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 Engineering
Mathematics II
About the Author

T Veerarajan retired as Dean, Department of Mathematics,

Velammal College of Engineering and Technology,
Viraganoor, Madurai, Tamil Nadu. A gold medalist from
Madras University, he has had a brilliant academic career
all through. He has 50 years of teaching experience at
undergraduate and postgraduate levels in various established
engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu including Anna
University, Chennai.
 Engineering
Mathematics II

T Veerarajan
Former Dean, Department of Mathematics
Velammal College of Engineering and Technology
Viraganoor, Madurai
Tamil Nadu

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Chennai
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 McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
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Engineering Mathematics II
Copyright © 2018 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
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 Contents
Preface ix

Unit 1. Matrices 1.1–1.80

1.1 Introduction 1.3

1.2 Vectors 1.4
1.3 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence of Vectors 1.5
1.4 Methods of Testing Linear Dependence or
Independence of a Set of Vectors 1.5
1.5 Consistency of a System of Linear Algebraic Equations 1.5
Worked Example 1(a) 1.7
Exercise 1(a) 1.24
1.6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 1.27
Worked Example 1(b) 1.32
Exercise 1(b) 1.44
1.7 Cayley – Hamilton Theorem 1.46
1.8 Property 1.47
1.9 Calculation of Powers of a Matrix A 1.49
1.10 Diagonalisation by Orthogonal Transformation or
Orthogonal Reduction 1.49
Worked Example 1(c) 1.49
Exercise 1(c) 1.62
1.11 Quadratic Forms 1.64
Worked Example 1(d) 1.67
Exercise 1(d) 1.74
Answers 1.75

Unit 2. Vector calcUlUs 2.1–2.59

2.1 Introduction 2.3

2.2 Vector Differential Operator ∇ 2.3
Worked Example 2(a) 2.6
Exercise 2(a) 2.11
2.3 The Divergence of a Vector 2.12
Worked Example 2(b) 2.18
Exercise 2(b) 2.26
2.4 Line Integral of Vector Point Functions 2.27
vi Contents

Worked Example 2(c) 2.30

Exercise 2(c) 2.37
2.5 Integral Theorems 2.39
Worked Example 2(d) 2.42
Exercise 2(d) 2.56
Answers 2.58

Unit 3. analytic FUnctions 3.1–3.97

3.1 Introduction 3.3

3.2 The Complex Variable 3.4
Worked Example 3(a) 3.12
Exercise 3(a) 3.24
3.3 Properties of Analytic Functions 3.26
Worked Example 3(b) 3.32
Exercise 3(b) 3.43
3.4 Conformal Mapping 3.45
3.5 Some Simple Transformation 3.48
3.6 Some Standard Transformations 3.51
Worked Example 3(c) 3.59
Exercise 3(c) 3.76
3.7 Bilinear and Schwarz-Christoffel Transformations 3.79
3.8 Schwarz-Christoffel Transformations 3.82
Worked Example 3(d) 3.84
Exercise 3(d) 3.93
Answers 3.95

Unit 4. coMplex integration 4.1–4.73

4.1 Introduction 4.3

4.2 Cauchy’s Integral Theorem or Cauchy’s Fundamental Theorem 4.4
Worked Example 4(a) 4.9
Exercise 4(a) 4.19
4.3 Series Expansions of Functions of Complex Variable-Power Series 4.22
4.4 Classification of Singularities 4.27
Worked Example 4(b) 4.33
Exercise 4(b) 4.45
4.5 Contour Integration—Evaluation of Real Integrals 4.49
Worked Example 4(c) 4.52
Exercise 4(c) 4.69
Answers 4.70
 Contents vii

Unit 5. laplace transForMs 5.1–5.120

5.1 Introduction 5.3

5.2 Linearity Property of Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transforms 5.4
5.3 Laplace Transforms of Some Elementary Functions 5.5
5.4 Laplace Transforms of Some Special Functions 5.9
5.5 Properties of Laplace Transforms 5.12
Worked Example 5(a) 5.14
Exercise 5(a) 5.35
5.6 Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions 5.38
5.7 Derivatives and Integrals of Transforms 5.39
Worked Example 5(b) 5.42
Exercise 5(b) 5.62
5.8 Laplace Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals 5.65
5.9 Initial and Final Value Theorems 5.68
5.10 The Convolution 5.70
Worked Example 5(c) 5.72
Exercise 5(c) 5.94
5.11 Solutions of Differential and Integral Equations 5.98
Worked Example 5(d) 5.98
Exercise 5(d) 5.110
Answers 5.112
 Preface

I am deeply gratified with the enthusiastic response shown by students and faculty
members alike to all my books on Engineering Mathematics and Mathematics in
general throughout the country.
The motivation behind writing this book is to meet the requirements of students of
first-year undergraduate course on Engineering Mathematics offered to the students
of engineering. The contents have been covered in adequate depth for semester II
of various universities/ deemed universities across the country. It offers a balanced
coverage of both theory and problems. Lucid writing style supported by step-by-
step solutions to all problems enhances understanding of the concepts. The book has
ample number of solved and unsolved problems of different variety to help students
and teachers learning and teaching this subject.
I hope that the book will be received by both the faculty and the students as
enthusiastically as my other books on Engineering Mathematics. Critical evaluation
and suggestions for the improvement of the book will be highly appreciated and
acknowledged.

T VEERARAJAN

Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of
which can be sent to info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and
author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
 Unit-1
Matrices
 Unit 1
Matrices

1.1 intRODUCtiOn
In the lower classes, the students have studied a few topics in Elementary Matrix
theory. They are assumed to be familiar with the basic definitions and concepts of
matrix theory as well as the elementary operations on and properties of matrices.
Though the concept of rank of a matrix has been introduced in the lower classes,
we briefly recall the definition of rank and working procedure to find the rank of a
matrix, as it will be of frequent use in testing the consistency of a system of linear
algebraic equations, that will be discussed in the next section.

1.1.1 Rank of a Matrix

Determinant of any square submatrix of a given matrix A is called a minor of A. If the
square submatrix is of order r, then the minor also is said to be of order r.
Let A be an m × n matrix. The rank of A is said to be ‘r’, if
(i) there is at least one minor of A of order r which does not vanish and
(ii) every minor of A of order (r + 1) and higher order vanishes.
In other words, the rank of a matrix is the largest of the orders of all the non-
vanishing minors of that matrix. Rank of a matrix A is denoted by R(A) or ρ(A).
To find the rank of a matrix A, we may use the following procedure:
We first consider the highest order minor (or minors) of A. Let their order be r.
If any one of them does not vanish, then ρ(A) = r. If all of them vanish, we next
consider minors of A of next lower order (r – 1) and so on, until we get a non-zero
minor. The order of that non-zero minor is ρ(A).
This method involves a lot of computational work and hence requires more time,
as we have to evaluate many determinants. An alternative method to find the rank of
a matrix A is given below:
Reduce A to any one of the following forms, (called normal forms) by a series of
elementary operations on A and then find the order of the unit matrix contained in
the normal form of A:

 I   I |O
[ I r ]; [ I r | O ];  r  ;  r 
 O   O | O 
1.4 Mathematics II

Here Ir denotes the unit matrix of order r and O is zero matrix.

By an elementary operation on a matrix (denoted as E-operation) we mean any
one of the following operations or transformations:
(i) Interchange of any two rows (or columns).
(ii) Multiplication of every element of a row (or column) by any non-zero scalar.
(iii) Addition to the elements of any row (or column), the same scalar multiples
of corresponding elements of any other row (or column).
Note The alternative method for finding the rank of a matrix is based on the
property that the rank of a matrix is unaltered by elementary operations.
Finally we observe that we need not necessarily reduce a matrix A to the normal
form to find its rank. It is enough we reduce A to an equivalent matrix, whose rank
can be easily found, by a sequence of elementary operations on A. The methods are
illustrated in the worked examples that follow.

1.2 VECtORS
A set of n numbers x1, x2, . . ., xn written in a particular order (or an ordered set of n
numbers) is called an n-dimensional vector or a vector of order n. The n numbers are
called the components or elements of the vector. A vector is denoted by a single letter
X or Y etc. The components of a vector may be written in a row as X = (x1, x2, ..., xn)
 x1 
 
x 
or in a column as X =  2  . These are called respectively row vector and

x 
 n 
column vector. We note that a row vector of order n is a 1 × n matrix and a column
vector of order n is an n × 1 matrix.

1.2.1 Addition of Vectors

The sum of two vectors of the same dimension is obtained by adding the corresponding
components.
i.e., if X = (x1, x2, . . ., xn) and Y = (y1, y2, . . ., yn),
then X + Y = (x1 + y1, x2 + y 2. . ., xn + yn).

1.2.2 Scalar Multiplication of a Vector

If k is a scalar and X = (x1 , x2, . . ., xn) is a vector, then the scalar multiple kX is defined as
kX = (kx1, kx2, . . ., kxn).

1.2.3 Linear Combination of Vectors

If a vector X can be expressed as X = k1X1 + k2X2 + . . . + krXr then X is said to be a
linear combination of the vectors X1, X2, . . ., Xr.
 Matrices 1.5

1.3 LinEAR DEPEnDEnCE AnD LinEAR inDEPEnDEnCE

OF VECtORS
The vectors X1, X2, . . ., Xr are said to be linearly dependent if we can find scalars k1,
k2, . . . kr, which are not all zero, such that k1Xl + k2X2 + . . . + krXr = 0.
A set of vectors is said to be linearly independent if it is not linearly dependent,
i.e. the vectors X1, X2, . . ., Xr are linearly independent, if the relation k1X1 + k2X2+
. . . krXr = 0 is satisfied only when kl = k2 = . . . = kr = 0.

Note When the vectors X1, X2, . . ., Xr are linearly dependent, then
k1X1 + k2X2 + . . . + krXr = 0, where at least one of the k’s is not zero. Let km ≠ 0.

k1 k k
Thus Xm = − ⋅ X 1 − 2 X 2 −⋅⋅⋅− r X r .
km km km
Thus at least one of the given vectors can be expressed as a linear combination
of the others.

1.4 MEtHODS OF tEStinG LinEAR DEPEnDEnCE

OR inDEPEnDEnCE OF A SEt OF VECtORS
Method 1 Using the definition directly.
Method 2 We write the given vectors as row vectors and form a matrix. Using
elementary row operations on this matrix, we reduce it to echelon form, i.e. the one
in which all the elements in the rth column below the rth element are zero each. If the
number of non-zero row vectors in the echelon form equals the number of given vectors,
then the vectors are linearly independent. Otherwise they are linearly dependent.
Method 3 If there are n vectors, each of dimension n, then the matrix formed as in
method (2) will be a square matrix of order n. If the rank of the matrix equals n, then
the vectors are linearly independent. Otherwise they are linearly dependent.

1.5 COnSiStEnCY OF A SYStEM OF LinEAR

ALGEBRAiC EQUAtiOnS

Consider the following system of m linear algebraic equations in n unknowns:

a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn = b2
am1x1 + am2x2 + . . . + amnxn = bm
This system can be represented in the matrix form as AX = B, where
x   b1 
a a12 … a1n   1  
 11  x2  b 
A =  a21 a22 
… a2 n  , X =   , B =  2 
 

am 2   amn 
  
 am1  x  b 
 n   m 
1.6 Mathematics II

The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix of the system, X is the matrix of unknowns
and B is the matrix of the constants.
If B ≡ O, a zero matrix, the system is called a system of homogeneous linear equations;
otherwise, the system is called a system of linear non-homogeneous equations.
The m × (n + 1) matrix, obtained by appending the column vector B to the
coefficient matrix A as the additional last column, is called the augmented matrix of
the system and is denoted by [A, B] or [A | B].
a a12 … a1n b1 
 11
i.e. [ A , B ]  a21
= a22 … a2 n b2 
 
 am1 am 2 … amn bm 


1.5.1 Definitions
A set of values of x1, x2 . . ., xn. which satisfy all the given m equations simultaneously
is called a solution of the system.
When the system of equations has a solution, it is said to be consistent. Otherwise
the system is said to be inconsistent.
A consistent system may have either only one or infinitely many solutions.
When the system has only one solution, it is called the unique solution.
The necessary and sufficient condition for the consistency of a system of linear
non-homogeneous equations is provided by a theorem, called Rouches’s theorem,
which we state below without proof.

1.5.2 Rouche’s theorem

The system of equations AX = B is consistent, if and only if the coefficient matrix A
and the augmented matrix [A, B] are of the same rank.
Thus to discuss the consistency of the equations AX = B (m equations in n
unknowns), the following procedure is adopted:
We first find R(A) and R(A, B).
(i) If R(A) ≠ R(A, B), the equations are inconsistent
(ii) If R(A) = R(A, B) = the number of unknowns n, the equations are consistent
and have a unique solution.
In particular, if A is a non-singular (square) matrix, the system AX = B has
a unique solution.
(iii) If R(A) = R(A, B) < the number of unknowns n, the equations are consistent
and have an infinite number of solutions.

1.5.3 System of Homogeneous Linear Equations

Consider the system of homogeneous linear equations AX = O (m equations in n
unknowns)
i.e a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . a1nxn = 0
a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn = 0
––––––––––––––––
am1x1 + am2x2 + . . . amnxn = 0
 Matrices 1.7

This system is always consistent, as R(A) = R(A, O). If the coefficient matrix A is
non-singular, the system has a unique solution, namely, x1 = x2 = . . . = xn = 0. This
unique solution is called the trivial solution, which is not of any importance.
If the coefficient matrix A is singular, i.e. if | A| = 0, the system has an infinite
number of non-zero or non-trivial solutions.
The method of finding the non-zero solution of a system of homogeneous linear
equations is illustrated in the worked examples that follow.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1(a)

Example 1.1 Show that the vectors X1 = (1, 1, 2), X2 = (1, 2, 5) and X3 = (5, 3, 4) are
linearly dependent. Also express each vector as a linear combination of the other two.
Method 1
Let k1X1 + k2X2 + k3X3 = 0
i.e. k1(1, 1, 2) + k2(1, 2, 5) + k3(5, 3, 4) = (0, 0, 0)
∴ k1 + k2 + 5k3 = 0 (1)
k1 + 2k2 + 3k3 = 0 (2)
2k1 + 5k2 + 4k3 = 0 (3)
(2) – (1) gives k2 – 2k3 = 0 or k2 =2k3 (4)

Using (4) in (3), k1 = – 7k3 (5)

Taking k3 = 1, we get k1 = – 7 and k2 = 2.
Thus –7X1 + 2X2 + X3 = 0 (6)
∴ The vectors X1, X2, X3 are linearly dependent.
2 1
From (6), we get X1 = X2 + X3 ,
7 7
7 1
X2 = X1 − X 3 and X3 = 7X1 – 2X2
Method 2 2 2

Writing X1, X2, X3 as row vectors, we get

 1 1 2  1 1 2
   
A = 1 2 5  ∼  0 1 3 ( R2′ = R2 − R1 , R3′ = R3 − 5 R1 )
   
 5 3 4   0 −2 −6 
   
 1 1 2
 
∼  0 1 3 ( R3′′ = R3′ + 2 R2′ )
 
 0 0 0
 
In the echelon form of the matrix, the number of non-zero vectors = 2 (< the number
of given vectors).
∴ X1, X2, X3 are linearly dependent.
1.8 Mathematics II

Now 0 = R3′′ = R3′ + 2 R2′

= ( R3 − 5 R1 ) + 2 ( R2 − R1 )
= − 7 R1 + 2 R2 + R3
i.e. –7X1 + 2X2 + X3 = 0
2 1 7 1
As before, X1 = X 2 + X 3 , X 2 = X1 − X 3 and X3 = 7X1 – 2X2.
7 7 2 2
Method 3
|A| = 0 ∴ R (A) ≠ 3; R (A) = 2
∴ The vectors X1, X2, X3 are linearly dependent.
Example 1.2 Show that the vectors X1 = (1, –1, –2, –4), X2 = (2, 3, –1, –1),
X3 = (3, 1, 3, –2) and X4 = (6, 3, 0, –7) are linearly dependent. Find also the relationship
among them.
 X 1   1 −1 −2 −4   1 −1 −2 −4 
     
 X 2  2 3 −1 −1  0 5 3 7 ( R2′ = R2 − 2 R1 , R3′ =
     
A=   = 
X 3 1 3 − 2  ∼ 0 4 9 10  R − 3R , R ′ = R − 6 R )
  
3    3 1 4 4 1
 X  6 3 0 − 7   0 9 12 17 
 4     
 1 −1 −2 −4 
 
 3 7
0 1  1 
∼ 5 5   R2′′ = R2′ ; R3′′ = R3′; R4′′ = R4′ 
   5 
0 4 9 10
 
0 9 12 17


 1 −1 −2 −4
 
 3 7
0 1 
 5 5 

∼ 33 22  = ( R3′′′= R3′′ − 4 R2′′ ; R4′′′= R4′′ − 9 R2′′)
0 0 
 5 5
 
 33 22 
 0 0 
 5 5 

 1 −1 −2 −4 
 
 3 7
0 1 
 5 5  ′′′ ′
∼

( R4 = R4′′′ − R3′′′)
33 22 
0 0 
 5 5
 
 0 0 0 0
Number of non-zero vectors in echelon form of the matrix A = 3.
∴ The vectors X1, X2, X3, X4 are linearly dependent.
 Matrices 1.9

Now 0 = R4′′′′= R4′′′− R3′′′

= ( R4′′ − 9R2′′) − ( R3′′ − 4R2′′)
= R4′ − R3′ − R2′
= ( R4 − 6R1) − ( R3 − 3R1) − ( R2 − 2R1)
= − R1 − R2 − R3 + R4
∴ The relation among Xl, X2, X3, X4 is
– X1 – X2 – X3 + X4 = 0 or X1 + X2 + X3 – X4 = 0.
Example 1.3 Show that the vectors X1 = (2, –2, 1), X2 = (1, 4, –1) and
X3 = (4, 6, –3) are linearly independent.
Method 1
Let k1 X1 + k2 X2 + k3 X3 = 0
i.e. k1 (2, –2, 1) + k2 (1, 4, –1) + k3 (4, 6, –3) = (0, 0, 0)
∴ 2k1 + k2 + 4k3 = 0 (1)
–2k1 + 4k2 + 6k3 = 0 (2)
k1 – k2 –3k3 = 0 (3)
From (1) and (2), k2 + 2k3 = 0 (4)
From (2) and (3), k2 = 0 (5)
∴ k1 = 0 = k2 = k3.
∴ The vectors X1, X2, X3 are linearly independent.
Method 2
 X 1   2 −2 1  1 4 −1
     
 
A = X2 = 1   
4 −1 ∼  2 −2 1 ( R1′ = R2 ; R2′ = R1 )
 X  4 6 −3  4 6 −3
 3 
1 4 −1
 

∼  0 −10
 0 −10
(
3 R2′′ = R2′ − 2 R1′ ; R3′′ = R3′ − 4 R1′ )
 1
1 4 −1
 

∼  0 −10
0
(
3 R3′′′ = R3′′ − R2′′ )
 0 −2
Number of non-zero vectors in the echelon form of A = number of given vectors,
∴ X1, X2, X3 are linearly independent.

Example 1.4 Show that the vectors X1 = (1, −1, −1, 3), X2 = (2, 1, −2, −1) and
X3 = (7, 2, −7, 4) are linearly independent.
 X 1   1 −1 −1
  
  
A =  X 2  = 2
3  1 −1 −1
 
 
1 −2 −1 ∼  0 3
3 R2′ = R2 − 2 R1 ;
0 −7
 (
 X  7
 3  2 −7 4  0 9 0 −17 R3′ = R3 − 7 R1 )
1.10 Mathematics II

 1 −1 −1 3
 

∼ 0
0
3 (
0 −7 R3′′ = R3′ − 3R2′ )
 0 0 4
Number of non-zero vectors in the echelon form of A = number of given vectors.
∴ X1, X2, X3 are linearly independent.
Example 1.5 Test for the consistency of the following system of equations:
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 5
6x1 + 7x2 + 8x3 + 9x4 = 10
11x1 + 12x2 + 13x3 + 14x4 =15
16x1 + 17x2+ 18x3 + 19x4 = 20
21x1 + 22x2 + 23x3 + 24x4 = 25
The given equations can be put as
1 2 3 4 5
   x1   
 6 7 8 9    10 
    
11 12 13 14   x2  = 15 
    
16 17 18 19   x3   20
  x   
   4   
 21 22 23 24   25
i.e. AX = B (say)
Let us find the rank of the augmented matrix [A, B] by reducing it to the normal form
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
    ( R → R2 − R1
 6 7 8 9 10   5 5 5 5 5  2
    R →R −R
[ A, B ] = 11 12 13 14 15  ∼ 10 10 10 10 10  3 3 1

16 17 18 19 20 15 15 15 15 15  4 R → R 4 − R1

    R →R −R )
    5 5 1
 21 22 23 24 25  20 20 20 20 20
Note If two matrices A and B are equivalent, i.e. are of the same rank, it is
denoted as A ~ B.
1 2 3 4 5
  1 1 1
1
 1 1 1 1  R2 → R2 , R3 → R3 , R4 → R4 ,
 5 10 15
∼ 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 
 1 1 1 1 R5 → R5 
  20 
1 1 1 1 1

1 2 3 4 5
 
0 −1 −2 −3 −4 
 ( R → R2 − R1 , R3 → R3 − R1 ,
∼  0 −1 −2 −3 −4  2
0 R → R4 − R1 , R5 → R5 − R1 )
 −1 −2 −3 −4  4
 
0 −1 −2 −3 −4 
 Matrices 1.11

1 0 0 0 0
 
0 −1 −2 −3 −4 
 (C2 → C2 − 2C1 , C3 → C3 − 3C1 ,
∼  0 −1 −2 −3 −4 
0 C4 → C4 − 4C1 , C5 → C5 − 5C1 )
 −1 −2 −3 −4 
 
 0 −1 −2 −3 −4 
1 0 0 0 0
 
0 1 1 1 1
 [C2 → − C2 , C3 → C3 ÷ (−2),
∼  0 1 1 1 1
0 C → C4 ÷ (−3) , C5 → C5 ÷ (−4)
 1 1 1 1 4
 
 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 00
 
0 1 1 1
1
 ( R → R3 − R2 , R4 → R4 − R2 ,
∼ 0 0 0 0 3
0
0 R → R5 − R2 )
 0 0 0 5
0
 
0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0 0
 (C → C3 − C2 , C4 → C4 − C2 ,
∼  0 0 0 0 0 3
0 C → C5 − C2 )
 0 0 0 0 5
 
 0 0 0 0 0

 I2 0 
 
Now [A, B] has been reduced to the normal form  0 0 
 
The order of the unit matrix present in the normal form = 2.
Hence the rank of [A, B] = 2.
The rank of the coefficient matrix A can be found as 2, in a similar manner.
Thus R (A) = R [A, B] = 2
∴ The given system of equations is consistent and possesses many solutions.
Example 1.6 Test for the consistency of the following system of equations:
x1 − 2x2 − 3x3 = 2; 3x1 − 2x2 = −1; −2x2 − 3x3 = 2; x2 + 2x3 = 1.
The system can be put as
 1 −2 −3  2
   x1   
 3 −2
 0   −1
 
 0 −2 −3  x2  =  2
  x   
0 2    1
3
 1
1.12 Mathematics II

i.e. AX = B (say)
1 −2 −3 2   1 −2 −3 2
   
3 −2 
0 −1  0  4 9 −7
[ A, B ] =  ∼ ( R2 → R2 − 3R1 )
0 −2 −3 2  0 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1  0 1 2 1

1 0 0 0
 
0 4 9 −7
∼  (C2 → C2 + 2C1 , C3 → C3 + 3C1 , C4 → C4 − 2C1 )
0 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1


1 0 0 0
 
0 1 2 1 
∼   (R → R , R → R )
2
2 4 4 2
 0 −2 −3
0 4 9 −7


1 0 0 0
 
0 1 2 1
∼  ( R3 → R3 + 2 R2 , R4 → R4 − 4 R2 )
0 0 1 4
0 0 1 −11


1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
∼  (C3 → C3 − 2C2 , C4 → C4 − C1 )
0 0 1 4
0 0 1 −11


1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
∼  ( R4 → R4 − R3 )
0 0 1 4
0 0 0 −15


1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
∼  (C4 → C4 − 4C3 )
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −15


1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0  
∼   R4 → − 1 R4 
0 0 1 
0   15 
0 0 0 
1

 Matrices 1.13

∴ R[A, B] = 4
But R (A) ≠ 4, as A is a (4 × 3) matrix.
In fact R (A) = 3, as the value of the minor

3 −2 0
0 −2 −3 ≠ 0
0 1 2

Thus R (A) ≠ R [A, B]

∴The given system is inconsistent.
Example 1.7 Test for the consistency of the following system of equations and solve
them, if consistent, by matrix inversion.

x − y + z + 1 = 0; x − 3y + 4z + 6 = 0; 4x + 3y − 2z + 3 = 0;
7x − 4y + 7z+ 16 = 0.

 1 −1 1
 
 1 −3 4 
A =  
4 3 −2
 7 −4 7


 1 −1 1 −1  1 −1 1 −1
    ( R 2 → R2 − R1 ,
 1 −3 4 − 6   0 − 2 3 − 5 
[ A, B ] =  ∼  R → R − 4R ,
3 −2 −3  0 1
3 3 1
4 7 −6
 7 −4 R → R − 7 R1)
7 −16  0 0 −9
4 4
 3

1 0 0 0
 
 0 −2 3 −5

∼ (C2 → C2 + C1 , C3 → C3 − C1 , C4 → C4 + C1 )
0 7 −6 1
0 3 0 −9


1 0 0 0
 
0 1 −6 7

∼ ( R2 ↔ R3 and then C2 ↔ C4 )
 0 −5 3 −2
 0 −9 0 3


1 0 0 0
  ( R3 → R3 + 5 R2 , R4 → R4 + 9 R2 )
0 1 0 0
∼  and then
0 0 −27 33
0 (C3 → C3 + 6C2 , C4 → C4 − 7C2 )
 0 −54 66
1.14 Mathematics II

1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0  
∼  C3 → − 1 C3 , C4 → 1 C4 
0

0 1 1   27 33 
0 
0 2 2

1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0 ( R 4 → R4 − 2 R3 and theen
∼ 
0 0 1 0 C4 → C4 − C3 )
0 0 0 0
 

∴ R [A, B] = 3. Also R (A) = 3

∴ The given system is consistent and has a unique solution.
To solve the system, we take any three, say the first three, of the given equations.
 1 −1 1  x  −1
    
i.e.  1 −3 4   y  = −6
    
4 3 −2  z  −3

i.e. AX = B, say
∴ X = A−1 B (1)
 1 −1 1  a11 a12 a13 
   
Let A =  1 −3 4 ≡  a21 a22 a23 
4
 3 −2  a31 a32 a33 

Now A11 = co-factor of a11 in |A| = −6

A12 = 18; A13 = 15; A21 = 1; A22 = −6; A23 = −7;
A31 = −1; A32 = −3; A33 = −2.
−6 1 −1
 
∴ Adj ( A) =  18 −6 −3

 15 −7 −2
 
|A| = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 = −9

−6 1 −1
−1 1 1  
(2)
∴ A = adj A = −  18 −6 −3
A 9 
 15 −7 −2
Using (2) in (1),

 x −6 1 −1 −1

  1   
 y  = −  18 −6 −3 −6
  9   
 z  
   15 −7 −2 −3
 Matrices 1.15

 1
 
 3  −3 
1    
= −  27 =  −3 
9   
 33 − 11
 3 
1 11
∴ Solution of the system is x = − , y = − 3, z = −
3 3
Example 1.8 Test for the consistency of the following system of equations and solve
them, if consistent:
3x + y + z = 8; − x + y − 2z = − 5; x + y + z = 6; – 2x + 2y − 3z = − 7.

Note As the solution can be found out by any method, when the system is
consistent, we may prefer the triangularisation method (also known as Gaussian
elimination method) to reduce the augmented matrix [A, B] to an equivalent matrix.
Using the equivalent matrix, we can test the consistency of the system and also
find the solution easily when it exists. In this method, we use only elementary row
operations and convert the elements below the principal diagonal of A as zeros.
 3 1 1 8  1 1 1 6
   
 −1 1 −2 −5  −1 1 −2 −5
[ A, B ] =  ∼ ( R1 ↔ R3 )
 1 1 1 6  3 1 1 8
−2 2 −3 −7 −2 2 −3 −7


1 1 1 6
 
0 2 −1 1

∼  ( R2 → R2 + R1 , R3 → R3 − 3R1 , R4 → R4 + 2 R1 )
 0 −2 −2 −10
0 4 −1 5


1 1 1 6
 
0 2 −1 1
∼  ( R3 → R3 + R2 , R4 → R4 − 2 R2 )
0 0 −3 −9
0 0 1 3


1 1 1 6
 
0 2 −1 1  
∼   R4 → R4 + 1 R3  (1)
0

0 −3 −9  3 
0 0 0 0


Now, Determinant of [A, B] = − Determinant of the equivalent matrix = 0. (∴ Two

rows interchanged in the first operation)
∴ R [ A, B ] ≤ 3
1.16 Mathematics II

1 1 1
Now 0 2 −1 = − 6 ≠ 0
0 0 −3

∴ R [A, B] = R (A) = 3 = the number of unknowns.

∴ The system is consistent and has a unique solution.
A system of equations equivalent to the given system is also obtained from the
equivalent matrix in (1).
The equivalent equations are
x + y + z = 6, 2y − z= 1 and − 3z = − 9
Solving them backwards, we get
x = 1, y = 2, z = 3.
Example 1.9 Examine if the following system of equations is consistent and
find the solution if it exists.

x + y + z = 1, 2 x − 2 y + 3 z = 1; x − y + 2 z = 5; 3 x + y + z = 2.

1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1
    ( R2 → R2 − 2 R1 ,
 2 −2 3 1  0 −4 1 −1
[ A, B ] =  ∼
 
 R3 → R3 − R1 ,
 1 −1 2 5  0 −2 1 4
3 R4 → R4 − 3R1 )
 1 1 2  0 −2 −2 −1
1 1 1 1
 
 0 −4 1 −1
 
 1 9  1 1 
∼ 0 0   R3 → R3 − R2 , R4 → R4 − R2 
 2 2   2 2 

 5 1 
0 0 − − 
 2 2 
1 1 1 1
 
0 −4 1 −1
 
∼ 1 9  ( R4 → R4 + 5 R3 )
0 0
 2 2 

0 0 0 22


It is obvious that det [A, B] = 4 and det [A] = 3

∴ R [A, B] ≠ R [A].
∴ The system is inconsistent.

Note The last row of the equivalent matrix corresponds to the equation
0 ⋅ x + 0 ⋅ y + 0 ⋅ z = 22, which is absurd. From this also, we can conclude that the
system is inconsistent.
 Matrices 1.17

Example 1.10 Solve the following system of equations, if consistent:

x + y + z = 3, x + y − z = 1; 3x + 3y − 5z = 1.
1 1 1 3  1 1 1 3
   
[ A, B ] =  1 1 −1 1 ∼  0
 
0 −2 −2 ( R2 → R2 − R1 , R3 → R3 − 3R1 )

3 3 −5 1  0 0 −8 −8

1 1 1 3
 
∼ 0 0 −2 −2 ( R3 → R3 − 4 R2 )
 
0 0 0 0

∴ All the third order determinants vanish
∴ R [A, B] ≠ 3
1 1
Consider , which is a minor of both A and [A, B].
0 −2
The value of this minor = − 2 ≠ 0
∴ R (A) = R [A, B] < the number of unknowns.
∴ The system is consistent with many solutions.
From the first two rows of the equivalent matrix, we have x + y + z = 3 and
− 2z = − 2
i.e. z=1 and x + y = 2.
∴ The system has a one parameter family of solutions, namely x = k, y = 2 − k,
z = 1, where k is the parameter.
Giving various values for k, we get infinitely many solutions.
Example 1.11 Solve the following system of equations, if consistent:

x1 + 2 x2 − x3 − 5 x4 = 4; x1 + 3 x2 − 2 x3 − 7 x4 = 5; 2 x1 − x2 + 3 x3 = 3.
1 2 −1 −5 4 
 

[ A, B ] =  1 3 −2 −7 5
 2 −1 3 0 3

1 2 −1 −5 4
 
∼ 0 1 −1 −2 1 ( R2 → R2 − R1 , R3 → R3 − 2 R1 )
 
 0 −5 5 10 −5

 1 2 −1 −5 4 
 
∼  0 1 −1 −2 1 ( R3 → R3 + 5 R2 )
 
0 0 0 0 0 
 
∴
∴ R [A, B] ≠ 3 ( the last row contains only zeros)
Similarly R (A) ≠ 3.
1 2
Since ≠ 0 , R (A) = R [A, B] = 2 < the number of unknowns.
0 1
∴ The given system is consistent with many solutions.
1.18 Mathematics II

From the first two rows of the equivalent matrix, we have

x1 + 2 x2 − x3 − 5 x4 = 4
(1)
and x2 − x3 − 2 x4 = 1 (2)
As there are only 2 equations, we can solve for only 2 unknowns.
Hence the other 2 unknowns are to be treated as parameters.
Taking x3 = k and x4 = k′, we get
x2 = 1 + k + 2k' [from (2)]
and x1 = 4 − 2 (1+ k + 2k') + k + 5k' [from (1)]
i.e. x1 = 2 − k + k'
∴ The given system possesses a two parameter family of solutions.
Note From the Examples (10) and (11), we note that the number of parameters
in the solution equals the difference between the number of unknowns and the
common rank of A and [A, B].
Example 1.12 Find the values of k, for which the equations x + y + z = 1,
x + 2y + 3z = k and x + 5y + 9z = k2 have a solution. For these values of k, find the
solutions also.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
    ( R → R2 − R1 ,
[ A, B ] = 1 2 3 k  ∼ 0 1 2 k − 1  2
   R →R −R)
1 5 9 k 2   0 4 8 k 2 − 1 3 3 1

1 1 1 1 
 
0 1 2 k − 1  ( R3 → R3 − 4 R2 ) (1)
 
0 0 0 k 2 − 4k + 3

1 1 1
 
A ∼  0 1 2 ∴ R ( A) = 2
 
 0 0 0
 

If the system possesses a solution, R [A, B] must also be 2.

∴ The last row of the matrix in (1) must contain only zeros.
∴ k2 − 4k + 3 = 0 i.e. k = 1 or 3.
For these values of k, R (A) = R [A, B] = 2 < the number of unknowns.
∴ The given system has many solutions.
Case (i) k=1
The first two rows of (1) give the equivalent equations as
and x+y+z=1 (2)
y + 2z = 0 (3)
Puting z = λ, the one-parameter family of solutions of the given system is
x = λ + 1, y = − 2λ and z=λ
Case (ii) k=3
The equivalent equations are
x+y+z=1 (2)
 Matrices 1.19

and y + 2z = 2 (4)
Putting z = μ, the one-parameter family of solutions of the given system is
x = μ − 1, y = 2 − 2 μ, z = μ.
Example 1.13 Find the condition satisfied by a, b, c, so that the following system of
equations may have a solution:
x + 2y − 3z = a; 3x − y + 2z = b; x − 5y + 8z = c.

1 2 −3 a 
 
[ A, B ] = 3 −1 2 b

1 −5 8 c 

1 2 −3 a 
 
∼ 0 −7 11 b − 3a  ( R2 → R2 − 3R1 , R3 → R3 − R1 )
 
0 −7 11 c − a 

1 2 −3 a 
 
∼  0 −7 11 b − 3a  ( R3 → R3 − R2 ) (1)
 
0 0 0 2 a − b + c 
 
1 2 −3
 
A ∼  0 −7 11 ∴ R ( A) = 2
 
0 0 0


If the given system possesses a solution, R [A, B] = 2.

∴ The last row of (1) should contain only zeros.
∴ 2a − b + c = 0. Only when this condition is satisfied by a, b, c, the system will
have a solution.

Example 1.14 Find the value of k such that the following system of equations has
(i) a unique solution, (ii) many solutions and (iii) no solution.
kx + y + z = 1; x + ky + z = 1; x + y + kz = 1.

k 1 1
 
A = 1 k 1
∴  
1 1 k 

A = k (k 2 − 1) + (1 − k ) + (1 − k )
= (k − 1) (k 2 + k − 2)
2
= (k − 1) (k + 2)
|A| = 0, when k = 1 or k = –2
When k ≠ 1 and k ≠ −2, |A| ≠ 0 ∴ R(A) = 3
Then the system will have a unique solution.
1.20 Mathematics II

When k = 1, the system reduces to the single equation x + y + z = 1.

In this case, R(A) = R[A, B] = 1.
∴ The system will have many solutions.
(i.e. a two parameter family of solutions)
When k = − 2,

−2 1 1 1  1 −2 1 1
   
[ A, B ] =  1 −2 1 1 ∼ −2 1 1 1 ( R1 ↔ R2 )
 1 1 −2 1  1 1 −2 1

 1 −2 1 1
 

∼ 0 −3 3 3 ( R2 → R2 + 2 R1 , R3 → R3 − R1 )
 
0 3 −3 0

 1 −2 1 1
 
∼  0 −3 3 3 ( R3 → R3 + R2 )
 
0 0 0 3

Now 1 −2 1
0 −3 3 = 0 ∴ R ( A) < 3
0 0 0
1 −2
≠ 0 ∴ R ( A) = 2
0 −3
−2 1 1
−3 3 3 = a minor of [ A, B ] ≠ 0
0 0 3

∴ R[A, B] = 3. Thus R(A) ≠ R[A, B].

∴ The system has no solution.

Example 1.15 Investigate for what values of λ, μ, the equations x + y + z = 6,

x + 2y + 3z = 10 and x + 2y + λz = μ have (i) no solution, (ii) a unique solution,
(iii) an infinite number of solutions.

1 1 1 6 1 1 1 6 
    ( R → R2 − R1 ,
[ A, B ] = 1 2 3 10 ∼ 0 1 2 4  2

1 2 λ µ  0 1 λ − 1 µ − 6 R3 → R3 − R1 )
   
1 1 1 6 
 
∼ 0 1 2 4  ( R3 → R3 − R2 )
 
 0 0 λ − 3 µ − 10
 
1 1 1 
 

∴ A∼ 0 1 2  and A = λ − 3
 
 0 0 λ − 3
 
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