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The Nalco
Water
Handbook
00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 1 04/10/17 3:59 pm

About Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company
Nalco Water, an Ecolab company is the global leader in
water, hygiene, and energy technologies and services
that protect people and vital resources. Ecolab delivers
comprehensive solutions and on-site service to ensure
safe food, maintain clean environments, optimize
water and energy use, and improve operational effi-
ciencies for customers in the food, healthcare, energy,
hospitality, and industrial markets in more than 170
countries around the world.

The Nalco
Water
Handbook
Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company
Daniel J. Flynn Editor
Fourth Edition
New York Chicago San Francisco

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Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United
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Contents
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
Section 1 Introduction
1 The Business Case for Managing Water. . . . . . . . 1.3
Global Trends Affecting Water Supply. . . . . . . . . . 1.4
The Impact of Climate Change on
Glacial Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
Impact of Population Trends on Surface
and Groundwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
Sustainability as a Business Driver. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
Sustainability Reporting and Regulations. . . 1.7
Making the Business Case for Managing Water. . . 1.9
Calculate the Full Value of Water . . . . . . . . 1.10
Perform a Total Plant Assessment of
Water Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
Value and Prioritize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
Water Risk Monetizer Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
Business Expansion Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
Existing Facility Water Improvement
Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
2 Water Sources and Stressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
Water Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
Surface Water—Rivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
Surface Water—Lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16
Connate Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17
Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17
Recycled Wastewater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19
Stress on Water Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21
Groundwater Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21
Surface Water Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.24
3 Water Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
Natural Factors Affecting Water Quality. . . . . . . . 3.1
Seasonal Changes That Affect Water Quality . . . 3.4
Impact of Dams on River Water Quality . . . 3.4

vi Contents
Water Quality When River Meets Ocean. . . 3.6

Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
Impact of Water and Process Treatment. . . . . . . . . 3.11
Boiler Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12
Cooling Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13
Wastewater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15
Focus on Total System Performance . . . . . . 3.15
Section 2 Basic Water Chemistry

4 Water Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
Atoms, Molecules, Ions, and Compounds. . . . . . . 4.3
Atoms and Molecules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
Bonding in Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
The Water Molecule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7
Solubility of Matter in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8
Hydrogen Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9
Other Properties of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10
Basics of Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
Impurities in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13
Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14
Electromotive Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
Colloidal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
Solubility of Gases in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18
Organic Compounds and Solubility in
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
Solubility Product Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
Equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.22
Solid Reactants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.24
Complexing Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.26
Application of Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.29
Hardness and Analysis of Water. . . . . . . . . 4.29
Alkalinity and pH Relationships. . . . . . . . . 4.31
Practical Aspects of Mineral Solubility. . . . 4.41
CaCO3 Stability Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.44
Oxidation/Reduction Reactions . . . . . . . . . 4.46
5 Impurities in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

Characteristics of Water Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
Classes of Impurities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
Dissolved Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
Suspended Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.19
Organic Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.20
Biological Organisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.24

Contents vii
Macrofouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.27
Dissolved Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.30
Water Reuse and Recycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.31
Section 3.1 Applications—Impurity Removal

6 Raw Water Clarification and Filtration. . . . . . . . . 6.3
Coagulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5
Contaminants Removed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6
Zeta Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9
Flocculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11
Coagulation and Flocculation Chemicals. . . . . . . . 6.14
Tailoring Polyelectrolytes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.16
Activated Silica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.18
Coagulation and Flocculation Applications. . . . . . 6.18
Color Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.23
Plant Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.25
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.29
Filtration Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.30
Granular Media Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.32
Granular Media Filter Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.35
Filter Backwashing Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.37
Filter Appurtenances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.39
Service Operating Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . 6.40
Water Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.41
Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.43
Direct Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.44
7 Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
Ion Exchange Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
Ion Affinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
Resin Bead Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
Particle Size and Size Distribution . . . . . . . 7.5
Resin Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7
Resin Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11
Backwash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11
Regenerant Addition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13
Slow Rinse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
Fast Rinse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
Counter-Current Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
Resin Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16
Strong Acid Cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16
Weak Acid Cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.22
Strong Base Anion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.26
Weak Base Anion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.30

viii Contents
Resin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.34

Expected Length of Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.34
Annual Resin Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.39
Annual Regeneration Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.46
Monitoring Service Performance. . . . . . . . . 7.47
Chemical Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.51
Resin Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.52
Ion Exchange Equipment Configurations . . . . . . . 7.53
Softening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.53
Dealkalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.53
Primary Demineralizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.61
Mixed-Bed Demineralizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.65
Packed Bed Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.67
Water Use Optimization Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.69
System Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.69
Water Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.70
8 Membrane Separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
Pressure-Driven Membrane Separation
Technologies: Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration,
Nanofiltration, Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
Basic Membrane Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
Membrane Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7
Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration. . . . . . . . 8.14
Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration . . . . . 8.25
Electrochemically-Driven Membrane Separation
Process: Electrodeionization/Continuous
Electrodeionization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.55
Theory of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.56
Membrane Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.58
Pretreatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.60
Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.61
Monitoring and Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . 8.61
Section 3.2 Applications—Steam Generation

9 Boiler Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3
Steam Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3
Condensate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5
Steam or Condensate Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6
Makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6
Concentration by Evaporation. . . . . . . . . . . 9.6
Blowdown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7
Feedwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8

Contents ix
Mathematical Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9

Blowdown and Makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9
Cycles of Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.11
Mass Balance Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.12
Optimizing the Water Balance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.13
Thermodynamic Properties of Steam. . . . . . . . . . . 9.14
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.15
Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.16
Boiler Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.17
Boiler Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.18
Boiler Ratings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.37
Boiler Circulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.39
10 Oxygen Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
Corrosion Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
Mechanical Deaeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3
Ionization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3
Relative Partial Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6
Agitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6
Gas Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7
Pressure Deaerators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7
Primary Preheating Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8
Basic Principles of Mechanical Deaeration Using
Pressure Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9
Spray Deaerator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9
Tray Deaerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11
Atomizing Deaerator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.13
Operating Considerations for Pressure
Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
Deaerating Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
Proper Venting of Pressure
Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
Mixing Condensate and Makeup . . . . . . . . 10.16
Pressure Deaerator Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . 10.17
Vacuum Deaerators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.18
Deaerating Condensers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.19
Feedwater Tanks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.20
Gas Transfer Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.23
Activated Carbon Catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.25
Ion Exchange Resin Catalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.27
Chemical Oxygen Scavengers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.27
Sodium Sulfite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.29
Hydrazine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.31
Carbohydrazide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.32

x Contents
Erythorbate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.33
Diethylhydroxylamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.34
Methylethylketoxime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.35
Hydroquinone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.37
Monitoring and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.37
Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.39
Monitoring and Control Tools. . . . . . . . . . . 10.40
At-Temperature ORP Monitoring. . . . . . . . 10.42
11 Boiler Feedwater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1
Hardness Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3
Silica Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4
Iron Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6
The Problem with Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7
Iron Deposition Mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7
Sources of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9
Polymers and Iron Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12
Iron Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.13
Effects of Boiler Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.16
Internal Chemical Treatment Programs. . . . . . . . . 11.20
Phosphate Residual Programs—Low
Pressure Industrial Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 11.21
Phosphate-Polymer Programs. . . . . . . . . . . 11.25
Phosphate Programs—High Pressure
Industrial Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.28
Chelates and Chelate-Polymer
Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.33
All-Polymer Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.37
12 Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1
Turbine Mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1
Turbine Problem Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6
13 Condensate Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1

Causes of Condensate System Corrosion. . . . . . . . 13.2
Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2
Estimating the Amount of Carbon Dioxide
in Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5
Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5
Carbon Dioxide Plus Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7
Ammonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8
Sulfur Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide . . . . 13.9
Process Contamination and Organic
Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10
Methods of Condensate Corrosion
Inhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10

Contents xi
Neutralizing Amines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11

Filming Amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.19
Oxygen Scavengers/Metal Passivators . . . 13.20
Minimizing the Effect of Contaminated
Condensate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.20
System Design and Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.22
Evaluating Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.23
Why Treat Condensate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.24
Section 3.3 Applications—Cooling Water Systems

14 Cooling System Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3
Mechanical-Operational-Chemical Survey
Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3
Survey Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5
Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6
Calculations and Measurements. . . . . . . . . 14.13
Effects of Corrosion and Deposits. . . . . . . . 14.20
Types of Cooling Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.22
Once-through Cooling Water Systems. . . . 14.23
Closed Recirculating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 14.28
Open Recirculating Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.30
15 Cooling Water Deposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1
Consequences of Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3
The Scale Formation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7
Solubility Is an Equilibrium Process. . . . . . 15.7
Nucleation and Scale Formation. . . . . . . . . 15.8
Factors Affecting Scale Formation. . . . . . . . 15.13
Predicting Scale Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.17
Fouling Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.20
Suspended Particle Interactions. . . . . . . . . . 15.21
Suspended Solids Deposition Processes. . . 15.23
Cooling Systems Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.23
Calcium Carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.23
Calcium Sulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25
Silica and Silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25
Calcium Phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.29
Zinc Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.30
Calcium Polyphosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.31
Calcium Phosphonates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.33
Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.34
Silt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.35
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.36

xii Contents
16 Cooling System Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1

Corrosion of Materials in Cooling Systems. . . . . . 16.2
Carbon Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2
Copper Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3
Stainless Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3
Galvanized Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4
Nonmetallic Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5
The Corrosion Process in Cooling Systems . . . . . . 16.6
The Local Cell Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6
Anodic Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8
Cathodic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8
Secondary Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9
Galvanic or Electrochemical Series. . . . . . . 16.10
The Role of Oxygen in Corrosion . . . . . . . . 16.12
Polarization and Corrosion Rates . . . . . . . . 16.13
Passivity and Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.14
Factors Influencing Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.15
Water Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.15
Dissolved Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.17
Halogens and Other Oxidizers . . . . . . . . . . 16.18
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.18
Flow Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.19
System or Spatial Configuration Factors. . . 16.20
Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.20
Types of Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.20
Uniform Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.21
Pitting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.21
Localized Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.22
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion. . . 16.27
Stress Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.30
17 Cooling Water Biology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1
Sources of Biological Problems in Cooling Water
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1
Consequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2
Microorganisms Found in Cooling Systems . . . . . 17.4
Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4
Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.11
Protozoa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.12
Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.12
Factors Affecting Microbial Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . 17.13
Suitable Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.14
Biofilms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.15
Formation and Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.15
Biofilm Advantages to the Microbes . . . . . 17.17
Problems Associated with Biofilms. . . . . . . 17.17

Contents xiii
Determining the Bacterial Population of

Cooling Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.19
18 Cooling Water Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1
Deposition Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1
Heated Tube Deposit Monitors . . . . . . . . . . 18.1
Pressure Drop Microbial Fouling Monitors. . . 18.2
Real-Time Deposit Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . 18.2
Corrosion Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4
Corrosion Coupons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4
Electrochemical Corrosion
Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.10
Corrosion Product Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . 18.11
Biological Growth Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12
Lab Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12
Field Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.13
Online Biological Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . 18.17
19 Cooling Water Treatment and Control . . . . . . . . . 19.1
Deposit Control Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1
Deposit Inhibitor Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . 19.2
Examples of Deposit Inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . 19.5
Corrosion Control Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.9
Corrosion Inhibitor Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . 19.9
Examples of Corrosion Inhibitors. . . . . . . . 19.13
Biological Control Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.16
Oxidizing Biocides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.17
Nonoxidizing Biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.22
Biodispersants and Biodetergents. . . . . . . . 19.24
Macrofouling Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.25
Cooling Water Treatment Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.26
Stabilized Phosphate Programs. . . . . . . . . . 19.26
All-Organic Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.27
Alkaline Zinc Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.27
Alkaline Phosphate Programs. . . . . . . . . . . 19.28
Molybdate Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28
Non-Phosphorous Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28
Nonchemical Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.29
Section 3.4 Applications—Water Safety for Building

Water Systems
20 Legionella and Legionellosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3
The Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4
Legionnaires’ Disease Symptoms . . . . . . . . 20.5
Susceptibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.5
Pontiac Fever Variant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6

xiv Contents
First Identified Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6

Other Outbreaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.7
The Bacteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.9
Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.10
Conditions for Growth and Proliferation. . . 20.10
Sources of Risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.14
Risk of Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.15
21 Water Management Programs for Engineered
Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1
Managing the Risk: Regulatory Position and
Global Guidance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3
General Management Considerations . . . . . . . . . . 21.5
Assessment of Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.6
Growth Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.7
Aerosol Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.11
Human Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12
Manage the Risk: Water Management
Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12
Water Management Program for
Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12
Control Scheme for Hot and Cold
Potable Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.16
Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.22
Other Risk Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.23
Consequence of Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.24
Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.24
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.24
Section 3.5 Applications—Post-Treatment

22 Primary Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3
Clarification by Sedimentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3
Forms of Solids in Effluent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4
Sedimentation Phenomena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.5
Mass Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.9
Clarifier Hydraulic Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.11
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.13
Clarifier Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.13
Sludge Bed Depth Measurement. . . . . . . . . 22.15
Influent Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.15
Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.16
Types of Sedimentation Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.16
Circular Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.17
Rectangular Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.18
Parallel Plate and Tube Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . 22.21

Contents xv
Drag Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.26

Oil/Water Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.26
Flotation Clarification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.30
The Dissolved Air Flotation System. . . . . . 22.31
Types of DAF Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.32
Operating Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.34
Pressurization Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.37
Flotation Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.39
Float Removal Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.40
Plant Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.41
Induced Air Flotation (IAF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.41
23 Secondary Effluent Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.1
General Principles of Secondary Treatment. . . . . . 23.1
Basic Methods of Secondary Treatment. . . 23.2
Principles of Biological Waste Treatment. . . . . . . . 23.5
Important Microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.5
Bacterial Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.8
Biological Treatment Control Parameters. . . 23.11
Activated Sludge Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.17
Activated Sludge Process Equipment. . . . . 23.18
Activated Sludge Process Control
Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.25
Nutrient Removal in Activated Sludge. . . . 23.32
Aerated Lagoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.34
Significant Operational Control
Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.34
Stabilization Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.36
Pond Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.36
Rotating Biological Contactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.36
Trickling Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.38
Principles of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.39
Sludge Reduction Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.40
Anaerobic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.42
Anaerobic Sludge Digestion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.42
Anaerobic Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.42
Membrane Bioreactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.45
MBR Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.45
MBR Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.48
Microbial Foulants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.48
24 Tertiary Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.1
Disinfection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2
Chlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2
Chlorination Processes in Effluent
Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3

xvi Contents
Dechlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3
Disinfection By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4
Solids Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4
Ammonia Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4
Ammonia Stripping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5
Selective Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5
Breakpoint Chlorination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6
Phosphate Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6
Aluminum Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6
Iron Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7
Calcium Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8
Organics Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8
25 Heavy Metal Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.1
Regulatory Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.1
Sources of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2
Chemistry of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.3
Ionic Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.5
Chelation Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.6
Metal Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9
Operational Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9
Equipment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.10
Chemical Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.15
Associated Pretreatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.22
26 Sludge Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.1
Sludge Thickening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3
Gravity Thickening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3
Flotation Thickening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.5
Rotary Drum Thickener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.6
Gravity Table Thickeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.7
Centrifugal Thickening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.8
Sludge Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.10
Nature of Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.10
Belt Filter Press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.11
Centrifugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.11
Vacuum Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.12
Screw Presses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.13
Plate-and-Frame Filter Presses. . . . . . . . . . . 26.15
Drying Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.18
27 Emulsion Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1
Theory of Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.2
Oily Waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.4
Waste Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.5
Emulsion Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.5

Contents xvii
Separation Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7

Oil-in-Water Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7
Water-in-Oil Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.18
28 Wet Gas Scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.1
Particle Collection Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.1
Particulate Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.2
Principles of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.4
Categorizing Wet Scrubbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.6
Gas Absorption Scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.6
Wet Particle Scrubbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.9
Wet Electrostatic Precipitators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.15
Waterside Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.15
Waste Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.17
Auxiliary Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.17
Selected Gas Scrubbing Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.18
SOx Removal from Flue Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.18
Section 4 Energy in Water Systems

29 Energy Use in Effluent Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.3
Energy Utilization in Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . 29.4
Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.8
Variable Control Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.9
Aeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.9
Aeration Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.11
Aeration Control and Monitoring. . . . . . . . 29.14
Preliminary and Primary Effluent Treatment . . . . 29.16
Secondary Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.17
Suspended Growth Processes . . . . . . . . . . . 29.18
Fixed Film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.19
Tertiary Effluent Treatment Processes. . . . . . . . . . . 29.20
30 Energy in Cooling Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.1
Financial Impact of Inefficient Heat Rejection. . . . 30.1
Cooling Tower Thermal Performance or
Thermal Capability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.3
Cooling Tower Performance Problems. . . . . . . . . . 30.7
Air-Side Thermal Performance Issues. . . . . 30.8
Water-Side Thermal Performance
Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.13
Cooling Tower Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . 30.15
Reliability Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.17
Cooling Tower Performance Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . 30.19
Cooling Tower Acceptance Testing. . . . . . . 30.20
Cooling Tower Performance Audit. . . . . . . 30.20

xviii Contents
31 Energy in Steam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1

Energy Basics for Steam Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1
Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2
Steam Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3
Boiler Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3
Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.6
Input–Output or Direct Method . . . . . . . . . 31.9
Heat Loss or Indirect Method . . . . . . . . . . . 31.10
Comparison of Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.12
Heat Transfer Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.13
Multiple Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.16
Alternate Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.16
Reduce Steam Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.16
Reduce Boiler Blowdown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.19
Recover Blowdown Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.20
Flash Tank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.21
Optimize Condensate Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.23
Reduce System Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.23
Optimize Turbine Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.24
Section 5 Industries
32 The Paper Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3
Industry Profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.6
Virgin Fiber Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.8
Wood Yard Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.8
Groundwood Pulping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.11
Thermomechanical Pulping. . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.12
Chemical Pulping—Kraft Process. . . . . . . . 32.13
Chemical Pulping—Non Kraft. . . . . . . . . . . 32.25
Recycled Pulp Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.26
Deinking and Secondary Fiber Use. . . . . . . 32.26
Pulp Bleaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.29
Stock Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.33
Paper Machine Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.35
Paper Machine Headbox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.35
Paper Machine Wet End. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.36
Paper Machine Press Section. . . . . . . . . . . . 32.38
Paper Machine Dryer Section. . . . . . . . . . . . 32.39
33 The Power Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.1
Energy Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.2
The Power Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.3
Water: The Working Fluid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.7

Contents xix
Factors Affecting Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . 33.11

Water Chemistry in Fossil-Fuel Plants—
Liquid Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.14
Steam Phase Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.26
Water Chemistry in Nuclear Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.28
Blowdown Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.32
Condenser Cooling Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.35
Ash Handling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.43
Flue Gas Desulfurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.45
Wastewater and Discharge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.46
34 The Oil Field Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.1
Theory of Oil Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.1
A Few Basics about Petroleum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.2
Accumulations of Petroleum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.3
Oil Sands and Heavy Oil Reserves. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.5
Petroleum Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.5
Oil Dehydration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.6
Improved Recovery Techniques. . . . . . . . . . 34.8
Hydraulic Fracturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.16
Oil Shale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.16
Bitumen Recovery from Surface
Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.17
Upgrading Bitumen and Heavy Oil to
Produce Synthetic Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.18
The Nature of Oilfield Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.18
Total Dissolved Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.18
Suspended Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.19
Dissolved Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.20
Problem-Causing Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.20
Residual Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.21
Mineral Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.21
Mineral Scales in Water Injection
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.22
Mineral Scales in Steam Injection/
Thermal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.24
Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.27
Water Injection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.27
Steam Injection/Thermal Systems. . . . . . . . 34.29
Bacteria Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.30
Raw Water, Utility, and Cooling Water
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31
Automation and Control of System
Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31

xx Contents
Recycle and Reuse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31

Produced Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31
Transportation and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.33
35 The Refining Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1

Refining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1
Process Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.3
Utility Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.17
Cooling Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.19
Waste Treatment Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.19
36 The Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.1

Process Cooling Is a Major Water User. . . . . . . . . . 36.3
Process Flow Sheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.10
Ammonia and Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.13
Environmental Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.15
37 The Aluminum Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1

Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1
Bauxite Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.2
Many Uses for Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.3
Aluminum Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.5
Frequent Feeding Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.6
Exhaust Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.6
Metal Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.8
38 The Steel Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.1

Blast Furnace Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.2
Exhaust Gas Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.3
Steel Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.6
Basic Oxygen Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.6
Electric Arc Furnace Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.8
Open-Hearth Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.8
Direct Reduction Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.8
Continuous Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.12
Hot Mill Rolling Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.14
Cold Rolling Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Recirculating System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Once-Through System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Heat Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.18
Acid Pickling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.18
Slag Plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.20
Utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.21

Contents xxi
39 The Institutional and Commercial Sectors . . . . . 39.1

Heating Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.2
Steam Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.3
Hot Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.7
Cogeneration Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.8
Heating System Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.8
Air Conditioning Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.10
Vapor-Compression Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.11
Steam-Absorption Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.13
Unique Chiller Design and Operating
Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.17
Cooling System Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.21
Cooling System Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.21
Thermal Energy Storage Systems . . . . . . . . 39.23
Data Centers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.26
40 The Food and Beverage Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.1

Regulatory Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.3
Fruit and Vegetable Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.3
General Process Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.4
Thermal Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.5
Water Treatment Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.12
Meat and Poultry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.14
Water Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.14
The Beverage Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.17
The Sugar Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.21
The Grain, Oil Processing, and Biofuels Industry. . . 40.23
Corn Wet Milling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.25
Wheat Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.27
Oil Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.28
Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.30
The Dairy Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.36
Fluid Milk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.36
Cheese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.38
Specialty Dairy—Concentrated Milk,
Dry Milk, Yogurt, and Ice Cream . . . . . . 40.38
Dairy Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.42
Dairy Sweetwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.42
Dairy COW Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.43
Foam Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.44
41 The Microelectronics Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1

Ultrapure Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1
Process Cooling Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5

xxii Contents
Cooling Towers and Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.6

Wet Scrubber Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.7
42 The Building Materials Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.1
Fiber Cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.1
Fiberglass Mat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.4
43 The Automotive Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.1
Foundry Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.1
Machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.5
Parts Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.6
Utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.7
Paint Spray Booths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.8
Detackifying Paint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.11
Stamping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.12
Plating Wastes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.13
Assembly Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.14
44 The Municipal Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.1
Disinfection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.2
Chlorination By-Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.3
Fluoridation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.5
U.S. Regulatory History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.5
Cryptosporidium and Giardia . . . . . . . . . . . 44.7
Raw Water Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.9
Corrosion and Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.9
Typical Treatment Schemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.14
Case History—Lake Bluff, IL. . . . . . . . . . . . 44.17
Membrane Filtration in Drinking Water
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.19
Sludge Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.22
Municipal Sewage Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.24
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.25
Wastewater Treatment Methods . . . . . . . . . 44.27
Water Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.29
Membrane Bioreactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.31
Solid Waste Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.32
Dewatering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.34
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.1

Foreword
B
usiness and industry are increasingly identifying water scarcity
as a business constraint and risk. By the year 2030, the World
Economic Forum estimates that the global demand for fresh-
water will exceed supply by about 40%. The ever-increasing demand
for freshwater is causing us to consider the potential outcomes, where
water stressors start to inhibit our ability to meet the critical needs of
our customers around the world. Yet the risk is not equitable across
the globe. Each watershed is different. There are acute shortages in
some places and not in others. We also find that universally water is
underpriced, and the prices are inverse to the risk.
Our conversation is changing. We are reframing our discussion
and vocabulary around water to reflect the challenges, the risk to
business, and the true cost of the resource. We are finding ourselves
at an inflection point. We have obtained the knowledge and sophisti-
cation to make the case for water strategies in our facilities that make
good business sense, and enable growth in an environmentally
sustainable and socially equitable manner. Implementing water
strategies within plants needs to make good economic sense and be
accomplished in a manner that allows the business a fundamental
license to grow.
Our fourth edition of The Nalco Water Handbook opens up the
discussion on water scarcity, stressors, and the business case for
managing water. The content throughout the book will assist you in
maintaining clean heat transfer surfaces as well as addressing water
management needs through the lens of reduction, reuse between
applications, and recycle. As you read through the book, look for the
items that can become actionable in your facility and not just protect
your assets, but that can help your water management strategies
as well.
Christophe Beck
President, Nalco Water
Executive Vice President, Ecolab
xxiii

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Preface
A
s Nalco Water approaches its 90th year in business, it seems
fitting to release the fourth edition of The Nalco Water Handbook
at the same time. Our first book, Water: The Universal Solvent,
was published in 1977 in observance of the company’s 50th anniver-
sary. Frank N. Kemmer, editor-in-chief and John McCallion, associate
editor of that book, went on to produce the first two editions of The
Nalco Water Handbook and firmly placed Nalco Water well down the
road of knowledge sharing. We at Nalco Water continue to believe
this is as important today, as it was when the first book was published.
Water as a resource is becoming increasingly scarce throughout
much of the world. In this edition of the book, we have restructured
the initial introductory chapters through the lens of water scarcity,
stressors, and business risk. In addition, we have added supplemen-
tary content around water conservation in various processes where
applicable. We have also strengthened the discussions around various
industry processes, impurity removal with membrane technology
and water safety for building water systems. Finally, we have added
additional chapters in the industry section to broaden the scope of the
discussion.
We have made liberal use of tables, illustrations, photographs,
and line drawings to help place the discussion in context. Hundreds
of graphics have been refreshed to assist in clarifying the message
they convey. The changes we have made to the content and the
presentation should make this book valuable across a wide range of
users such as plant operators, engineering departments, process man-
agement, maintenance groups, and plant mangers to name a few.
Daniel J. Flynn
Editor
xxv


Acknowledgments
W
hen we were evaluating the updating, and refreshing of
this text, it became very clear quite early on that we would
be asking a good number of people for contributions of
time, text, photographs, drawings, illustrations, fact checking, and
numerous reviews just to mention a few of the items. As the project
progressed, the numbers grew as we cast our net further into the
many disciplines and departments throughout Nalco Water. We
would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the participation
and efforts of the individuals involved with the fourth edition of
The Nalco Water Handbook.
The following individuals made significant contributions of
writing, reviewing, fact checking, and generally ensuring the content
of the book remains best in class for this fourth edition, as well as the
previous third edition. It is with great thanks that we acknowledge
their efforts. Alex Glass, Amit Gupta, Andrew Cooper, Andrew Hook,
Anton Banweg, Barbara Moriarty, Ben Riley, Blaine Krause, Bob
Pomeroy, Bonnie Harris, Brad Benz, Brian Jenkins, Carl Rossow,
Carolina Diaz-Rodriguez, Carolyn Will, Christine Staples, Chuck
Foster, Cindy Ojczyk, Daniel Flynn, Daniel Meier, Debbie Bloom,
Dennis Martin, Don Roll, Donald Johnson, Ed Swenson, Emilio
Tenuta, Eric Kangas, Eric Myers, Flora Lu, George Peabody, George
Totura, Greg Coy, Gregg Galbreath, Heidi Olszewski, Howard Barnes,
James Gage, Jane Kucera, Janet Kirkman, Jasbir Gill, Jason Burney,
Jason Van’t Hul, Jeffrey Oloier, Jim Dillon, Jim Haff, John Sparapany,
Jorvic Vital, Ken Fulks, Ken Voytell, Kevin Gehan, Kevin Kaiser, Kirby
Lee, Larry Hill, Leroy Swenson, Melissa Callejo, Michael Lesniak,
Michael Martin, Mike Backode, Mike Vittum, Mita Chattoraj, Nancy
Stan, Patrick Miller, Paul Desch, Paul Williams, Peter Hicks, Peter
TenEyck, Ram Nagarajan, Richard Jacobs, Rick Lyons, Rob Henderson,
Robert Wetegrove, Ronald Kochik, Ronald Tebbetts, Sam Lordo, Scott
McLaughlin, Seth Werlinsky, Sherri Binetti, Steff Vrijhoeven, Steve
Andrick, Steven Kramarczyk, Sue Molloy-Vesley, Tammy Lai, Tim
Keizer, Tom Lindley, Tracey Guddendorf, Walter Schaefer, and so
many others who touched this project in various ways.
Nalco Water and the Nalco Water logo are trademarks of Nalco
Water, an Ecolab Company. All other trademarks are the property of
their respective owners.
Daniel J. Flynn
Editor
xxvii


SECTION 1
Introduction
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 3
The Business Case Water Quality
for Managing Water
CHAPTER 2
Water Sources and Stressors
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 1 09/10/17 7:21 pm

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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Out of the sea
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and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Out of the sea
Author: Leigh Brackett
Illustrator: John Giunta
Release date: August 9, 2022 [eBook #68718]
Language: English
Original publication: United States: Fictioneers, Inc, 1942
Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUT OF THE

SEA ***
OUT OF THE SEA
By Leigh Brackett
[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Astonishing Stories, June 1942.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
CHAPTER ONE
The Hordes from Below
Anyone but Webb Fallon would have been worried sick. He was
down to his last five dollars and quart of Scotch. His girl Madge had
sketched him categorically in vitriol, and married somebody else. His
job on the Los Angeles Observer was, like all the jobs he'd ever had,
finally, definitely, and for all time, cancelled.
Being Webb Fallon, he was playing a fast game of doubles on the
volley-ball court at Santa Monica Beach, letting the sun and the salt
air clear off a hangover.
When he came off the court, feeling fine and heading for the water,
big Chuck Weigal called to him.
"So the Observer finally got wise to you, huh? How come?"
Fallon grinned, his teeth white against the mahogany burn of his
hard, lean oval face. His corded body gleamed in the hot sun, and
his slanting grey-green eyes were mockingly bright.
"If you must know," he said, "I was busy drowning my sorrows on the
night of the big quake, two weeks ago. I didn't know anything about it
until I read the papers next morning. The boss seemed to think I was
a little—er—negligent."
Weigal grunted. "I don't wonder. A quake as bad as the 'Frisco one,
and you sleep through it! Phew!"
Fallon grinned, and went on. About half-way down the beach a bright
yellow bathing suit caught his eye. He whistled softly and followed it
into the water. After all, now that Madge was gone....
He knew the girl by sight. Fallon had an eye for blonde hair and
Diana-esque figures. That was one thing Madge and he had fought
about.
The girl swam like a mermaid. Fallon lengthened his stroke, came up
beside her, and said, "Hello."
She blinked salt water out of sapphire blue eyes and stared. "I know
you," she said. "You're Webb Fallon."
"I'm flattered."
"You needn't be. I know a girl named Madge, too."
"Oh." Fallon's grey-green eyes narrowed. His lean face looked
suddenly ugly, like a mean dog. Or more like a wolf, perhaps, with
his thin straight lips and slanting eyes.
"What did Madge tell you about me?" he asked softly.
"She said you were no good." The blue eyes studied his face. "And,"
added the girl deliberately, "I think she was right."
"Yeah?" said Fallon, very gently. He hadn't yet got over his cold rage
at being jilted for a dull, prosperous prig. The girl's face was like a
mask cut out of brown wood and set with hard sapphires. He made a
tigerish, instinctive movement toward it.
A wave took them unawares, knocked them together and down in a
struggling tangle. They broke water, gasping in the after-swirl.
Then, quite suddenly, the girl screamed.
It was a short scream, strangled with sea-water, but it set the hairs
prickling on Fallon's neck. He looked past the girl, outward.
Something was rising out of the sea.
Webb Fallon, standing shoulder-deep in the cold water, stared in a

temporary paralysis of shock. The thing simply couldn't be.
There was a snout armed with a wicked sword. That and the head
behind it were recognizable as those of a swordfish. But the neck
behind them was long and powerful, and set on sloping shoulders.
Members like elongated fins just becoming legs churned the surface.
A wholly piscine tail whipped up gouts of spray behind the
malformed silver body.
Fallon moved suddenly. He grabbed the girl and started toward
shore. The Thing emitted a whistling grunt and surged after them.
Waves struck them; the aftersuck pulled at their legs. They
floundered, like dreamers caught in nightmare swamps. And Fallon,
through the thrashing and the surf and the sea-water in his ears,
began to hear other sounds.
There was a vast stirring whisper, a waking and surging of things
driven up and out. There were overtones of cries from unearthly
throats. Presently, then, there were human screams.
Fallon's toes found firm sand. Still clutching the girl, he splashed
through the shallows. He could hear the wallowing thunder of
creatures behind them, and knew that they had to run. But he
faltered, staring, and the girl made a little choked sound beside him.
The shallow margin of the sea was churned to froth by a nightmare
horde. The whole broad sweep of the beach was invaded by things
that, in that stunned moment, Fallon saw only as confused shadows.
He started to run, toward the hilly streets beyond the beach. The
creature with the swordfish snout was almost on them. A fish, out of
the sea! It reared its snaky neck and struck down.
Fallon dodged convulsively. The sword flashed down and buried
itself in the sand not five inches from his foot.
It never came out of the sand. A tail-less, stub-legged thing with
three rows of teeth in its shark-like jaws fastened onto the creature's
neck, and there was hot mammalian blood spilling out.
They ran together, Fallon and the girl. The summer crowds filling the
beaches, the promenade, the hot-dog stands and bath-houses, were
fighting in blind panic up the narrow streets to the top of the bluff. It
was useless to try to get through. Fallon made for an apartment
house.
Briefly, in clear, bright colors, he saw isolated scenes. A starfish
twenty feet across wrapping itself around a woman and her stupefied
child. A vast red crab pulling a man to bits with its claws. Something
that might once have been an octopus walking on four spidery legs,
its remaining tentacles plucking curiously at the volley-ball net that
barred its way.
The din of screaming and alien cries, the roar of the crowds and the
slippery, thrashing bodies melted into dull confusion. Fallon and the
girl got through, somehow, to the comparative safety of the
apartment house lobby.
They found an empty place by a bay window and stopped. Fallon's
legs were sagging, and his heart was a leaping pain. The girl
crumpled up against him.
They stared out of the window, dazed, detached, like spectators
watching an imaginative motion-picture and not believing it.
There was carnage outside, on the broad sunlit beach. Men and
women and children died, some caught directly, others trampled
down and unable to escape. But more than men were dying.
Things fought and ate each other. Things of mad distortion of familiar
shapes. Things unlike any living creature. Normal creatures grown
out of all sanity. But all coming, coming, coming, like a living tidal
wave.
The window went in with a crash. A woman's painted, shrieking face
showed briefly and was gone, pulled away by a simple marine worm
grown long as a man. The breeze brought Fallon the stench of blood
and fish, drowning the clean salt smell.
"We've got to get out of here," he said. "Come on."
The girl came, numbly. Neither spoke. There was, somehow, nothing
to say. Fallon took down a heavy metal curtain rod, holding it like a
club.
The front doors had broken in. People trampled through in the blind
strength of terror. Fallon shrugged.
"No way to get past them," he said. "Stay close to me. And for God's
sake, don't fall down."
The girl's wet blonde head nodded. She took hold of the waistband
of his trunks, and her hand was like ice against his spine.
Out through broken doors into a narrow street, and then the crowd
spread out a little, surging up a hillside. Police sirens were beginning
to wail up in the town.
Down below, the beaches were cleared of people. And still the things
came in from the sea. Fallon could see over the Santa Monica Pier
now, and the broad sweep of sand back of the yacht harbor was
black with surging bodies.
Most of the yachts were sunk. The bell-buoy had stopped ringing.
The sunlight was suddenly dim. Fallon looked up. His grey-green
eyes widened, and his teeth showed white in a snarl of fear.
Thundering in on queer heavy wings, their bodies hiding the sun,
were beasts that stopped his heart in cold terror.
They had changed, of course. The bat-like wings had been
broadened and strengthened. They must, like the other sea-born
monsters, have developed lungs.
But the size was still there! Five to ten feet in wing-spread—and
behind, the thin, deadly, whip-like tails.
Rays! The queer creatures that fly bat-like under water—now
thundering like giant bats through the air!
There were flying fish wheeling round them like queer rigid birds.
They had grown legs like little dragons, and long tails.
A pair of huge eels slid over the rough earth, pulled down a man and
fought over the body. Policemen began to appear, and there was a
popping of guns. The sirens made a mad skirling above the din.
Some of the rays swooped to the crowded beach. Others came on,
scenting human food.
Guns began to crack from the cliff-tops, from the windows of
apartment houses. Fallon caught the chatter of sub-machine guns.
One of the rays was struck almost overhead.
It went out of control like a fantastic plane and crashed into the
hillside, just behind Fallon and the girl. Men died shrieking under its
twenty-foot, triangular bulk.
It made a convulsive leap.
The girl slipped in the loose rubble, and lost her hold on Fallon. The
broad tentacles on the ray's head closed in like the horns of a half
moon, folding the girl in a narrowing circle of death.
Fallon raised his iron curtain rod. He was irrationally conscious, with
a detached fragment of his brain, of the girl's sapphire eyes and the
lovely strength of her body. Her face was set with terror, but she
didn't scream. She fought.
Something turned over in Fallon's heart, something buried and
unfamiliar. Something that had never stirred for Madge. He stepped
in. The bar swung up, slashed down.
The leathery skin split, but still the feelers hugged the girl closer. The
great ray heaved convulsively, and something whistled past Fallon's
head. It struck him across the shoulders, and laid him in dazed
agony in the dirt.
The creature's tail, lashing like a thin long whip.
Webb Fallon got up slowly. His back was numb. There was hot blood
flooding across his skin. The girl's eyes were blue and wide, fixed on
him. Terribly fixed. She had stopped fighting.
Fallon found an eye, set back on one of the tentacles. He set the end
of the iron rod against it, and thrust downward....
Whether it was the rod, or the initial bullet, Fallon never knew, but
the tentacles relaxed. The girl rose and came toward him, and
together they went up the hill.
They were still together when sweating volunteers picked them up
and carried them back into the town.
Fallon came to before they finished sewing up his back. The
emergency hospital was jammed. The staff worked in a kind of quiet
frenzy, with a devil's symphony of hysteria beating up against the
windows of the wards.
They hadn't any place to keep Fallon. They taped his shoulders into
a kind of harness to keep the wound closed, and sent him out.
The girl was waiting for him in the areaway, huddled in a blanket.
They had given Fallon one, too, but his cotton trunks were still
clammy cold against him. He stood looking down at the girl, his short
brown hair unkempt, the hard lines of his face showing sharp and
haggard.
"Well," he said. "What are you waiting for?"
"To thank you. You saved my life."
"You're welcome," said Fallon. "Now you'd better go before I
contaminate you."
"That's not fair. I am grateful, Webb. Truly grateful."
Fallon would have shrugged, but it hurt. "All right," he said wearily.
"You can tell Madge what a little hero I was."
"Please don't leave me," she whispered. "I haven't any place to go.
All my clothes and money were in the apartment."
He looked at her, his eyes cold and probing. Brief disappointment
touched him, and he was surprised at himself. Then he went deeper,
into the clear sapphire eyes, and was ashamed—which surprised
him even more.
"What's your name?" he asked. "And why haven't you fainted?"
"Joan Daniels," she said. "And I haven't had time."
Fallon smiled. "Give me your shoulder, Joan," he said, and they went
out.
CHAPTER TWO
Catastrophe—or Weapon?
Santa Monica was a city under attack. Sweating policemen struggled
with solid jams of cars driven by wild-eyed madmen. Horns hooted
and blared. And through it all, like banshees screaming with eldritch
mirth, the sirens wailed.
"They'll declare martial law," said Fallon. "I wonder how long they
can hold those things back?"
"Webb," whispered Joan, "what are those things?"
Strangely, they hadn't asked that before.
They'd hardly had time even to think it.
Fallon shook his head. "God knows. But it's going to get worse. Hear
that gunfire? My apartment isn't far from here. We'll get some clothes
and a drink, and then...."
It was growing dark when they came out again. Fallon felt better,
with a lot of brandy inside him and some warm clothes. Joan had a
pair of his slacks and a heavy sweater.
He grinned, and said, "Those never looked as nice on me."
Soldiers were throwing up barricades in the streets. The windows of
Corbin's big department store were shattered, the bodies of dead
rays lying in the debris. The rattle of gunfire was hotter, and much
closer.
"They're being driven back," murmured Fallon.
A squadron of bombers droned over, and presently there was the
crump and roar of high explosives along the beaches. The streets
were fairly clear now, except for stragglers and laden ambulances,
and the thinning groups of dead.
Fallon thought what must be happening in the towns farther south,
with their flat low beaches and flimsy houses. How far did this
invasion extend? What was it? And how long would it last?
He got his car out of the garage behind the apartment house. Joan
took the wheel, and he lay down on his stomach on the back seat.
His back hurt like hell.
"One good thing," he remarked wryly. "The finance company won't
be chasing me through this. Just go where the traffic looks lightest,
and shout if you need me."
He went to sleep.
It was morning when he woke. Joan was asleep on the front seat,
curled up under a blanket. She had spread one over him, too.
Fallon smiled, and looked out.
The first thing he noticed was the unfamiliar roar of motors overhead,
and the faint crackling undertone of gunfire. They were still under
siege, then, and the defenders were still giving ground.
They were parked on Hollywood Boulevard near Vine. Crowds of
white-faced, nervous people huddled along the streets. The only
activity was around the newsboys.
Fallon got out, stiff and cursing, and went to buy a paper. An extra
arrived before he got there. The boy ripped open the bundle, let out
a startled squawk, and began to yell at the top of his lungs.
A low, angry roar spread down the boulevard. Fallon got a paper,
and smiled a white-toothed, ugly smile. He shook Joan awake and
gave her the paper.
"There's your answer. Read it."
She read aloud: "Japs Claim Sea Invasion Their Secret Weapon!
"Only a few minutes ago, the Amalgamated Press recorded an
official broadcast from Tokyo, declaring that the fantastic wave of
monsters which have sprung from the ocean at many points along
the Western Coast was a new war-weapon of the Axis which would
cause the annihilation of American and world-wide democratic
civilization.
"The broadcast, an official High Command communique, said in part:
'The Pacific is wholly in our hands. American naval bases throughout
the ocean are useless, and the fleet where it still exists is isolated. In
all cases our new weapon has succeeded. The Pacific states, with
the islands, come within our natural sphere of influence. We advise
them to submit peacefully.'"
Joan Daniels looked up at Fallon. At first there was only stunned
pallor in her face. Then the color came, dark and slow.
"Submit peacefully!" she whispered. "So that's it. A cowardly,
fiendish, utterly terrible perversion of warfare—something so horrible
that it...."
"Yeah," said Fallon. "Save it."
He was leafing through the paper. There was a lot more—hurried
opinions by experts, guesses, conjectures, and a few facts.
Fallon said flatly. "They seem to be telling the truth. Fragmentary
radio messages have come in from the Pacific. Monsters attacked
just as suddenly as they did here, and at about the same time. They
simply clogged the guns, smothered the men, and wrecked ground
equipment by sheer weight of numbers."
Joan shuddered. "You wouldn't think...."
"No," grunted Fallon. "You wouldn't." He flung the paper down. "Yah!
Not an eyewitness account in the whole rag!"
Joan looked at him thoughtfully. She said, "Well...."
"They fired me once," he snarled. "Why should I crawl back?"
"It was your own fault, Webb. You know it."
He turned on her, and again his face had the look of a mean dog.
"That," he said, "is none of your damned business."
She faced him stubbornly, her sapphire eyes meeting his slitted
grey-green ones with just a hint of anger.
"You wouldn't be a bad sort, Webb," she said steadily, "if you weren't
so lazy and so hell-fired selfish!"
Cold rage rose in him, the rage that had shaken him when Madge
told him she was through. His hands closed into brown, ugly fists.
Joan met him look for look, her bright hair tangling over the collar of
his sweater, the strong brown curves of cheek and throat catching
the early sunlight. And again, as it had in that moment on the cliff,
something turned over in Fallon's heart.
"What do you care," he whispered, "whether I am or not?"
For the first time her gaze flickered, and something warmer than the
sunlight touched her skin.
"You saved my life," she said. "I feel responsible for you."
Fallon stared. Then, quite suddenly, he laughed. "You fool," he
whispered. "You damned little fool!"
He kissed her. And he kissed her gently, as he had never kissed
Madge.
They got breakfast. After that, Fallon knew, they should have gone
east, with the tense, crawling hordes of refugees. But somehow he
couldn't go. The distant gunfire drew him, the stubborn, desperate
planes.
They went back, toward the hills of Bel Air. After all, there was plenty
of time to run.
Things progressed as he had thought they would. Martial law was
declared. An orderly evacuation of outlying towns was going forward.
Fallon got through the police lines with a glib lie about an invalid
brother. It wasn't hard—there was no danger yet the way he was
going, and the police were badly overburdened.
Fallon kept the radio on as he drove. There was a lot of wild talk—it
was too early yet for censorship. A big naval battle east of Wake
Island, another near the Aleutians. The defense, for the present, was
getting nowhere.
Up on the crest of a sun-seared hill, using powerful glasses from his
car, Fallon shook his head with a slow finality.
The morning mists were clearing. He had an unobstructed view of
Hollywood, Beverly Hills, the vast bowl of land sloping away to the
sea. The broad boulevards to the east were clogged with solid black
streams. And to the west....
To the west there were barricades. There were clouds of powder

smoke, and fleets of low-flying planes. And there was something
else.
Something like a sluggish, devouring tide, lapping at the walls of the
huge M-G-M studios in Culver City, swamping the tarmac at Clover
Field, flowing resistlessly on and on.
Bombs tore great holes in the restless sea, but they flowed in upon
themselves and were filled. Big guns ripped and slashed at the
swarming creatures. Many died. But there were always more. Many,
many more.
The shallow margin of the distant ocean was still churned to froth.
Still the things came out of it, surging up and on.
Fighting, spawning, dying—and advancing.
Joan Daniels pressed close against him, shuddering. "It just isn't
possible, Webb! Bombers, artillery, tanks, trained soldiers. And we
can't stop them!" She stiffened suddenly. "Webb!" she cried. "Look
there!"
Where the bombers swooped through the smoke, another fleet was
coming. A fleet of flat triangular bodies with bat-like wings, in
numbers that clouded the sun. Rays, blind and savage and utterly
uncaring.
Machine guns brought them down by the hundred, but more of them
came. They crashed into heavy ships, fouled propellers, broke
controls.
Joan looked away, "And there are so few planes," she whispered.
Fallon nodded. "The whole coast is under attack, remember, from
Vancouver to Mexico. There just aren't enough men, guns, or planes
to go round. More are coming from the east, but...." He shrugged
and was silent.
"Then—then you think we'll have to surrender?"
"Doesn't look hopeful, does it? Japan in control of the Pacific, and
this here. We'll hold out for a while, of course. But suppose these
things come out of the sea indefinitely?"
"We've got to assume they can." Joan's eyes were dark and very
tired. "What's to prevent Japan from loaning her weapon to her
friends? Think of these things swarming in over England."
"War," said Fallon somberly. "A hell of a long, rotten war."
He leaned against the car, his grey-green eyes half closed. The
breeze came in from the sea, heavy with the stench of amphibian
bodies. The radio droned on. The single deep line between Fallon's
straight brows grew deeper. He began to talk, slowly, to Joan.
"The experts say that the Little Brown Brothers must have some kind
of a movable projector capable of producing rays which upset the
evolutionary balance and cause abnormal growth. Rays like hard X-
rays, or the cosmic rays that govern reproduction.
"California Tech has dissected several types of monsters. They say
that individual cell groups are affected, causing spontaneous growth
in living individuals, and that metabolism has been enormously
speeded, so that life-cycles which normally took years now take only
a few weeks.
"They also say that huge numbers—the bulk of these creatures—are
mutants, new individuals changed in the egg or the reproductive cell.
All these monsters are growing and spawning at a terrific tempo.
Billions of eggs, laid and hatched, even with the high mortality rate.
"They're evolving, at a fantastic rate of speed. They're growing legs
and lungs and becoming mammals. They're coming out of the sea,
just as our ancestors did millions of years ago. They're coming fast,
and they're hungry."
He fixed the girl suddenly with a bright, sharp stare.

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New York Chicago San Francisco

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eBook conversion by codeMantra

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Water Quality When River Meets Ocean. . . 3.6

Section 2 Basic Water Chemistry

5 Impurities in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 6 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Section 3.1 Applications—Impurity Removal

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 7 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Resin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.34

Section 3.2 Applications—Steam Generation

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 8 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Mathematical Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 9 04/10/17 3:59 pm

13 Condensate Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 10 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Neutralizing Amines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11

Section 3.3 Applications—Cooling Water Systems

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16 Cooling System Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1

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Determining the Bacterial Population of

Section 3.4 Applications—Water Safety for Building

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First Identified Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6

Section 3.5 Applications—Post-Treatment

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Drag Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.26

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Separation Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7

Section 4 Energy in Water Systems

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 17 04/10/17 3:59 pm

31 Energy in Steam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1

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Factors Affecting Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . 33.11

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Recycle and Reuse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31

35 The Refining Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1

36 The Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.1

37 The Aluminum Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1

38 The Steel Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.1

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39 The Institutional and Commercial Sectors . . . . . 39.1

40 The Food and Beverage Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.1

41 The Microelectronics Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1

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Cooling Towers and Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.6

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Section 3.4 Applications—Water Safety for Building