Harold Spencers because they were the leaders
of that group of young people who made or destroyed gossip. It was a
dinner party made up hurriedly on the excuse of Gregory’s celebrity and
such little intrigue as was hidden in its inception made it no less a pleasant
company.
Interest was concentrated on Freda and Gregory of course and under
Helen’s deft manipulation the story of their marriage and its secrecy was
told, lightly, but with a clearness of detail that sent Ted’s eyes rather
consciously to his plate once or twice as he avoided Barbara’s glance. Ted
was sitting beside Freda and paying her open homage when he could get her
attention. But Gage had much to say to her.
“Are you still chasing romance?” he asked. “I always remember your
startling me with your belief that women were more attractive when they
believed in romance.”
“Yes—I’m still after it. I feel the least bit guilty towards Gregory.
Because while he goes back to Ireland with his heart in his hands ready to
offer it to the country, the whole revolution is to me not as great tragedy as
it is adventure. It is tragedy intellectually but not emotionally as far as I am
concerned while to Gregory”—she turned her head to glance at Gregory.
“And marriage is adventure too, isn’t it?”
She forgot Ted and leaned a confidential elbow towards Gage, resting
her chin in her cupped hand.
“I wouldn’t dare say it in the hearing of my mother or the feminist
feminists but that’s what it is. They talk of partnerships and new contracts—
but they can’t analyze away or starve the adventure of it. All this talk—all
the development of women changes things, but its chief change is in
making the women type different—stronger, finer, you know, like your wife
and Margaret Duffield. But even with women like that when it comes to
love and to marriage it is adventure, isn’t it? You can’t rationalize things
which aren’t rational and you can’t modernize the things that are eternal.”
She became a little shy, afraid of her words. “Mother thinks I’m a
reactionary. I don’t think I am. I want women to be stronger, finer—I’ll
work for that—but that’s one thing, Mr. Flandon. It hasn’t anything to do
with the adventure between men and women, really.”
He started at that. But Ted claimed Freda’s attention and reluctantly she
turned to him.
“I think you treated me rather badly not telling me you were married. I
thought all along that I had a chance, you know.”
The brazenness did not make her angry. Nothing could anger her to-
night. She was all warm vigor, pervading every contact between her and
every one else.
“Barbara looks very well to-night,” she answered with cool irrelevance.
Barbara did. She had dressed with her customary skill but with the wit to
avoid her usual look of sophistication. To-night she was playing the artless
simple girl for Gregory’s benefit, listening to him with only an appreciative
comment now and then. It was clear that Gregory was talking to her as he
talked to one in whom he felt there was intelligence.
“And how clever she is,” added Freda reflectively.
The talk grew more general. Barbara called the attention of every one to
something Gregory had said, a concession for one who did not usually share
her dinner partners or else a successful attempt to break up other
conversations. Irish problems led to a discussion of general politics. Helen
was in the talk now—vigorously. Mrs. Brownley gave the retailed opinion
of Mr. Brownley before he could quote himself.
Gage heard without contributing to what was being said. He was
listening with amusement to Mrs. Brownley’s platitudes and half
unconsciously letting his admiration rise at the clarity of Helen’s thought
and the deftness of her phrases. What presence she had! In the
contemplation of her he felt the problems which had been harassing him all
day—deadlocks in plans, money shortage, fall away. As they had used to—
he slipped into memories and amazingly they did not cause him pain,
though even as he looked he saw upon her the marks of the work she had
done and would do, the new definiteness, the look of being headed
somewhere. But his rancor seemed to have burned itself out and with it had
gone the old possessive passion. He stirred restlessly. Some phœnix was
rising.
Mr. Brownley turned at his movement, offering sympathy.
“Nothing for us to do, Gage,” he chuckled tritely, “except to talk about
recipes. The women talk politics now.”
Gage did not laugh at the old joke.
“Women and men may get together on a subject yet,” he answered, with
heavy awkwardness.
Instantly it seemed to him that it was what he had meant to say for a long
time. He caught the incredulous, almost pitiful look on Helen’s face as she
heard and pretended not to hear, met the quick, wondering glance she
snatched away from him.
Her tremulousness gave him confidence. Impatient of his guests now, he
looked across at her, his eyes kindling. Whether they could work it out
through his storms and hers ceased to gnaw at his thought of her. He saw
her strong, self-sufficient, felt his own strength rising to meet hers, also
self-sufficient. The delight of the adventure, the indestructible adventure
between man and woman remained. His mind moored there.
THE END
Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:
rose with the bawn=> rose with the dawn {pg 149}
what a beneficient=> what a beneficent {pg 183}
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assignments and applications, MindTap is a digital learning solution and

REVIEWERS OF PAST EDITIONS

Terry Herdman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

1.1 Definitions and Terminology

A Definition The equation that we made up in (1) is called a differential

DEFINITION 1.1.1 Differential Equation

ClAssifiCAtion by type If a differential equation contains only ordinary

ExamplE 1 Types of Differential Equations

(b) The following equations are partial differential equations:*

notAtion Throughout this text ordinary derivatives will be written by using

it is immediately seen that the symbol x now represents a dependent variable,

ClAssifiCAtion by orDer The order of a differential equation (either ODE

second order first order

is a second-order ordinary differential equation. In Example 1, the first and third

ExamplE 2 Differential Form of a First-Order ODE

(a) By dividing by the differential dx an alternative form of the equation

(b) By multiplying the differential equation

In symbols we can express an nth-order ordinary differential equation in one

ExamplE 3 Normal Form of an ODE

ClAssifiCAtion by lineArity An nth-order ordinary differential equation (4)

ExamplE 4 Linear and Nonlinear ODEs

(b) The equations

nonlinear term: nonlinear term: nonlinear term:

DEFINITION 1.1.2 solution of an ODE

In other words, a solution of an nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is a

F(x, (x), 9(x), . . . , (n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.

intervAl of Definition You cannot think solution of an ordinary differential

ExamplE 5 Verification of a Solution

(b) From the derivatives y9 = xe x + e x and y0 = xe x + 2e x we have, for every real

left { hand side: y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 (xe x 1 2e x ) 2 2(xe x 1 e x ) 1 xe x 5 0,

y solution Curve The graph of a solution f of an ODE is called a solution

ExamplE 6 Function versus Solution

DEFINITION 1.1.3 Implicit solution of an ODE

ExamplE 7 Verification of an Implicit Solution

on the open interval (−5, 5). By implicit differentiation we obtain

(a) implicit solution (b) explicit solution (c) explicit solution

Because the distinction between an explicit solution and an implicit solution

fAmilies of solutions The study of differential equations is similar to

Sometimes a differential equation possesses a solution that is not a member of

ExamplE 9 Using Different Symbols

The next example shows that a solution of a differential equation can be a

in theory, as well as in many applications, we must deal with systems of differ-

A solution of a system such as (10) is a pair of differentiable functions x = f 1(t),

If the integrand g in (11) is continuous on an interval [a, b] and a # x # b, then

The integral in (11) is often nonelementary, that is, an integral of a function g

constant, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric,

ExErcIsEs 1.1 Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-1.

dy 6 6 29. Verify that the piecewise-defined function

dP c1et In Problems 41 and 42 verify that the indicated pair of functions is a

F(x, (x), 9(x), . . . , (n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.