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WORLD HISTORY
(Complete Course)
FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789 - 1799)..................................................................................................................2

THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE............................................................................................................................ 8
ROLE OF WOMEN IN FRENCH REVOLUTION...........................................................................................15
RISE OF NAPOLEON TO POWER............................................................................................................... 16
IMPACT OF REVOLUTION ON FRANCE..................................................................................................... 21
VIENNA CONGRESS....................................................................................................................................25
RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE...........................................................................................................29
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY....................................................................................................................... 35
Unification of Italy.......................................................................................................................................... 44
BISMARCK.................................................................................................................................................... 52
World War - I..................................................................................................................................................57
Inter War Period.............................................................................................................................................74
Inter War Years Part-II................................................................................................................................... 87
Second World War.........................................................................................................................................94
Cold War...................................................................................................................................................... 106
INDUSTRIALISATION................................................................................................................................. 122
AMERICAN REVOLUTION......................................................................................................................... 135
CIVIL WAR...................................................................................................................................................143
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION............................................................................................................................ 150
CHINESE REVOLUTION............................................................................................................................ 163
DECOLONIZATION..................................................................................................................................... 172
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WORLD HISTORY
(Complete Course)
FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789 - 1799)
Introduction
● By the end of the eighteenth century Europe had undergone profound change under the
influence of Enlightenment.
● Philosophers and artists promoted reason and human freedom over traditions and religion.
● The rise of a middle class and availability of printed material encouraged political awareness,
and the American Revolution had turned a former English colony into an independent
republic.
● However,France, one of the largest and richest countries in Europe was still governed by
Ancient Regime, a three-level rigid social class system.
● France was a strong and powerful state in the 18th century which was characterized by
autocratic nature, extravagant rulers, privileged nobles and clergy, landless peasants,
jobless workers. However, despite its outward strength, the French monarchy was facing a crisis
which was to lead to its destruction.

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● The French Revolution will pose a challenge to the Ancient regime, and will finally lead to the
formation of a new republic. But this phenomenon was not restricted to France, rather it proved
to be a widespread upheaval which shook all institutions in other parts of Europe as well.
Social condition in the 18th century France

● The political and social system of France prior to the French
Revolution was called the Ancient regime.
● The Ancient regime was characterized by autocratic monarchy,
privileged aristocracy and feudal socio-economic setup.
● French society was divided into classes or Estates. The clergy
constituted the First Estate, the aristocracy comprised the Second
Estate, and the rest of the population formed the Third Estate.
● The first two Estates were privileged while the third Estate was
unprivileged.
● Progress in trade and commerce in 18th century Europe gave
rise to a new social class called the bourgeoisie or the middle
class.
● The French revolution can be seen as an example of a “bourgeois revolution” which sprang
from such societal unease.
Causes behind French Revolution

Political Cause
● The word ‘revolution’ generally means a fundamental change in a social system, or
structural, and a shift from one type of social system or structure to another.The French
Revolution of 1789 can therefore be branded a “total revolution”.
● The very thrust of the revolution aimed at the destruction of the feudal social system which
had developed in Europe over the last thousand years or so and the establishment in its place
of a capitalist or bourgeois social system.
● In fact, revolution is usually pre-conditioned by growing grievances and discontent within
elements of society. The long-standing discontent of the French people found an outlet in this
revolution and their revolutionary spirit found expression in the writings of the intelligentsia.

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● In eighteenth-century Europe, autocratic and hereditary monarchies were in power, and

France was no exception. Louis XIV, a French king of the Bourbon dynasty, reinforced autocratic
monarchy by centralizing his power.
● In France, the king headed the Judiciary, so he had the power to sanction a punishment meted
out and imprisonment without trial.
● The parliament was the highest royal court of justice, the most powerful of which was the
parliament of Paris.The king did not have the power to dismiss the magistrates or judges of
parliament but the delayed justice,complexities of judicial process, and legal expenses made
the judicial system corrupt. Besides, the earlier impartial judicial system as prevalent during the
reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI completely broke down.
● The prime objective of the parliaments was to retain the special privileges of the aristocracy to
the point that they even began to challenge the king's power to introduce reforms.
● Ultimately, the attempt by the autocratic monarchy to centralize power failed.
Social Cause
● The French society was divided into three Estates. The top two Estates were the privileged
ones. They didn't pay any tax and the king's laws were not applicable to them. This led to
rise of discontentment among
non-privileged classes.
● The clergy, who formed 1% of the
population, was in control of 10% of
total land, from which it extracted a tithe
(tax), enabling them to lead a luxurious
life.
● Corruption was rampant in the church.
Even the clergymen were divided into
upper clergy, who were socially and
economically aristocratic, and the lower clergy, who belonged to the third Estate. The people of
the 18th century lost respect for the church and the clergy.
● The aristocracy formed about one- third of the total population of the country and it also
enjoyed many privileges like the clergy. It owned huge tracts of land and, without paying any
taxes it lived at the expense of the peasant's labor.

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● Majority of the population of France belonged to the Third Estate. It comprised rich
businessmen, industrialists intellectual on one hand and the laboring men and peasants on
the other. Thus socio-economic division and disparity was more pronounced here.
● The people of the Third Estate were broadly divided into three groups- the bourgeoisie, the
peasants, and the Sanculottes (town men).
● The bourgeoisie or the middle class, although a minority, wielded the greatest influence and
considerable financial power. They included some of the most enlightened and most intelligent
members of French society, yet they were excluded from politics and administration by the
privileged Estates. It was this incongruence which fuelled the bourgeois revolution.
● The urban working class included the workers and skilled labourers. They were badly paid.
Their wages didn't rise in proportion to the rise of living expenses. Thus price hike was major
cause of their discontent and led them towards Revolution.
Enlightenment ideas
● A growing number of the French citizenry had absorbed the ideas of "equality" and "freedom
of the individual" as presented by Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot and other
philosophers and social theorists of the Age of Enlightenment.
● Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau were the three intellectual giants of the age. The 18th
century has been called the Age of Reason, because of the ideas expressed by the French
intellectuals. They gave people an idea of a new society based upon a new philosophy of life.
● Voltaire attacked the religion. Locke refuted the absolute right of monarch. Rousseau asserted
the doctrine of popular sovereignty. Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the
government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary.
● Along with the above stated idea of governance, the intellectuals emphasised on social
reforms. They condemned slavery. They also emphasised reason over prejudice.
● The American Revolution demonstrated that it was plausible for Enlightenment ideas about
how a government should be organized to actually be put into practice.
● Some American diplomats, like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, had lived in Paris,
where they consorted freely with members of the French intellectual class. Furthermore,
contact between American revolutionaries and the French troops who served in North America
helped spread revolutionary ideas to the French people.

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● The cumulative effect of their influence manifested in itself in liberty, equality, fraternity,
which became guiding principles of revolution. Without these ideas, french revolution would
have been simply an outbreak of violence.
● They were mostly aristocrats, lawyers, business people whose lot in the existing order was
far from unhappy. The doctrines of the philosophers came to be used later on, during the course
of the revolution in France often to justify measures that the philosophers themselves would have
opposed.
Economic Cause
● The main cause of the economic crisis in France was the disparity in taxation.
● The structural and economic crisis of the Ancient regime deepened with the coronation of Louis
XVI in 1774 with the participation of France in the American War of Independence.
● The economic reforms undertaken by Louis XVI met with failure because of his weak personality
and opposition from the aristocracy. Despite all this, the king and the aristocracy continued to
maintain their privileged way of life as before.
● The French economy meant that the exploitation of farmers by feudal lords gained in
intensity. The French historian Taine shows that four-fifths of a farmer’s income would be spent
in payment of state tax, religious tax imposed by Church and dues to feudal lords.
● Peasants and nobles alike were required to pay one-tenth of their income or produce to the
church (the tithe). Peasants paid a land tax to the state, a 5% property tax (the vingtième).
All paid a tax on the number of people in the family (capitation), depending on the status of
the taxpayer (from poor to prince).
● Further royal and seigneurial obligations might be paid in several ways: in labor (the corvée),
in kind, or, rarely, in coin. Peasants were also obligated to their landlords for: rent in cash (the
cens), a payment related to their amount of annual production (the champart), and taxes on the
use of the nobles' mills, wine-presses, and bakeries (the banalités).
● The internal tariff barrier stood in the way of trade, commerce, and industry run by the
bourgeoisie.
● However, it was the social humiliation, more than the economic hardship of bourgeoisie class
which paved the support of revolution.
● The depression of 1778 and the failure of crops in 1787, on the eve of the French Revolution,
was an utter disaster for the French economy.

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● Prices of commodities decreased following the depression and as a result, the profits went
down and the labor tells on bad days.
● Following the failure of crops in 1787-89, food production fell dramatically, leading to an
increase in the prices of foodstuffs. The hardship of peasants, workers, and the weaker classes
therefore intensified.
● The ministers in the council of Louis XVI-Turgot, Necker, and Calonne proposed a
restructuring of the tax system to tide them over the economic crisis and the only solution
was to impose tax on aristocratic. But aristocracy made it impossible. This resulted in the
'aristocratic revolt'-the beginning of the French Revolution.
Immediate cause
● Economic bankruptcy of the government became the main reason for the onset of the
Revolution.
● To come out from bankruptcy, the king appointed many economic advisers like Turgot, Necker
and Calonne, but all issues of economic reforms were just obstinacy of the aristocratic class
which was deadly opposed to taxing the privileged class.
● So French monarch Louis XVI was compelled to summon the session of state general. In this
state general, it was on the issue of voting that the Revolution started.

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THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE

There are five Stages in the French Revolution
Stage 1: Revolution of 1789 (1789-1792)
● In May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of the Estates General to pass proposals for
new taxes. The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, while there were 600
members of the third estate. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the
assembly. Voting in the Estates General in the past had been conducted according to the
principle that each estate had one vote. This time too Louis XVI was determined to continue the
same practice. But members of the third estate demanded that voting now be conducted by
the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote.
● Upon breaking away, they formed the National Assembly (which later became the National
Constituent Assembly). The National Assembly demanded a written constitution. Louis
initially refused to acknowledge the new governmental body. However, because of pressure from
the populace in both the cities and the countryside (e.g., the storming of the Bastille and the
“Great Fear”), he eventually accepted the National Constituent Assembly.

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● After being recognized by the king, the National Constituent Assembly went about restructuring
France. The Constitution of 1791 created a Constitutional Monarchy. The new legislative
body would be the Legislative Assembly. The executive branch would be the king.
● Louis XVI, however, had little power. The first stage of the revolution was conservative when
compared to other stages of the Revolution. It did, however, represent the death of the Old
Regime and effectively transferred power from aristocratic wealth to all forms of commercial
wealth.
Governmental Estates General a. Ceased to exist after the Third Estate broke away
Bodies
National Constituent a. Initially was called the National Assembly,

Assembly b. Was made up of the Third Estate, most of the First
Estate (clergy) and liberal members of the Second
Estate (the nobility).
c. Ceased to exist after restructuring France
Legislative Assembly a. Legislative body of the new constitutional

monarchy.
b. Members had to own a certain amount of property.
c. Had a brief existence (1791-1792)
Players and Aristocracy a. Conservatives refused to join the National

Political Factions Constituent Assembly and supported an absolute
monarchy.
b. Liberals sided with the National Constituent
Assembly.
Clergy a. Under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, all

bishops and priests became employees of the
state.

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The Middle Class a. Only those who owned property had political
(bourgeoisie) power in the new government
The Populace a. Contrary to popular belief, it was not the populace

that rebelled to overthrow the king.
b. Rather, the populace became a tool of the various
political groups vying for power during the
revolution.
c. It was the who forced Louis XVI to accept the
National Constituent Assembly.
Important Events Tennis Court Oath a. The National Assembly met on a tennis court at
Versailles and refused to leave until the king
agreed to accept a written constitution.
Declaration of the a. Declared that all French citizens were subject to

Rights of Man and same and equal laws.
Citizen
Constitution of 1971 a. Set up a Constitutional Monarchy

b. Did not recognize social or political equality.
I) members of the National Constituent Assembly
did not desire social equality or extensive
democracy
2) wanted to lessen the influence of the
unpropertied class on the new government
Stage 2: Legislative Assembly (1791-92)

● After election, 3 groups won the election. They were
Monarchist(Rightist),Republicans(Jacobian) and Centrist (Girondists).
● No one is having majority in legislative assembly.
● In particular, the radical Jacobins (the Mountain) wanted a republic instead of a constitutional
monarchy. The more moderate Jacobins (the Girondists) desired to preserve the new
government. Because

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○ Louis XVI did many things to raise suspicion that he was a counter revolutionary,
○ The poor economy,
● Many felt that the revolution had not gone far enough.
● In particular, the radical Jacobins (the Mountain) wanted a republic instead of a
constitutional monarchy. The more moderate Jacobins (the Girondists) desired to preserve
the new government. Because
○ The fact that most of France had no political power, and
○ A war with Austria and Prussia, the Mountain was able to gain control of the Legislative
Assembly. Again, the populace played a part. With the help of the sans-culottes (the
common people of Paris), the Mountain ousted the Girondists and transformed France
into a Republic.
Stage 3: Second Revolution (1792)

● The new legislative body was called the Convention. The Legislative Assembly ceased to exist.
● It was during this stage that Louis XVI was tried and executed as a counterrevolutionary.

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Stage 3: The Reign of Terror (1793-1795)

● This was, by far, the most radical phase of the French Revolution. The war with Europe created a
situation that allowed the Convention to crush opposition in France without due process of
the law. No one, from royalists to republicans was safe.
● The new government attempted to create a “Republic of Virtue.” This new republic was
essentially a military state whose main objective was preserving the new government and
destroying all aristocratic elements and traditions.
● 4 Instruments of Reign of Terror- Law of Suspects,Deputy’s on Mission,Committee on Public
Safety and Revolutionary Tribunal.
● Huge no. of people Guillotine,out total no of people killed around 85% belongs to 3rd ESTATE.
● Execution of King and Queen.
● Reign of Terror represents the phase of Excess of revolution.
● But certain positive changes introduced by National Convention like-
○ End of Slavary.
○ End of Monarchy.
○ Establishment of Repubic and
○ Rationalization of Religion.

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Stage 4: Establishment of the Directory (1795-1799)

● This was a backlash against the radical elements of the revolution. The political pendulum swung
back to the right and a government that was neither a constitutional monarchy nor a democracy
was established. Social change was avoided. When all was said and done, the real “winners” of
the French Revolution were the owners of property.
● However, unrest still surged through the country, and the Directory was unable to maintain
control of the government.
● Directory proved to an Inefficient and Corrupt system.So, there were Discontent & dissatisfaction
among People. People wanted Peace & prosperity. So,it paved the way for Napoleon with the
establishment of the consulate system.

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Stage 5: Consulate System(1799-1804)

● This was a backlash against the radical elements of the revolution. The political pendulum swung
back to the right and a government that was neither a constitutional monarchy nor a democracy
was established.
● Dissolution of National Convention and drafted New Constitution,which gave birth to
Directory System with 5 members.
● However, unrest still surged through the country, and the Directory was unable to maintain
control of the government.
● Directory proved to an Inefficient and Corrupt system.So, there were Discontent &
dissatisfaction among People. People wanted Peace & prosperity. So,it paved the way for
Napoleon with the establishment of the consulate system.
● The Consulate (French: Le Consulat) was the top-level government of France from the fall of the
Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire on 10 November 1799 until the start of the Napoleonic
Empire on 18 May 1804. By extension, the term The Consulate also refers to this period of French
history.
● It was 3 memebers system.
● Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul (Premier consul), established himself as the head of a
more authoritarian, autocratic, and centralized republican government in France while not
declaring himself sole ruler.

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ROLE OF WOMEN IN FRENCH REVOLUTION

Role in Society before Revolution
● Women in the Third Estate worked for a living.
● Didn’t have access to education or training
● Only daughters of the noblewomen and richer sections of societies had access to any education
● Wages were lower than those of men.
● Women were also homemakers, they had to do all the housework, care for children.
During Revolution
● Played an active role in the revolutionary movements
● Started their own clubs and newspapers.
● One of the most famous political clubs was the Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women.
They were disappointed by the Constitution of 1971 which designated them passive citizens.
● The Society demanded equal political rights as men. They wanted to vote and stand in elections
for political office.
Outcomes of Revolution for Women

● The early revolutionary governments introduced many laws that improved the lives and status of
women in society.
● Schools were created, and education was made compulsory for all girls.
● Marriage without consent was made illegal.
● Divorce was made legal.
● Women were allowed to be artisans and run small businesses.
Role Of Philosophers In French Revolution

During Revolution
● They influence the public opinion through constant criticism of existing situation.
● They instil into peoples mind some dissasive doctrines like “Popular Sovereignty” etc.
● They educated the group of leaders.
● They gave expression to discontent of people.
● They created favourable condition for debate and discussion.
● They inspire and encourage hope.

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Analysis of Role
● They stood for reforms but the idea of revolution was not propagated by them in general.
● They were not votery of violent moves.
● They did not have direct participation in the revolution.
● The revolution caused by evils of national life such as issue of privileges,monarchical
misrule,weak economic policies and financial crises.
● But Philosophers played role in arousing and inspiring people against evils of national life.
RISE OF NAPOLEON TO POWER

● Rise of Napoleon marked the end of the French Revolution, he
was really a child of the revolution. Within his empire, Napoleon
tried to spread the ideas of the French Revolution.
● Napoleon Bonaparte was born into an aristocratic family of
Corsica on 15 August 1769. His lineage helped him study at the
Ecole Militaire.
● He joined the French artillery as a Second Lieutenant at the age of
16. A product of the revolution, Napoleon returned to Corsica to
engage in politics, only to be banished with his family in 1793.
His belated return to the volatile French political scene was
marked by utmost caution.
● After returning to the army, Napoleon seized control of Toulon from the English and Spanish
invaders in 1793 and re-established French supremacy there.
● This development was a watershed in his growing ascendancy for the military expertise he
displayed in the battle earned him a promotion to Brigadier general.
● The fall of Robespierre led to Napoleon's dismissal and arrest but Barras, the leader of
Thermidorian Reaction, released him. In 1795, he saved the National Convention from the
rampaging supporters of monarchy and he was thus elevated to the rank of General.
● The rule of the Directory failed to deal with the internal problems adequately, but its success
in foreign affairs was due to the military genius of Napoleon.
● He took on the might of the European coalition, defeated Sardinia. Then, forcing Austria to
sign the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797. Napoleon annexed a large part of Italy.

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● Under the Consulate, power was invested in three Consuls but Napoleon as the First Consul, was
all-powerful. He was appointed Consul for life following a national plebiscite. In 1804,
Napoleon declared himself to be the Emperor of France.
● However, after a disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon abdicated the
throne two years later and was exiled to the island of Elba.
● After crushing defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (1815), he abdicated once again and was exile
to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he died at 51.
Cause for the Success of Napoleon

● To a large extent, Napoleon’s career resulted from the military and political forces he inherited
from the Revolution and exploited for his own purposes.
● Politically, France had suffered a full decade of revolutionary turmoil by 1799, making the
government unstable and corrupt.
● Church policies were unpopular, especially since they had triggered rampant inflation.
People were sick of this turmoil and longed for a more stable government that would make their
lives more secure.
● Therefore, the interplay of military innovations that made Napoleon a national hero and the
longing for a strong, secure government that Napoleon promised led to his seizure of power in
1799.
● Further military victories, once again against the Austrians in Italy allowed Napoleon to
consolidate his hold on power and declare himself emperor of France in 1804.
● Napoleon was also a very active administrator, and his internal reforms did a great deal as far
as both consolidating some accomplishments of the French Revolution and suppressing
others.
● He centralized the tax system (still used today) and established the Bank of France to
stabilize the economy of France.
● The Revolution’s system of free but mandatory education was kept and expanded with
military uniforms and discipline being imposed.
● Napoleon also consolidated many of the Revolution’s social and legal advances into five law
codes.
● Napoleon largely suppressed civil and political liberties with strict censorship and the
establishment of a virtual police state in order to protect his power.

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● However, Napoleon saw equality as a politically useful concept that he could maintain with
little threat to his position. One of his main accomplishments as a ruler was the establishment
of the Napoleonic Civil Law Codes, which made all men equal under the law while maintaining
their legal power over women.
● Napoleon saw nationalism as indispensable to maintaining the loyalty of the French people
to his regime. Napoleon inadvertently weakened the inspirational force of nationalism and thus
his own power.
● The key to Napoleon's success, besides his military genius, his uncommon personality and
soaring ambition. That is why he could take over the reins of power in France, despite his
humble beginnings as an ordinary soldier.
Reforms undertaken by Napoleon:

● Napoleon Bonaparte carried out the long lasting and effective socio economic and
administrative reforms which influenced the west in various ways.
● It represents the synthesis of - old & new orders,liberal ideas of revolution & conservative ideas
of old regime,blend of social order of revolution and authority of old regime, amalgamation of
liberal laws of revolution & Roman laws of ancient regime.
Administrative Reforms:
● He carried out administrative reforms in such a way that power was largely centralized in his
hands.
● The highest forum of the administration, the Council of States, was the source of legislation,
and had judicial functions as well.
● Every department was monitored by a Prefect who was appointed by the First Consul
(Napoleon).
● The Judges were appointed by the government and they had security of tenure to ensure
independence of the judiciary.
● The police organization was strengthened.
● Napoleon's set of civil laws, the Code Civil—now often known as the Napoleonic Code—was a
fundamental change in the nature of the civil law legal system with its stress on clearly written
and accessible law. It was primarily based on equality and opportunity for all; denounced
privileges based on birth and enabled freedom of religion.

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● Before the revolution, French law was based on the whims of its kings. Laws were the
product of each individual monarch. They were lengthy, complicated, and different from region
to region. Before Napoleon, there was no single law or document to unify them.
● The purpose of the French Civil Code was to collect all of the French laws into a single
volume that would be simple and easy to understand.
● More than 70 countries around the world had adopted the Napoleonic Code or had used
them as the basis for their own laws. It took four years for the country’s top jurists – with the
help of Napoleon himself – to draft its 2,281 Articles.
Key concepts of the Napoleonic ● Legal equality for everyone.

Code ● No recognition of nobility or titles of birth. Freedom of religion.
● Separation of church and state.
● Freedom to work in any occupation.
● Protection of the family
At the heart of the code were ● Laws should be based on reason and common sense
three ideas from the revolution: ● All men should be treated equally under the law
● They should have certain freedoms
Flaws in Napoleonic Code ● The major flaw in the Napoleonic code was that he considered
women inferior to men and women should not be allowed to
have much influence in a society.
● The Women could not vote.
● Husbands had complete control over their wives and their
personal property.
● Children and unmarried women had few rights.
● Other codes ("Les cinq codes") were commissioned by Napoleon to codify criminal and
commerce law.
● He dissolved the Holy Roman Empire and instituted the Legion of Honour, a substitute for the
old royalist to encourage civilian and military achievements.

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Social Reforms:
● Napoleon laid the foundation of a modern system of education in France and throughout
much of Europe by establishing a system of secular and public education.
● The Napoleonic education System aimed at producing able administrators and skilled
technicians for the benefit of the state. However, he showed indifference to the education of
women. Even primary education was ignored.
● He made French the only official language and supported primary education and secondary
education.
● He gave special attention to the advanced centers, such as the École Polytechnique, that
provided both military expertise and state-of-the-art research in science.
● Negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church, which sought to reconcile the
mostly Catholic population to his regime.
Economic Reforms:
● Introduction of Continental System which was an economic weapon to weaken the British
rule as it inflicted a large-scale embargo (trade barrier) against British trade.
● He rebuilt industrial life by protecting indigenous industry and encouraged local traders to
take part in the economic activities.
● Laid the foundation of Banque de France to enable tax collection by the central government
and root out corruption.
● Public work on the structure of bridges, roads, monumental buildings etc. and beautification
of the cities.
● The bank of France was set up in 1800 to try to restore economic order.
● Napoleon followed a mercantile policy and laid more stress on agriculture than on trade and
commerce.
The causes behind the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte

● Napoleon’s conquests aroused nationalistic feelings across Europe and contributed to his
downfall. Napoleon worried about what would happen to his vast empire after his death. He
feared it would fall apart unless he had an heir whose right to succeed him was undisputed. His
wife, Josephine, had failed to bear him a child. He, therefore, divorced her and formed an alliance

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with the Austrian royal family by marrying Marie Louise, the grandniece of Marie Antoinette. In
1811, Marie Louise gave birth to a son, Napoleon II, whom Napoleon named king of Rome.
● Weaknesses of the Napoleonic System - defects of dictatorship; too much dependence on one
person; its militaristic nature (War face cannot be continued forever); Adoption of his tactics of
warfare by the opponents from 1819, etc.
● Spirit of Nationalism - Spread of Nationalism in the conquered territories and the growing
hatred among the subject people for the foreigners.
● Naval superiority and strong finances of Great Britain. Failure of the Continental system.
● Peninsular War with Spain and Russian Campaign - while the former exhausted the resources
of France, the latter ended in disaster for Napoleon and for France.
IMPACT OF REVOLUTION ON FRANCE

The France revolution that started in 1789 brought fundamental social, political and economic
changes in the history of France. The changes caused by the revolution were both positive and
negative in the history of France:
Positive Impact
● The legal abolition of the nobility, including its feudal privileges, by the National Assembly in
1789. This led to the establishment of capitalism. Even the restored monarchy could not bring it
back.
● The French revolution destroyed the social discriminative class system in France and
declared equality for all. The revolution came with the equality and career open to talents, i.e.,
appointment and promotion was to be based on talents and ability. This led to rise of middle
class who had acquired education to positions of responsibilities.
● The revolution gave birth to the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity.
● The declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, considered one of the world’s most
important statements of universal human rights, issued just after the abolition of the nobility.
● It gave the term nation its new meaning. A nation is not territory that people belong to but it is
the people themselves. From this flows the idea of sovereignty that people constituting the
nation are the source of all power.

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● It was the first genuinely democratic Government. So planted the seeds for other democratic
movements. For the first time people such as workers, artisans, poor peasants got equality in
voting rights.
● Formal separation of church and state in 1794. This laid down the basis for separation of state
and religion and establishment of a secular state.
● France has abolished slavery in its colonies. And as a result Haiti, an french colony, became a
republic. This was the first republic established by the black people.
● The Civil Code of 1804, usually known as the Napoleonic Code, did away with all privileges
based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
● The re-organisation of France’s inefficient governing system into departments and
communes. The establishment of the metric system in 1793. National system of schools known
as lycées was established in 1803. It led to a modernised system of administration.
● The Bourbon monarch that had ruled France for over 400 years came to end by the French
revolution. The monarchy rule was abolished in 1792 and replaced it with the Republican form of
Government. Although the Bourbon monarch was restored by the great powers after the downfall
of Napoleon, it could not survive beyond 1830 because the monarchs were already weakened by
the changes caused by the French revolution.
● Rise of Political Parties: France became a multiparty state as a result of the 1789 French
revolution. The freedom of association led to the rise of political clubs such as the Jacobins,
cordilliers, Giirondin Fauvillants that competed for power. These parties kept the government
under check and balance by criticizing bad policies.
● Constitution and Rule of Law: The French revolution introduced the rule of law in the history of
France. Before 1789, France had no constitution to safeguard people’s rights and freedom.
However, in 1791, the government enacted the constitution that was amended in 1793 and 1795.
The constitution clearly separated the executive, the judiciary and legislature. The constitution
reduced the king’s excessive powers.
● Land ownership: The revolution brought new reforms and change on land ownership in
France. Before the revolution, land was dominated by the clergy and the nobles who exploited
the peasants. The revolution brought change in the land tenure system in France. The idea of
private ownership of land by everybody was encouraged; this provided a chance to peasants to
own land. I.e., the church land was nationalized and sold to peasants.

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● National Guard: There was formation of National Guard that replaced the royal guard of the
Bourbon monarchy. National Guard was the revolutionary army whose role was to protect the
achievements of the French revolution. By the end of 1793, there were about 700, 000 well trained
and disciplined soldiers of the National Guard that protected people and their property.
Impact on the World:

● It inspired the revolutionary movement in almost every country of Europe, America, South
Asia etc. to bring about social reforms.
● Because of the wave of public consciousness, the monarchy has become submissive. The
autocratic governments of Europe found themselves increasingly difficult to rule the people.
● Infusion of nationalism in parts of the world where people united to curb foreign rule such as
the revolution in Ireland, imperialist rule of Spain and Portugal, in Central and South America etc.
● Dismantling of institutions of serfdom with the coming of human rights and a republic in parts
of the world.
● Growth of secularism and other progressive ideologies as France became the first state in
history to grant universal male suffrage.
● In India also the French Revolution had its resonance. Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy are two
examples of individuals who responded to the ideas coming from revolutionary France.
● The French revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World. It shaped politics,
society, religion and ideas by bringing liberalism and the end of many feudal or traditional laws
and practices.
Negative Impact of the revolution

● All rights belonged to the men. Women were given no political rights to vote or to hold public
offices, totally against the principle of equality.
● Equality also lacked among the men. Men with only a certain level of income were allowed to
vote.
● Jacobins perpetuated terror in the masses which was against the idea of liberty and freedom.
● French began with being liberators but they ended up being conquerors thus going against
their own values of liberty and equality.
● Slave trade considered as one of the most inhuman way of exploration for serving vested
interests was carried on by French, was a gross violation of human rights.

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● Post-revolution regime failed to resolve the grievances of the workers, who were the main
force during the uprising of 1789, and only the peasants benefited (as they became owners of
land confiscated from the privileged classes).
● National Convention was divided into a number of groups amidst the confusion and radicals
hijacked the agenda and behaved in an immature manner.Wide suppression of opponents
took place in the reign of terror that followed which also led to elimination of intellectuals as
well.
Conclusion
● The French Revolution was a watershed moment in modern history, which had far-reaching
consequences on the world stage. It inspired revolutionary movements, promoted nationalism,
challenged traditional power structures, and promoted the ideals of human rights and
democracy. Its legacy can still be seen today in the political and social systems of many countries.
PYQ
Q.) Explain how the foundations of the modern world were laid by the American and French
revolution.
Ans.
● Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789):
○ Asserted fundamental rights such as liberty, property, and security.
○ Promoted the principles of equality before the law and freedom of speech and religion.
● Abolition of Feudalism:
○ Dismantled feudal privileges and hierarchical structures.
○ Encouraged the development of a more meritocratic society.
● Rise of Secularism:Reduced the influence of the Church in state affairs.
● Promoted secular education and civil administration.
● Napoleonic Code: Codified laws that influenced legal systems globally.
● Emphasized clear, accessible laws and the protection of private property.
● Political Ideologies:
● Popularized concepts of nationalism, liberalism, and secularism.
● Inspired revolutionary movements across Europe and the world.

WORLD HISTORY
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VIENNA CONGRESS
Background
● After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, a European Congress met from 1814 to 1815 at Vienna
(capital of Austria).
● The French revolution and Napoleonic conquests had changed Europe to such an extent that an
all European congress became necessary to discuss the future arrangement in Europe.
● This congress came to be known as the Vienna congress.
● Austria, Prussia, Russia and Great Britain the four powers that were chiefly instrumental in the
overthrow of Napoleon, had concluded a special alliance among themselves with the Treaty of
Chaumont, on March 9, 1814, a month before Napoleon’s first abdication.
Metternich who organised the vienna congress was of the View that-
● The condition of other parts of Europe is different from Britain where constitutional monarchy
was established after english revolution.
● Changes should be gradual and not abrupt revolutionary changes.
● Revolutionary forces are international threat & need to be tackled internationally.
● Divine Right of Monarchy is not subject to change.
● His approach is pro-Status Quo.
● Reasons for Metternich Views-
● Vast Habsburg Empire.
● Diverse people.
● Distinct internal disharmony.

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● Spread of Revolutionary ideas implied to dissolution of empire.

● So,he gave birth to Metternich System.
● Metternich System-Consist of Metternich policy for Austria+Vienna order+Concert of Europe.
Objectives of Vienna Congress

● Rearranging the map of Europe which has earlier been disfigured by unrestricted conquest by
Napoleon. Three important principles have to followed while rearranging national boundaries: -
○ The principle of Legitimacy – Napoleon had dethroned many monarchs, they were
declared legitimate and restored. Louis XVIII was restored as French monarch, Papal states
were restored to the Pope.
○ The principle of Compensation – Countries were compensated with the lands conquered
by Napoleon. Austria gained the biggest pie. It got Venice, Lombardi apart from being
declared as leader of Germany. Austria was strengthened to prevent recurrence of French
Revolution like events
● To restore the balance of power in Europe.
● To crush ideas of the French Revolution and to bring Europe to the pre – French Revolutionary
Era. Ex. – Italy was consciously divided so much so it remains to be merely geographical
expansion.
Participants / Delegates
● The four victor countries – Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia were the main players in the
congress. But these countries
did not share the same view
regarding the future
arrangement of Europe.
● Russia and Austria were the
conservative forces in the
congress whereas Britain had
Liberal views.
● Assisting Metternich as host,
Friedrich Grench played a vital role in the management of protocol and in the secretarial
organization of the congress.

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● The social side of the congress was, in fact, one of the causes of the long and unexpected delay in
producing a result, for Metternich at least sometimes subordinated business to pleasure.
There were three goals of Metternich (who was head of Austrian delegation) at Congress of Vienna:
● To prevent future French aggression by surrounding France with strong countries.
● To restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a threat to others.
● To restore Europe’s royal families to the thrones they had held before Napoleon’s conquests.
Decision of the Vienna Congress

● The major points of friction occurred over the disposition of Poland and Saxony, the conflicting
claims of Sweden, Denmark and Russia and the adjustment of the borders of the German states.
● In general, Russia and Prussia were opposed by Austria, France, and England, which at one point
(January 3, 1815), went so far as to conclude a secret treaty of defensive alliance.
The major final agreements were as follows: -

● In return for acquiring Poland, Alexander gave back Galicia to Austria and gave Thorn and a region
around it to Prussia. Krakow was made a free town.
● The rest of the Dutchy of Warsaw was incorporated as a separate kingdom under the Russian
emperor’s sovereignty.
● Prussia got two-fifths of Saxony
and was compensated by
extensive additions in
Westphalia and on the left bank
of the Rhine River.
● The outline of a constitution, a
loose confederation, was drawn
up for Germany – a triumph for
Metternich.
● The new Kingdom of the Netherlands, which comprised both the former United Provinces and
Belgium. Austria was compensated by Lombardy and Venice and got back most of Tirol.
● Denmark lost Norway to Sweden but got Lauenburg, while Swedish Pomerania went to Prussia.
● Switzerland was given a new constitution.

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● In Italy, Piedmont absorbed Genoa, Tuscany and Modena went to an Austria and the Duchy of
Parma and Piacenza was given to Marie-Louise, consort of the deposed Napoleon.
● The Papal States were restored to the pope, and Naples went to the Sicilian Bourbons.
Conclusion
● The Final Act of the Congress of Vienna comprised all the agreements in one great instrument.
● The Final Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed on June 9, 1815, by the eight (except Spain,
which refused as a protest against the Italian settlement).
● As a result, the political boundaries laid down by the Congress of Vienna lasted, except for one or
two changes.
● For more than 40 years. The statesmen had successfully worked out the principle of a balance of
power.
● One positive outcome of the Congress was that there was no war for next 60 years. Metternich
openly declared policy of intervention in other countries where revolts happened. Britain
however opposed it, but was isolated. Soon France also joined Big 4 or Quadruple Alliance. Britain
however left the Congress when other parties intervened in Spain which Britain opposed.
● However, the idea of nationality had been almost entirely ignored – necessarily so because it was
not yet ready for expression.
● Territories had been bartered about without much reference to the wishes of their inhabitants.
Until an even greater settlement took place at Versailles after World War I.
● However, to give to international relations any organ by which their work could be adapted to the
new forces of the 19th century, and it was ultimately doomed to destruction.
● However, Rise of Nationalism (The French Revolution helped to introduce nationalism in Europe)
upset the balance of power that the Congress of Vienna tried to create in Europe.
● It led to the development of nation-states which meant the end of empires as well as the creation
of new countries or nation-states as the Vienna Congress could not suppress the emerging order
for too long. Attempts of revolution in 1930 and 1948 were such examples which were signs of
things to come which was manifested in German and Italian unification.
● Thus,the Vienna Congress heralded an ominous alliance system which ultimately culminated into
World Wars.

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RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
● Nationalism is an ideology that gives a nation a sense of unity by imposing on them the same set
of identities (for instance linguistic, historical, and cultural).
● European nationalism in the 19th century paved the ground of modern nation state. Few
important events like industrial revolution and French revolution were one of the main drivers in
European nationalism.
Formation of new Identities & Nations / Cause of European Nationalism:

● The French revolution with its modern ideas given birth to Nation state consciousness in which
rebellion against Clergy & Romantic scope inspired the masses & Intellectuals in many European
nations.
● Napoleonic code & Reforms also brought the idea of Reforms & Development by Political
transformation.
● Concepts like - Liberty, Equality, Fraternity and the idea of one language, one Culture and one
Nation led to rise of nationalism and formation of National Identity.
● Countries like Italy & Germany were created on the basis on common Identity brought forth by
Both Intellectual ideas & fight against Dynastic Nobility.
● Occupation & Conflict against Foreign Culture-Greece, Serbia won their Independence from the
Ottoman Empire. Similarly, the Poles fought against Russians, Slavic nationalism against the
Hapsburgs and the Irish against the British.
● Revolutions broke out across Europe under charismatic personalities like Mazzini (Young Italy) &
Garibaldi, sparked by severe famine and economic crisis and mounting popular demand for
political change.
● German (Bismarck) & Italian nationalism, began as a reaction to French military occupation by
Napoleon and his restructuring of the lands into a smaller number of states & provided a sense of
unity and nationalism.
● Industrialization brought new social groups - working-class and middle classes who supported
ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges & economic nationalism.
● The Industrial Revolution in Europe during the 19th century increased the national competition in
economic sphere and brought the nation-states in conflict with each other for acquisition of
colonies.

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Impact of nationalism in Europe

● Due to the rise of the Nationalist Movement, a strong resentment to foreign rule began to develop.
● In Ireland, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Poland, Hungary and Norway local hostility to alien dynastic
authority started to take the form of nationalist revolts.
● Nationalism came to be seen as the most effective way to create the symbols of resistance and to
unite in a common cause.
● First national revolution was in Serbia (1804–1817) which created the first nation-state in Central
Europe.
● Success came in Greece where an eight-year war (1821–1829) against Ottoman rule led to an
independent Greek state.
● After the Napoleonic wars, the Vienna Congress had carefully crafted the restoration of the powers
of the Royal families. But this return to the old order proved to be temporary in the tide of
nationalism.
● The Liberals and nationalists throughout Europe started launching open revolts against
conservative governments.
● In most of these revolts, the liberal middle class led the struggle for constitutional government
and the formation of nation-states.
● In 1831, Belgium obtained independence from the Netherlands. Over the next two decades
nationalism developed a more powerful voice.
● In 1848, revolutions broke out across Europe, sparked by a severe famine and economic crisis and
mounting popular demand for political change. In Italy Giuseppe Mazzini used the opportunity to
encourage a war for national unity.
Revolution of 1830 and 1848
Revolutions of 1830
● Revolutions of 1830, rebellions against conservative kings and governments by liberals and
revolutionaries in different parts of Europe in 1830–32.
● The movement started in France, prompted by Charles X’s publication on July 26 of four
ordinances dissolving the Chamber of Deputies, suspending freedom of the press, modifying the
electoral laws so that three-fourths of the electorate lost their votes, and calling for new elections
to the Chamber in September.

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● Strikes and protests were followed by armed confrontations.

● The royal forces were unable to contain the insurrection; and, after three days of fighting (July
27–29), Charles abdicated the throne and soon
afterward fled to England.
● The radicals wanted to establish a republic, and the
aristocracy were loyal to Charles, but the
upper-middle class were victorious in their decision
to offer the crown to the Duke of Orléans,
Louis-Philippe, who had fought for the French
Republic in 1792.
● Louis-Philippe agreed to be “King of the French.”
When the “July Revolution” was over, the Chamber
of Peers had been transformed from a hereditary
body into a nominated house, special tribunals were abolished, the alliance of the monarchy and
the Roman Catholic church was ended, and the white flag of the Bourbons was replaced by the
tricolor.
Consequence of the revolution

● Liberals throughout Europe were encouraged to hope for a general social revolution, but most
were disappointed. Louis-Philippe did not want a war and, contrary to expectations, did not
support the Poles, who had revolted against the Russian tsar.
● Their revolt was ruthlessly suppressed, and Poland was incorporated into the Russian Empire.
● Revolts in Italy and the German kingdoms were equally unsuccessful.
● Belgium declared its independence from the Netherlands, and it was recognized in 1831 as a
separate nation.
● For several years the Greeks had been fighting for their independence from the Ottoman Empire,
and in 1832 the European powers recognized Greece as an independent sovereign state.

WORLD HISTORY
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The revolt of 1830s
France Belgium Poland Italy
The liberals set up the Nationalism led to Nationalism led Nationalism led Italy
constitutional monarchy. Belgium to rebel Poland to try to break to fight for
Louis Phillipe was the new against the former free from foreign Independence
Monarch King Dutch Republic powers.
The Revolutions of 1848

● After adopting reforms in the 1830s and the early 1840s, Louis-Philippe of France rejected further
change and thereby spurred new liberal agitation.
● Artisan concerns also had quickened, against their loss of status and shifts in work conditions
following rapid economic change; a major recession in 1846–47 added to popular unrest.
● Some socialist ideas spread among artisan leaders, who urged a regime in which workers could
control their own small firms and labor in harmony and equality.
● A major propaganda campaign for wider suffrage and political reform brought police action in
February 1848, which in turn prompted a classic street rising that chased the monarchy (never to
return) and briefly established a republican regime based on universal manhood suffrage.
Spread of revolution
● Revolt quickly spread to Austria, Prussia, Hungary, Bohemia, and various parts of Italy.
● These risings included most of the ingredients present in France, but also serious peasant
grievances against manorial obligations and a strong nationalist current that sought national
unification in Italy and Germany and Hungarian independence or Slavic autonomy in the
Habsburg lands.
● New regimes were set up in many areas, while a national assembly convened in Frankfurt to
discuss German unity.
● The major rebellions were put down in 1849. Austrian revolutionaries were divided over
nationalist issues, with German liberals opposed to minority nationalisms; this helped the
Habsburg regime maintain control of its army and move against rebels in Bohemia, Italy, and
Hungary (in the last case, aided by Russian troops).

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● Parisian revolutionaries were divided between those who sought only political change and
artisans who wanted job protection and other gains from the state. In a bloody clash in June 1848,
the artisans were put down and the republican regime moved steadily toward the right,
ultimately electing a nephew of Napoleon I as president; he, in turn (true to family form), soon
established a new empire, claiming the title Napoleon III.
● The Prussian monarch turned down a chance to head a liberal united Germany and instead used
his army to chase the revolutionary governments, aided by divisions between liberals and
working-class radicals (including the socialist Karl Marx, who had set up a newspaper in Cologne).
Consequence of the revolution

● Despite the defeat of the revolutions, however, important changes resulted from the 1848 rising.
● Manorialism was permanently abolished throughout Germany and the Habsburg lands, giving
peasants new rights.
● Democracy ruled in France, even under the new empire and despite considerable manipulation;
universal manhood suffrage had been permanently installed.
● Prussia, again in conservative hands, nevertheless established a parliament, based on a limited
vote, as a gesture to liberal opinion.
● The Habsburg monarchy installed a rationalized bureaucratic structure to replace localized
landlord rule.
● A new generation of conservatives came to the fore—Metternich had been exiled by
revolution—who were eager to compromise with and utilize new political forces rather than
oppose them down the line.
● Finally, some new political currents had been sketched.
● Socialism, though wounded by the failure of the revolutions, was on Europe’s political agenda,
and some feminist agitation had surfaced in France and Germany.
● The stage was set for rapid political evolution after 1850, in a process that made literal revolution
increasingly difficult.

WORLD HISTORY
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The revolt of 1840s
France German state Central Europe Italian State
1848: a group of moderate 1848: Liberalism Czech and Hungarian Revolutionaries in

and radical republicans and nationalism revolutionaries Lombardy and Venetia
overthrow the monarchy. led to the demanded liberal tried to set up a liberal
The second republic was set Frankfurt constitutions and their constitution and
and Charles Napoleon Assembly to call own government. The unified Italy. By 1849,
Bonaparte was elected as for a Austrian Military the Austrians
the president. parliamentary defeated the Hungarian re-established
government. revolutionaries. complete control over
Lombardy and Venetia

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UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
Introduction
● Germany was mere geographical expression.
● The expression, "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation” becoming commonplace,in the 16th
century
● Germany was divided into more than 200 states.
● During the 18th century, beginning of Cultural movement,which arose German people.
● Martin Luther's rejection of the authority of the Pope and translation of the Bible into
German created the basis for a national consciousness
● During the 19th century, Europe witnessed radical changes in the political borders of the states in
the region. The major driving force of these unifications and separations was “Nationalism” and
rise of “Nation states”. Unification of Germany and Italy are classic examples of nation states.
● Napoleon reduced the number of state to 39.,which led to political integration and destruction of
old social structure.
Obstacles in the Unification of Germany

● The Vienna Congress divided the German region into 39 small states. These states were made
stronger so that the balance of power could be maintained and no state among them could
attempt to bring change in German territory.
● The German region was very big in size and it was politically, socially and economically divided.
The competition between Austria and Prussia made it difficult to bring any change in the German
region.
● Few foreign powers had interests in the German region. For example, Austria was made the
guardian of the German region and France had influence in the southern part of Germany.
Role of different factors in the Unification of Germany

Ideological – Cultural factor
● In the war against Napoleon, the German states developed a sense of brotherhood. This feeling
was further encouraged by German thinkers like John, Herder, Hegel, Fickte etc.
● John: - He talks about the relationship between a 'state' and a 'nation'. He rejected the
universalism of Goethe and started to talk in terms of German nationalism.

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● Herder: - He gave the concept of Volkgeist (National soul). According to him, the nation has its
own soul.
● Hegel: - He presented an ideal picture of a nation. He emphasized that the nation is a divine
expression on earth.
Industrial-Material factor
● The Industrial revolution played an important role in the Unification of Germany. The
Industrial revolution started in Germany in the early decades of the 19th century.
● The process of industrialization started in Prussia and then it spread to other parts of Germany.
● Forces of “Coal & Iron” which created favourable condition for transformation of feudal society
into Modern. This was because Prussia owned the coal and iron rich region of Rhineland.
● It was given to it by the Vienna Congress in 1815. This helped unification in the following ways: -
○ In the course of the industrial revolution, the Railways developed in Germany. This
integrated the region.
○ In 1834 there was a formation of a Custom Union known as Zollverein. This integrated
the Prussian region to the rest of Germany economically.
○ As a result of the industrial revolution there was a rise of a powerful capitalist class in
Germany. They were competing with the British capitalist class for raw material and
market in the international arena.
○ British merchants were being supported by the powerful British Empire. So even the
German Capitalist class started aspiring for a powerful German empire which could
support them in their competition with the British capitalist.
○ This was possible only after the unification of Germany. Thus, the capitalist class gave
support to the Unification.
○ A British economist John Keynes declared that it was not the policy of "Blood and Iron"
but rather that of "Coal and Iron" which unified Germany.

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Military-Diplomatic Factors
● German states were economically integrated, but later incidents proved that political
integration was not easy.
● Then we should keep in mind that economic integration doesn't always assure political
integration.
● Thus, we can say that the policy of blood and iron played a crucial role in the unification of
Germany. The events from 1848 onwards make this point more clear.
Role of Vienna congress

● The Vienna congress divided Germany in 39 states.
● For their representation a German Parliament was constituted. The German Bund was created in
1815 in order to preserve "the independence and sovereignty of the individual German states"
● Then Austria was made the guardian of the region.
● It was even given representation in the parliament of Frankfurt. This created resentment in
German people.
European Revolution of 1848

● End of Metternich System.
● Diet was abolished.
● Establishment of “German National Assembly”,also known as “Frankfurt
Parliament”,initiative taken by Liberals.
● New constitution was drafted.
● Attempt to unify Germany from below.
● Establishment of Constitutional Monarchy.
● Offer was given to Prussian king to become head of it.
● But king later refused to accept the offer.

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Events of German Unification

● Bismarck followed the Policy of Blood & Iron.
● Negated idea of Unification from below.
● He wants Prussinization of Germany.
● He started strengthening Army.
● He negated the liberals and Parliament.
● According to him,Germany is too small for both Austria and Prussia,so one has to leave claim and
Austria should leave.
Congress of Princes 1863 (German Bund)

● In 1863, Austria summoned a Congress of the German prince to consider proposals “for the
reform of the German Confederation” Prussia was also invited. If the move of Austria had been
successful, the Austrian influence in Germany would have continued. Bismarck prevailed upon
the King of Prussia not to attend the conference and the later ended in failure.

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Isolating Austria
● Bismarck knew Austria was a major obstacle to unification. To succeed in his aims war seemed
inevitable. Before he fought the powerful Austrian empire, however, he needed to weaken its
position in Europe.
● Prussia refused to help Poland when it rebelled against Russian control. Bismarck then formed a
powerful alliance with Russia.
● Bismarck then formed another key alliance with France. In a meeting with Napoleon III, He
promised to support France in its plans to invade and control Belgium.
● Bismarck also struck a deal with Italy. Italy promised to help Prussia in any war against Austria,
providing Austria were the aggressor and Italy gained Venezia in return.
Schleswig-Holstein 1864 - 65 and the Seven Weeks War

German states annexed by Prussia 1866
● In 1863, the King of Denmark declared Schleswig and Holstein to be a part of Denmark.This
act triggered a strong reaction from German nationalists.
● Bismarck,saw an opportunity to assert Prussian dominance and strengthen German unity. He
formed an alliance with Austria to challenge Denmark.

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● In 1864, Prussia and Austria teamed up and declared war on Denmark.By October 1864, Denmark
ceded control of Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia and Austria through the Treaty of Vienna..
● After victory,both agreed to jointly administer the duchies: Prussia took Schleswig, and
Austria took Holstein.This treaty was designed to provoke, since Austrians would have to go
through a hostile Prussia to reach Holstein.

● The Austrians tried to use their influence in the German Bund to pressure Prussia to address the
Schleswig-Holstein issue.
● The Bund backed Austria in the dispute over Schleswig-Holstein.
● In response, Prussia said that the Bund was invalid, declared war on Austria and invaded the
German states of Hanover, Hesse and Saxony.
1866- Battle of Sedova.

● Between Austria and Prussia.
● Over issue of control over Schleswig and Holstein.
● Prussia took help from Italy against Austria.
● The Austrians were quickly defeated by the Prussian army during the Seven Weeks War, with the
help of Italy.
The Treaty of Prague

● End of the Seven Weeks War,it was friendship treaty with Austria.
● Prussia kept all the territories it had captured.
● A North German Confederation was set up under the control of Prussia.
● A federal Diet (parliament) was established for the states in this North German Confederation.
The Diet would be elected and each state could keep its own laws and customs.

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● The southern German states formed their own independent confederation.

● Austria promised to stay out of German affairs.
● Austria paid compensation to Prussia but did not lose land to it. Prussia did not want to
weaken Austria too much since it might be a useful ally in the future against Prussia's enemies.
Isolating France
● With Austria weakened, Bismarck now turned his attention to the other great stumbling block to
unification - the French.
● France had watched Prussia's growing power with alarm. As he had with Austria, Bismarck tried to
weaken France as much as possible before war started.
● Officially, Russia was an ally of France but Bismarck used diplomacy to make sure Russia stayed
out of the upcoming war.
● Bismarck also made sure Italy stayed neutral and wouldn't fight for France.
● Bismarck gambled that the British would stay out of the war since it didn't want France to become
any more powerful than it already was.

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Franco Prussian war 1870 - 71(Battle of Sedan)

● Bismarck found his excuse for war when Spain offered its vacant crown to a relative of the
Prussian King, William I.
● France was outraged since it didn't want Prussia to become more powerful. The French
insisted King William makes his relative refuse the crown. King William refused to guarantee this.
● Bismarck used the King's refusal as a way to provoke the French. He published a heavily
edited and provocative telegram, known as The Ems Telegram, of the King's refusal, making it
seem he had insulted the French ambassador. The French Emperor, responding to fury from the
French press and public, declared war on Prussia.
● Germany took help from Italy against France.
● In the Franco-Prussian war, France was heavily defeated and its ruler, Napoleon III, was
overthrown by a French rebellion.
● In the build up to war, the southern confederate German states voluntarily joined the Prussian
Controlled Northern German Confederation. Germany was now unified.
The Treaty of Frankfurt

● As a result of the Franco-Prussian war, France lost the territory of Alsace-Lorraine on its border
with Germany. It also had to pay Germany £200 million in compensation. A new imperial
constitution was set up within the now unified German states, with William I as Emperor (Kaiser)
and Prussia firmly in control.
Effects of German unification

● Changed Power Dynamics: The unification of Germany fundamentally altered the delicate
"balance of powers" established by the Congress of Vienna with the creation of a large, wealthy,
and powerful nation-state in central Europe.
● German Nation: It is perhaps most significant because it transformed Germany into an important
world power of both the 19th and 20th centuries.
● German Colonialism: With a unified Germany emerged a scramble for colonies in Africa and
Asia like East Africa, German Papua and German West Africa.
● It gave an impetus to growth of new imperialism and economic rivalry.

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Conclusion
● The German Unification also served as an important sign of the emergence of modern
nation-states in Europe and shaping the current modern national identities. It is often also seen
as one of the key reasons for the inevitable rise in German territorial aspirations and the 2 world
wars.

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Unification of Italy
Introduction
● Ever since the fall of the Roman Empire, Italy had been a mere ‘geographical expression’.
● Italy was divided into numerous petty states, some of which were under the rule of foreigners.
For centuries, Italy had been battling the ground of contending nations. Finally, the feeling of
nationalism could not be suppressed in Italy and it unified into a new independent nation.
● Italian unification or the Risorgimento, meaning “the Resurgence” or “revival”, was the political
and social movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single
state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century.
Role of different factors in the unification of Italy

Historical Consciousness
● Italian region was had a consciousness of unity right from the time of the Roman Empire and
that of Renaissance.
Obstacles in the way of the Unification of Italy

● The division of Italy in three parts i.e. northern, central and southern regions.
● Economic ● The northern region of Italy was economically more

division prosperous than the southern region.
● Cultural ● The northern and the southern regions of Italy had some
division cultural differences as well.
● Opposition from Religious Power – We have seen that some region in central Italy was under the
control of the Pope of Rome. While for the Unification Italy control over this region was
necessary. But intervention in the region by the Pope would attract opposition from Catholic
powers.
● Italy was ruled by different dynasties. Thus, any attempt of unification would be opposed by
them.
● Interference from the Austrian Empire – This was another major factor hindering the unification
of Italy. Few areas of Italy were under direct control of Austria while other areas were under
indirect control.

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Role of Napoleon Bonaparte

● After capturing Italy, Napoleon reorganized the region and introduced new institutions. The
former instilled unity in the region while the latter created reaction which finally developed in
the form of Italian Nationalism.
Role of the Vienna Congress 1815

● It consciously divided Italy in order to make it, in Metternich’s term, merely a geographical
expression & placed it under the dominance of foreign rulers.
● In Italy, Piedmont – Sardinia was a powerful state. It was ruled by the House of Savoy,the Vienna
congress separated the region of Lombardy and Venetia in northern Italy and placed it under the
control of Austria.
● In central Italy,Duchies like Parma, Modena and Tuscany were put under the control of the
Habsburg dynasty(Austria). Some regions in this area were also put under the control of the
Pope of Rome(known as Papal State) so that the northern and southern part would remain
divided.
● In the southern part, Naples and Sicily were put under the Bourbon kings.
Role of 1848 Revolts

● The European Revolution of 1848 inspired the intellectuals and liberals to revolts against the
reactionary Austrian control and wanted a liberal government.
● These revolts did usher in democratic reforms, but neither did this result in independence from
Austria nor the consolidation of the states into a united Italy.

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Merger of different regions

Crimean War (1854) :
● The Crimean War was primarily fought over the control of Christian holy places in Crimean area
between Russia and an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia
(Piedmont-Sardinia).
● Sardinia's involvement in the war was part of its strategy to gain the support and recognition
of major European powers for its role in the Italian unification process.
Treaty of Paris (1856):

● The Treaty of Paris ended the Crimean War. Although the treaty's primary focus was on resolving
issues related to the war, it indirectly affected Italy. Sardinia's participation in the war increased
its prestige and visibility on the European stage, contributing to its efforts in the Italian
unification movement.
Pact of Plombières (1858):

● The Pact of Plombières was a secret agreement between Count Camillo di Cavour, the Prime
Minister of Sardinia, and Napoleon III, the Emperor of France. They agreed to support each other
in a war against Austria, with the ultimate aim of driving Austria out of northern Italy and
contributing to the unification of Italy.
● Provisions of Pact- 1)Sardinia will get Lombardy & Venetia from Austria.2)France will get Nice &
Savoy from Sardinia.
Merger of Lombardy
● 1859-Austro-Sardinian War,Sardinia with help of France defeated Austria and captured
Lombardy.Now Sardinia planned to captured Venetia but France retreated from Pact of
Plombières.
● In spite of the treason of Villa Franca, Napoleon III persuaded Austria to submit the region of
Lombardy to Piedmont-Sardinia. So, after the war, Lombardy proved to be a net gain to
Piedmont-Sardinia.

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Peace of Villafranca (1859):

● The Peace of Villafranca ended the Austro-Sardinian War, a conflict between Austria and
Sardinia, supported by the French. While the peace agreement halted hostilities, it did not fully
achieve the goals of Italian unification. Venetia and some other regions remained under
Austrian control. The peace was seen as a compromise, and it sparked some dissatisfaction
among Italian nationalists.
Merger of Parma, Modena and Tuscany

● Once Piedmont succeeded in gaining Lombardy a wave of enthusiasm appeared among the
nationalists of Italy.
● This resulted in a people's movement in the region of Central Italy for the merger of Parma,
Modena and Tuscany with Piedmont-Sardinia. In return France received the region of Nice and
Savoy for its help.
● The Italian Republicans played an active part in this movement. Count Cavour once again
contacted Louis Napoleon III and with the support of the French Emperor a plebiscite was
conducted in the region.
Garibaldi and the merger of Naples and Sicily

● Count Cavour was a constitutionalist and a believer of Parliamentary Politics. So, he was not
ready to break international norms and thus he stopped up to northern Italy. On the other hand,
Garibaldi was a republican and a believer of popular politics.
● Garibaldi was a disciple of Mazzini but not an idealist like him. He was a practical thinker and he
realized that unification of Italy was not possible under the Republic. So, he accepted unification
under a monarchy.
Garibaldi and the merger of Naples and Sicily in 1860

● He moved towards Naples and Sicily with 1000 'Red Shirted' volunteers and drawing benefit
from a popular upsurge there, he captured the region.
● Thus, Victor Emmanuel II moved from the North to take charge of Naples and Sicily which
Garibaldi willingly handed over to him.
● In the course of his movement from the north Victor Emmanuel II captured Papal region as well,
except Rome.

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Merger of Venetia
● Italy joined with Prussia against Austria in the Battle of Sadowa (1866), Austria was defeated and
as a part of the victorious party Italy received the region of Venetia.
Merger of Rome
● It was captured by Italy during the course of the Battle of Sedan (1870) between France and
Prussia.
● The French army had vacated Rome and taking advantage of this Italy captured it. This
completed the unification of Italy.
● 1870-71 task of Unification of Italy accomplished with Rome as Capital.
● Victor Emmanuel wants to pacify the catholics in European area,so he recognized Vatican City
as Sovereign State under Pope.
Role of Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi in the Unification of Italy

Mazzini
● Mazzini joined the Carbonaris and participated in their secret activities.
● He was exiled for his conspiracy to establish the society of Young Italy.
● Mazzini’s activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined.
● While in prison, he concluded that Italy could and therefore should be unified and formulated his
program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its
capital.
● It was during his prison days that Mazzini planned to involve young Italy into the mainstream of
patriotic struggle for achieving national unity.
● Mazzini established a number of branches of Young Italy all over the country.
● Mazzini continued to strengthen the society of Young Italy as the vanguard for the national
movement.
● The Young Italy worked as a secret organization and its members took an oath of loyalty to
serve the nation.
● Through the means of secret propaganda, Mazzini awakened the masses from its lethargy and
directed it to struggle for unity and independence.
● Thus, he is known as the 'Heart' of unification.

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Cavour
● He was a dedicated monarchist.
● His initial aim was just to extend the boundaries of Piedmont-Sardinia at the expense of the
neighboring regions of Lombardy and Venetia. Thus, unification was not on his initial agenda.
● When finally, he was-ready for unification he tried that with the help of military, diplomacy and
international cooperation.
Garibaldi
● He was a nationalist and a republican. Although he was a disciple of Mazzini but he gave
preference to unification over republic. Thus, for the purpose of unification he even accepted
monarchy.
● In the course of time, none could excel in the art of guerrilla warfare and his spirits of adventure.
● He joined the Young Italy movement led by Mazzini and played an important role in the 1834
uprising in Savoy which unfortunately failed. He had to go into voluntary exile.
● Between 1836 and 1848 Garibaldi spent his life in South America, mostly participating in the
liberation movement.
● Cavour succeeded in his plan in ensuring the support of Garibaldi to the cause of monarchy on
the one hand and avoids falling out with France by preventing Garibaldi’s attack on Rome.
● In 1862 Garibaldi became impatient because Rome was still being held by the Pope. Therefore,
he rushed with his volunteers to capture it. He later retired from his active career.
● The adulation he received from his people made him resolve that he would achieve the
unification and freedom of Italy before he died.
● He played the role of a 'Sword' in the unification of Italy.
The aftermath of the unification of Italy

● The unification and governance were achieved entirely in terms of Piedmont’s interest.
● The new Kingdom of Italy was structured by renaming the old Kingdom of Sardinia and annexing
all the new provinces into its structures. The first king was Victor Emmanuel II, who kept his old
title.
● The new constitution was Piedmont’s old constitution. The document was generally liberal and
was welcomed by liberal elements.

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● Its anticlerical provisions were disliked in the pro-clerical regions such as Venice, Rome, Naples,
and the island of Sicily. Cavour had promised there would be regional and municipal, local
governments, but all the promises were broken in 1861.
● The first decade of the kingdom saw savage civil wars in Sicily and in the Naples region, which
were all suppressed.
Effects of Italian unification

● Stood as inspirations: The success of the revolutions and movements inspired the revolts in the
rest of the world.
● Growth of political democracy: This led to the gradual growth of political democracy and
increasing people’s participation in-country political life.
● Inspired the Independence movements: This led to the triumph of democracy and at the same
time imperialist conquests were revolted by the people, the two mighty revolts being the 1857
revolt of India and Taiping rebellion in China.
Similarities in the Unification of Germany and Italy

● Nationalism:Both unifications were driven by strong nationalist movements that sought to
consolidate fragmented states into a single nation.
● Role of Prime Ministers: Influential leaders played pivotal roles in both processes: Otto von
Bismarck in Germany and Count Camillo di Cavour in Italy.
● War and Diplomacy: Both unifications involved a combination of military conflicts and
diplomatic maneuvers
● Prussia waged wars against Denmark, Austria, and France for German unification, while Italy
fought against Austria and engaged in strategic alliances and wars.
● Role of Monarchy:
○ Monarchical figures were central: King Wilhelm I of Prussia became the German Emperor,
and King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia became the King of Italy.
● External Support:
○ Both unification processes received support from other countries. For instance, Italy
received assistance from France in the war against Austria, while Germany's wars also
involved alliances and external influences.

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● Process of Unification-
○ In Germany, Unification from Above was followed.
○ Where as in Italy,Unification from Below was followed.
● Leadership Style-
○ In Germany, Bismarck rely on policy of Blood and Iron,
○ Where as in Italy, Cavor rely more on diplomacy than war.
● Processes and Chronology:
○ Germany's unification was more a result of state-driven policies led by Prussia,
culminating in the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871.
○ Italy's unification involved a mix of popular uprisings, wars of independence, and
diplomatic efforts, officially completing in 1871 with Rome as the capital.
● Role of Revolutionaries:
○ In Italy, revolutionary figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi played a significant role in the
southern unification through the Expedition of the Thousand.
○ Germany's unification was less influenced by revolutionary movements and more by
state-led initiatives.
● Foreign Dominance:
○ Italy had to contend with significant foreign dominance and influence, particularly from
Austria and the Papal States.
○ While Germany also dealt with Austrian influence, Prussia's military and political
dominance within the German states played a more decisive role.

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BISMARCK
Main Events
● 1873 Formation of the Dreikaiserbund(League of three Emperor)
● 1878 The Congress of Berlin
● 1879 The Dual Alliance
● 1881 The renewal of the Dreikaiserbund
● 1882 The Triple Alliance when Italy joined dual alliance
● 1887 The Reinsurance Treaty.
Introduction:
● Bismarck had defeated each of his enemies - Denmark, Austria, and France - in isolation. He
realized that a powerful united Germany could not expect to fight another carefully insulated war.
After 1871 Bismarck was committed to preserving the peace of Europe.
● There were five powers in Europe: Germany, Britain, France, Austria and Russia.
● France was bitter at her loss in the recent war and Britain did not wish to get involved in European
affairs.
● A resurgent France, powerful and allied to another European power, haunted Bismarck. The main
aims of Bismarck’s foreign policy were based around the need to keep France isolated and
prevent this from happening.
● To achieve this aim he needed to keep on good terms with both Austria and Russia. This would
prevent a two-front war in the future.
● The key in Bismarck’s view to German interests lay in good relations with Russia and Austria.
As he said “you forget the importance of being a party of three on the European chessboard.”
This would deprive France of a potential ally.
● This was a difficult task as Austria and Russia were rivals in the Balkans. The friendship with both,
Bismarck hoped, would reduce tensions between both over the Balkans.
The Dreikaiserbund
● In 1873 the formation of the Dreikaiserbund (the League of the Three Emperors) between
Germany, Austria and Russia was an example of Bismarck’s policy of isolating France. This was
an alliance of three conservative monarchies designed to stop the spread of revolution in Europe
and preserve the status quo in Europe.

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● However the alliance had little substance. There were no military features to it as Austria refused
to agree to any. It did however ensure co-operation among the three Eastern powers rather
than rivalry which was Bismarck’s primary objective.
The War in Sight Crisis

● France had recovered quickly after the Franco-Prussian war. In 1875 the “War-in-sight” crisis
resulted from an attempt to bully France into abandoning her rearmament programme. The
export of horses to France was forbidden (usually a sign of preparation for war). Then an article
appeared in the influential Berliner Post entitled “Is war in sight?” It was almost certainly
inspired by Bismarck.
● There was talk from leading German officials about the possibility of a preventative war. The
episode resulted in a German diplomatic defeat as Russia backed a British protest to Berlin. The
Dreikaiserbund had been weakened. The affair brought home the dangers of a two front war to
Bismarck. After this episode he proceeded with the utmost caution.
Crisis in the Balkans

● The Dreikaiserbund was destroyed as a result of events in the Balkans. The Balkans was of no
interest to Bismarck. (He remarked that the area was not “the healthy bones of single
Pomeranian musketeer.”) However he was worried about Austrian-Russian rivalry in the region.
● In the Balkans there was a series of revolts against the Ottoman Empire among the Sultan’s
Christian subjects between 1875 and 1876. In 1877 after attempts to impose reforms on the
Turkish Empire failed, the Russo-Turkish war broke out. Russia was acting in her role as the
traditional protector of the Sultan’s Orthodox and Slav subjects.
● Before the war, Russia had promised Austria that she would not create a big Bulgaria if she won.
After fierce resistance the Turks surrendered and signed the Treaty of San Stefano in March. The
treaty proposed the creation of a big Bulgaria. This would be dominated by Russia.
● This development was totally unacceptable to Britain who always opposed Russian ambitions in
the Mediterranean as it threatened the Suez Canal. The British sent warships to the region. The
Austrians were also enraged as the Russians had broken their promise not to create a big Bulgaria.
War seemed imminent.

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The Congress of Berlin

● The turn of events greatly alarmed Bismarck. He was also eager to prevent a war between Austria
and Russia which could involve Germany. In June 1878 Bismarck agreed to host a conference in
Berlin to discuss the differences. He offered to act as an “honest broker”.
● The results of the “Congress of Berlin” left Russia very disappointed especially at Bismarck’s role
(Bulgaria was divided into three small states), Russia withdrew from the Dreikaiserbund. Tension
grew between the two as Russia strengthened her frontier garrisons and Germany introduced
tariffs against Russian grain imports.
The Dual Alliance

● It was against this background that the Dual Alliance was signed with Austria in 1879. This secret
defensive alliance became as Carr pointed out “the very corner stone of German foreign
policy”.
● Bismarck saw two benefits of this alliance:
○ It would secure Germany’s southern frontier in the event of a war with Russia
○ It would frighten Russia into seeking a closer relationship with Germany.
● Kaiser William strongly opposed this alliance as he saw it as anti-Russian. Bismarck threatened to
resign before he reluctantly signed.
● This alliance was enlarged into the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. Although Bismarck
did not think much of Italy’s military or political power, it deprived France of a potential ally.
The Renewal of the Dreikaiserbund

● Russia was worried by her diplomatic isolation and sought to reach an understanding with
Germany and Austria. In 1881 a new Dreikaiserbund was formed between Russia, Germany and
Austria. Bismarck hoped that this agreement would help to reduce tensions between Austria and
Russia in the Balkans. It was agreed that the Western Balkans would be dominated by the
Austrians and the Eastern half by the Russians.
The Reinsurance Treaty

● Again events in the Balkans were to disrupt Bismarck’s aims. Between 1885 and 1887 the
Bulgarian crisis saw relations between Austria and Russia deteriorate. Alarmingly there was

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growing pro-French feeling in Russia. In 1887 the Dreikaiserbund ended as Russia made it clear
she would sign no further agreement with Austria.
● Bismarck then negotiated “his final diplomatic masterpiece.”
● A “Reinsurance Treaty” was signed between Russia and Germany. It was a defensive alliance:
Germany promised to stay neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria Russia would stay neutral if
France attacked Germany.
● This secret treaty reduced the possibility of a Franco-Russian alliance. In 1888 in order to prevent
war between Austria and Russia he published the terms of the Dual Alliance. Austria would fight
on her own if she attacked Russia while Russia would have to face Germany if she attacked
Austria.
● Events were beginning to move against Bismarck as it was very difficult to keep on good terms
with Russia. The new emperor, William II, was more anti-Russian while French loans were funding
Russian industrialisation.
● In 1890 when Bismarck resigned as Chancellor one of Kaiser William’s first acts was to refuse to
renew the Reinsurance Treaty. Only four months later a French naval flotilla called at the Russian
naval base at Kronstadt. Bismarck’s policies were in ruins. The nightmare of a two front war was
now a distinct possibility.
Rationale behind Secret Alliances:

● Avoiding Encirclement:
○ Bismarck's overarching concern was to prevent the encirclement of Germany by potential
adversaries.
○ By keeping the terms of his alliances and treaties secret, he aimed to maintain a certain
level of ambiguity about Germany's diplomatic commitments.
● Flexible Diplomacy:
○ Secrecy surrounding the alliances allowed Bismarck to practice flexible diplomacy.
○ He could adapt to changing circumstances and pursue different alliances without causing
alarm among other European powers.

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Consequences and Legacy:

● Short-Term Stability:
○ Bismarck's policy of secret alliances contributed to a period of relative stability in Europe
known as the Bismarckian System.
○ By skillfully balancing the interests of major powers, he maintained a delicate equilibrium
that prevented a major European war during his tenure.
● Unraveling of Alliances:
○ The dismissal of Bismarck in 1890 marked the beginning of the unraveling of his carefully
crafted alliances.
○ His successors lacked his diplomatic finesse, and the lapse of the Reinsurance Treaty with
Russia contributed to the formation of the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894.
● Prelude to World War I:
○ The subsequent diplomatic realignments and the formation of new alliances set the stage
for the complex geopolitical landscape that ultimately led to World War I.
○ The absence of Bismarck's diplomatic craftsmanship contributed to the instability that
characterized the early 20th century.
Conclusion:
● Otto von Bismarck's policy of secret alliances was a masterstroke in the realm of diplomatic
strategy. By forging alliances with key European powers and maintaining an element of secrecy,
he successfully navigated the complex web of European politics. His alliances served the
immediate goals of German security and stability but also sowed the seeds for future geopolitical
shifts that would have profound consequences. Bismarck's legacy lies in his ability to shape the
course of European history through astute diplomacy during a critical period of transition and
transformation.

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World War - I
Introduction
● The First World War was the product of ultra – nationalism, imperialism and militarism in
which mutual suspicion and distrust made a contribution.
● The beginning of the century witnessed the division of the world into major international forces
based on distinct ideologies.
● In the initial decades of the 20th century they competed with each other for domination of the
entire world. Since their conflicts and rivalries could not be resolved through any peaceful
mechanism, they resulted in the outbreak of the two world wars.
● World War I (WW I), also known as the “Great War”, lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November
1918.
● WW I was fought between the Allied Powers and the Central Powers.

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First World War (1914 - 1918)
The main members of the France, Russia, and Britain (The

Allied Powers United States also fought on the
side of the Allies after 1917)
The main members of the Germany, Austria-Hungary, the

Central Powers Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
Causes of Friction within Europe

● Events Leading up to the Outbreak of War/Major events before World War I
Many factors threatened to destabilize Europe's peace

● Naval competition between Germany and Britain.
● The fall of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany at the end of the Franco-Prussian War (1871) enraged
the French.
● The Germans accused Russia, France, and the United Kingdom of attempting to "encircle"
them; they were also dissatisfied with the consequences of their expansionist policies (known as
Weltpolitik, or "world policy").
● Despite the fact that they had taken control of some Pacific islands and African territories, their
empire was small in comparison to the other European powers.

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● The Russians were wary of Austrian Balkan aspirations and concerned about Germany's
increasing military and economic power.
Serbian Nationalism
● Serbian nationalism (desiring to liberate one's country from the influence of people of a different
nationality) was perhaps the most dangerous source of conflict.
● The Ottoman Empire, which included the Balkans, was rapidly fading by the early 1900s.
Although some Balkan groups battled to be free of Ottoman rule, others had already gained
independence from their Turkish rulers. Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Montenegro, and Serbia
were among the new nations founded.
● In these nations, nationalism was a dominant force. Each community yearned to broaden its
horizons. For example, Serbia had a sizable Slavic population. Serbia hoped to consume all of the
Balkan Peninsulas Slavs. Russia and Austria-Hungary were at odds over the question of Serbian
nationalism. Serbian nationalism was backed by Russia, a predominantly Slavic country.
Serbia's rise alarmed Austria, which feared revolt among its tiny Slavic population.
● In addition, both Russia and Austria Hungary had hoped to fill the power vacuum created by the
Ottoman decline in the Balkans.
The Moroccan Crisis (1905-06)

● This was an effort by the Germans to extend their empire and put the recently concluded
Anglo-French ‘Entente Cordiale' (1904) to test the agreement that France would accept
Britain's role in Egypt in exchange for British approval of a potential French invasion of
Morocco, one of the few remaining areas of Africa not dominated by a European power.
● Germany vowed to keep Morocco's independence and convened a meeting. However, France
received support from Spain, Italy, Russia, and the United Kingdom at the meeting, and the
latter gained control of Moroccan banks and police. Germany had suffered a diplomatic setback.
The British agreement with Russia (1907)

● It ended their disputes in Asia. Afghanistan and Tibet were recognized as British spheres of
influence and Iran was divided into three zones with the North recognized as Russian zone, the
central area as a buffer and the South as British zone.

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Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908):

● Bosnia was annexed by Austria-Hungary from the Ottoman Empire, which was weak. Bosnia had a
sizable Slavic minority, and Serbia yearned for Bosnia to be a part of the future Yugoslavia.
Serbia requested assistance from Russia, which attempted to convene a conference on the
subject.
● As it became apparent that Germany would support the Habsburg Empire in the event of a
military war, France and Britain withdrew their support for Serbia. They did not want to have
a direct military confrontation with the Germans.
● Russia lacked the military might to intervene in Serbia's favour. Following this
embarrassment, Russia started militarization in order to assist Serbia in the future.
● Serbia became a bitter competitor of Austria-Hungary, and Russia became more wary of the
Habsburg empire's aspirations in the Balkans.
2nd Moroccan Crisis(Crisis in the Agadir) (1911):

● This crisis emerged as a result of the deteriorating situation in Morocco. To put down an uprising
against the Sultan, French troops invaded Fez, Morocco's capital. The French seemed to be on
the verge of annexing Morocco.
● The Panther, a German gunboat, was sent to the Moroccan port of Agadir in the hope of
pressuring the French into providing compensation, possibly in the form of the French Congo.
● Lloyd George (Britain's Chancellor of the Exchequer) used a speech to warn the Germans off.
He claimed that Britain would not stand by and allow herself to be manipulated in circumstances
where her interests were vitally affected.
● The French remained firm, refusing to make any significant compromises, and the German
gunboat was finally withdrawn. In exchange for two strips of land in the French Congo, the
Germans agreed to recognize the French protectorate (the right to ‘protect' the nation from
foreign intervention).
● This was viewed as a victory for the Entente forces, but public opinion in Germany became
increasingly anti British, particularly as the British gained ground in the "naval race."

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1st Balkan War (1912)

● The Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece) invaded Turkey and seized the
bulk of the Ottoman Empire's European territories. A truce was achieved due to mediation by the
United Kingdom and Germany.
● The Ottoman Empire's territories in Europe were split among the Balkan States in the peace
agreement. Serbia was dissatisfied because it desired Albania, which would have given it
access to the sea, but Albania was granted independence. Clearly, the Austrian hand was
operating toward Serbia via Germany.
2nd Balkan War (1913)

● Romania, Greece, Serbia, and Turkey battled Bulgaria in this war. Bulgaria invaded Serbia
because it was upset with the handover of much of Macedonia to Serbia at the end of the
First Balkan War.
● Bulgaria lost much of the territories it had won during the First Balkan War after its defeat.
Germany had stopped Austria-Hungary from supporting Bulgaria militarily. The United Kingdom,
on the other hand, had not come to the Serbs' rescue. This was perceived by Germany as a sign of
British disinterest in the Russians.
● The 2nd Balkan War culminated in a stronger Serbia, which was now determined to provoke
Croats and Serbs (both Slav nationalism) from the Habsburg Empire to achieve Yugoslavia's
goal.
Intellectual factor
● War mentality was encouraged by some important thinkers the time. There appeared three
important thinkers in 19th century.
● Charles Darwin propounded the theory of origin of species which was further developed by
Herbert Spencer in the form of theory of 'Survival of the Fittest'. So, there was a perception
among the people that the war eliminates the weak while strengthens the strong.
● Hegel glorified the nation and expected from the people to make sacrifices for their nation.
● Sigmund Freud shattered the old perception of the rational human mind as he emphasized
the role of subconscious behind individual acts. So naturally in place of rationalism, faith was
getting more and more acceptance among intellectuals and leaders.

WORLD HISTORY
(Complete Course)
The assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand

● The horrific incident, which occurred on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina's
capital, prompted Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia, sparking the outbreak of the
First World War.
● The Archduke, the Emperor Franz Josef's nephew and successor, was on an official visit to
Sarajevo when he and his wife were killed by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian terrorist. The Austrians put
the blame on the Serb government and issued a stern ultimatum.
● The Serbs agreed to most of the demands, but the Austrians were determined to use the incident
as a justification for invasion, with the promise of German support. Austria Hungary declared
war on Serbia on July 28.
Some of the Reasons for the Escalation of the War

● Failure of Peace conferences to established Peace in Europe.Between 1843 and 1907, peace
congresses were held on a regular basis.
● Imperialism and Colonial rivalry in Africa: With the majority of Europe on France's side, Germany
finally caved in. As European countries competed for foreign empires, their competition and
resentment of one another grew stronger.For example- Moroccan Crises of 1905 & 1911.
The naval race between Britain and Germany:

● Germany required a larger navy capable of competing with the world's greatest sea force, the
United Kingdom. The Germans made a concerted attempt to extend their navy starting with
Admiral Tirpitz's Navy Law of 1897.
● The British were possibly unconcerned about the German fleet's rapid expansion at first because
they had such a large lead. The strong British ‘Dreadnought' battleship, introduced in 1906,
changed everything because it rendered all other battleships obsolete.
● By defeating the other in the war at sea, each power had ambition of establishing naval
supremacy once and for all.
Economic rivalry among European nations.

● It has been suggested that the drive for global economic dominance drove German merchants
and entrepreneurs to seek war with Britain, which controlled about half of the world's
merchant ship tonnage in 1914.

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The Growth of Militarism : Increased nationalism started in the 1890s, resulting in a dangerous
European arms race. The European nations agreed that in order to be truly great, they required a strong
military.
● Except for Britain, all of the Great Powers had massive standing armies by 1914. Military experts
also emphasized the importance of being able to prepare, organize, and move troops quickly in
the event of a war. Generals of each country formulated elaborate preparations for such an event.
Russia made war more likely by backing Serbia

● Germany would not have entered the war if Russia had allowed Serbia to deal with Austria on its
own. Russia has always tried to have a stronghold in Eastern Europe. However, it did have
legitimate concerns.
● Germany and Austria had already influenced the Ottoman Empire. If Austria had conquered
Serbia, the Dardanelles, which provided an outlet from the Black Sea (crucial for Russian trade)
would have fallen under Austrian and German rule, putting a stop to Russian trade.
German backing of Austria was also crucially important

● Due to fear of encircling the countries by Germany.European countries resolved their differences.
● In 1894, Russia and France signed a Dual Entente.
● Entente Cordiale in 1904,Britain and France, who had been traditional rivals, concluded an
agreement of peace, known as the under which they settled their disputes over African colonies.
● 1907, Russia and the United Kingdom reached an agreement that put an end to their Asian
conflicts.Germany was concerned about the growing proximity of the other major powers in the
region.
● 1907- Triple Entente between Britain,France and Russia.
Tangled Alliances
● As early as the 1870s, increasing international rivalries led to the formation of many military
alliances among the Great Powers. This alliance scheme was created to keep Europe at peace.
Instead, it contributed to the continent's escalation into battle. After Austria declared war on
Serbia for failing to fulfill any of the demands, Russia ordered a full mobilization against Austria in
order to honour the alliance with Serbia.

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Annexation of Bosnia & Herzegovina

● Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied, or taken over, by Austria in 1908. There were
significant Slavic communities in each of these Balkan areas. Serbian leaders(Slav Nationalists)
were furious, as they had hoped to rule these provinces. War became a reality. Serbia was given
full support by Russia, but the offer was ineffective. Russia was unprepared for war in any way.
When Germany stood firmly behind Austria, Russia and Serbia had to back down.
Crisis in the Balkans

● By 1914, tensions in the Balkan region were once again on the rise. Serbia had emerged victorious
from several local conflicts. As a result, the nation had gained additional territory and a new
confidence. It was more determined than ever to seize Bosnia and Herzegovina from Austrian
influence. In response, Austria-Hungary declared that any attempt by Serbia to weaken its
authority in the Balkans would be crushed.
A 'tragedy of miscalculation'
● The war was originally started by a "tragedy of miscalculation" The majority of the influential
rulers and leaders seemed inexperienced and made expensive mistakes: the Austrians
miscalculated by believing Russia would not support Serbia.
● Germany made a vital error by promising unconditional protection to Austria; as a result, the
Germans, as well as the Austrians, were both guilty of risking a major war. Russia's and Germany's
leaders miscalculated by believing that mobilization does not always entail war.
● Another cause of the war was the lack of any machinery to control international relations.
There was anarchy in the international relations of the various countries.

WORLD HISTORY
(Complete Course)
Course World War I (War To End All Wars)
Timeline

WORLD HISTORY
(Complete Course)
Spread of World War 1

● Some big battles were fought outside of Europe, in North Africa and West Asia. Germany and
Turkey banded together to challenge Allied control and possessions in North Africa and West Asia.
Britain and France struck back and attempted to conquer the Ottoman Empire's Arab territories.
● They also made connections with Arab nationalists and others, inciting anti Turkish uprisings in
the Arab world. In 1916, although ostensibly supporting the cause of freeing Arab countries from
Turkish control, Britain and France signed a secret agreement known as the Sykes-Picot
agreement.
● During the course of the war, German colonial possessions in Asia and Africa were seized by
the Allied Powers. Japan made colonial gains in China by acquiring control over the German
sphere of influence and forcing China to make further concessions to her.

WORLD HISTORY
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The Peace Conference

● On January 18, 1919, representatives of the victorious countries met at the Conference of Paris,
under the direction of the Committee of Four: U.S. President Wilson, British Prime Minister
Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Clemenceau, and Italian Chief Executive Orlando.
● The victorious countries negotiated the treaty and they demanded strict penalties against the
defeated countries.
● The German representatives of the fledgling democratic Weimar Republic signed the treaty on
28 June 1919, under threat of a total invasion of their country if they did not sign.
● The victorious countries signed different peace treaties with each of the various defeated nation's
○ The Treaty of Versailles with Germany,
○ The Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria,
○ The Treaty of Trianon with Hungary,
○ The Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria and the treaty of Sevres and later Lausanne treaty
with Turkey.
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points (1918)

They more or less served as the war aims of Allied Powers
● Abolition of secret diplomacy
● Free navigation at sea for all nations in war and peace
● Removal of economic barriers between states

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● All round reduction of armaments

● Impartial adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of the populations concerned
● Evacuation of Russian territory
● Restoration of Belgium
● Liberation of France and restoration of Alsace and Lorraine to France
● Readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality
● Self-government for people of Austria-Hungary
● Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated and Serbia to be given sea access
● Self-government for the non-Turkish people of Ottoman empire and permanent opening of
Dardanelles
● An independent Poland with secure access to Sea
● A general association of nations to preserve peace
Treaty of Versailles- 1919

● Treaty of Versailles: On June 28, 1919, World War I officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of
Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles was an attempt to prevent the world from going into
another war.
● Wilson under pressure from Britain and France added two more points regarding Germany viz
disarmament of Germany and war reparations by Germans for civilian losses caused by them
in occupied territories.
Treaty of Versailles
● The differences between French, British, and U.S. aims led to heated arguments among the
nations’ leaders. Finally, a compromise was reached. The Treaty of Versailles between Germany
and the Allied powers was signed on June 28, 1919.

WORLD HISTORY
(Complete Course)
The Creation of New Nations

● The Treaty of Versailles was only one of a number of treaties negotiated at the end of World War I.
The treaties resulted in new national boundaries and new countries.
● In 1919 and 1920, the Western powers concluded separate peace treaties with each of the
defeated countries: Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire.

WORLD HISTORY
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● The Central Powers have lost a lot of territory as a result of these treaties. The Austro-Hungarian
Empire spawned a number of new nations. Hungary, Austria, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia
were all given their independence.
● Formation of Poland as a nation state.

● Russian land yielded the new nations of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
The Impact Of The First World War - I

● Rise of new nations states - Turkey, Austria and Hungary were created as mentioned above.
Further, Czechoslovakia and Poland were created.
● Serbia fulfilled its dream of uniting the Slav people under Yugoslavia which was formed by
merging Serbia and Montenegro. Also, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were made independent
nations.
● Germany had ceased them from Russia after the Treaty of Brest Litovsk (1917).
● Terrible loss of life, eight million dead, millions wounded people, maimed, widows and orphans,
and the material destruction suffered especially by Europe.
● The U.S.A , which had won the war but had not experienced the conflict on its territory, became a
first world power.
● The mass mobilization of men led to the incorporation of women into the workforce, which was
a major step forward for women's rights.
● The extreme nationalism experienced during the war, coupled with fear of a Communist
revolution, encouraged the middle-class populations of some countries to move to the extreme
right. This created a hotbed of fascist movements.

WORLD HISTORY
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● Russia became Communist World War I led to the rise of revolting Bolsheviks who were against
the Russian participation in the war due to the economic burden it brought upon the Russian
population. The triumph of the Soviet Revolution and the social crisis that followed the war
encouraged workers in many countries to protest, creating a pre-revolutionary climate.
● League of Nations- The League of Nations was an international diplomatic group developed post
World War I as a way to solve disputes between countries before they erupted into open
warfare. A precursor to the United Nations, the League achieved some victories but had a mixed
record of success.
● Dismemberment of Ottoman Empire - The Ottoman empire disintegrated after its loss in World
War I and the new nation state of Turkey came into being.
● Disintegration of Habsburg Empire - Austria-Hungary separated on their own just before the end
of World War I and the Habsburg Empire came to an end.
● Social Consequences - World war changed society completely. Birth rates declined because
millions of young men died (eight million died, millions wounded, maimed, widows and
orphans). Civilians lost their land and fled to other countries.
● Introduction of new Weapons - Many new weapons were used for the first time in World War I.
Barbed Wires,Machine Guns, Tanks, Poison Gas and Shelling were put to great use. This
pushed the world away from peace and ensured that the future wars were more dangerous.
● Imperialism continued -The German colonies were converted into Mandates. Mandates were
handed over to the victors for preparing them for independence at a suitable future date. The
British got the German colonies in Africa. The Ottoman Empire’s territories of Iraq, Syria,
Transjordan and Palestine were distributed as Mandates among France and Britain.
● Economic consequences -
○ World War I cost the participating countries a lot of money. Germany and Great Britain
spent about 60% of the money their economy produced. Countries had to raise taxes and
borrow money from their citizens. They also printed money in order to buy weapons and
other things they needed for war. This led to inflation after the war.
○ Set back to world trade.
○ Period of mass unemployment.

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Causes of the U.S.A Entry into World War I:

● Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: Germany's use of unrestricted submarine warfare, where they
attacked any ship, including civilian vessels, in the waters around Britain without warning, led to
the sinking of several American and neutral ships. The sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915, with
American passengers on board, was a particularly notable event.
● Zimmerman Telegram: The interception and revelation of the Zimmerman Telegram, in which
Germany proposed a military alliance with Mexico against the United States, angered the
American public and increased anti-German sentiment.
● Economic Interests: The United States had economic ties with the Allied powers, and
American banks and businesses had invested heavily in the success of the Allies. A German
victory could have had adverse effects on these economic interests.
● Cultural Affinity: Many Americans felt a cultural affinity with the Allied powers, especially Britain
and France, due to shared democratic values and historical ties.
● Public Opinion: While the sentiment for staying out of the war was strong initially, events such as
submarine warfare and the Zimmerman Telegram shifted public opinion in favor of
intervention
● Russian Revolution: The collapse of the Russian government in 1917, followed by the Bolshevik
Revolution, removed a major ideological obstacle for the United States to join the Allies. With
the Russian front effectively closed, the Allies needed the support of the United States.
Consequences of U.S. Entry into World War I:

● Tipping the Balance: The entry of the United States into the war provided a significant boost to
the Allied powers. The influx of American troops, resources, and financing played a crucial role in
tipping the balance in favor of the Allies.
● Armistice and Treaty of Versailles: The U.S. involvement contributed to the eventual defeat of
the Central Powers, leading to the signing of the Armistice in 1918. The subsequent Treaty of
Versailles, signed in 1919, officially ended the war and imposed terms on Germany.
● League of Nations: President Woodrow Wilson played a key role in formulating the idea of the
League of Nations, an international organization aimed at maintaining peace and preventing
future conflicts. While the U.S. ultimately did not join the League, Wilson's vision laid the
groundwork for the later establishment of the United Nations.

WORLD HISTORY
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● Economic Impact: The war had a significant impact on the U.S. economy. The wartime economy
stimulated industrial production, leading to economic growth. However, the post-war period
also brought economic challenges as the country transitioned from a wartime to a peacetime
economy.
● Social and Cultural Changes: The war had profound social and cultural effects on American
society. The experience of the war, coupled with the influenza pandemic of 1918, led to changes in
societal norms, including the role of women and African Americans in the workforce.
● Isolationism and Future Foreign Policy: The aftermath of World War I contributed to end a
period of American isolationism, as the nation turned away from active involvement in
European affairs. However, the unresolved issues and harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles also
set the stage for future geopolitical tensions and, ultimately, World War II.

WORLD HISTORY
(Complete Course)
Inter War Period

Inter War Period (1919-1938)
● The terror of World War I shattered the whole world. New ideas and patterns of life developed in
the 1920s altered the way people looked at the world. Important episodes of the Inter war phase
are- formation of League of Nations, the great depression, rise of Hitler and Mussolini and
Spanish civil war. The year 1929 was an important watershed in the history of the world and after
1929, Europe started to drift towards the second World War.
● In the 1930s, several countries— including Japan, Germany, and Italy— adopted aggressive,
militaristic policies and eventually those policies led to war.
Economies during the Interwar Years (1919-1938)

● During World War I, about 10 million Europeans were killed, about 7 million were
permanently disabled, and 15 million seriously wounded, mostly young men of working age
and middle-class backgrounds.
● This loss, combined with the destruction of land and property, led to a European situation of
grave pessimism and poverty for many. Living conditions declined dramatically at the close of
the war, the infant mortality rate skyrocketed, and life was quite difficult for Europeans of the
period.
● The widespread material destruction totalled billions of dollars of damage in Europe. The
war's prosecution had cost the nations of Europe six and one-half times as much as the total
national debt of the entire world during the years from 1800 to 1914.
● The Allies bore the brunt of the debt, and material damages, France especially. But the Central
Powers were punished severely by the war's concluding treaties.
● The Treaty of Versailles imposed reparations payments which were generally considered
intolerable and impossible.
● Inflation hit all of Europe in the first years after the war, as pent up demand was released and
production fell off due to a shortage of raw materials. By 1920, prices in Hungary were 23,000
times what they had been before the war, and in Russia the multiplier was 4 million. A sharp
depression in 1920 and 1921 corrected prices to some extent.
● Germany pleaded with Britain and France for a moratorium on reparations payments, but France
would not agree, and in fact, sent troops into the Ruhr in 1923, when Germany defaulted on its
payments.

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● In 1924, a solution was presented in the form of the “Dawes Plan”, presented by the
American, Charles Dawes.
● Plan for economic restructuring of Germany.
● Under this plan the total sum owed by Germany would remain the same, but the yearly
payments were reduced, and Germany was granted a loan.
● Meanwhile, the European Allies had their own financial problems. They ended the war deeply
indebted to the United States. The United States demanded payment in gold and dollars, which
the Allies borrowed from creditor nations, creating even greater debt elsewhere.
● From 1925 to 1929, Europe entered a period of relative prosperity and stability. However,
unemployment remained high, and population growth outstripped economic growth.
● During this time, world trade increased and speculative investment increased as the result of
better economic times. US creditors, flush with capital coming in from Europe, led this
speculative movement.
● In an attempts to maintain benefits for the unemployed and drive prices down, taxes were
hiked, and unemployment shot up again.
● As the Great Depression that had struck the United States in 1929 began to set in throughout
Europe in the early 30s, banks began to collapse.
● Despite international loans, Germany, and Europe as a whole, plunged into depression,
during which currencies collapsed and all hope of stability was dashed.
● Despite efforts to stabilize world prices and European employment, Europe remained mired in
depression until the outbreak of World War II.

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Recovery in the United States

● On March 4, 1933, the new president tried to restore Americans’ faith in their nation.
● Roosevelt immediately began a program of reform called ‘The New Deal’. Large public works
helped to give employment to the unemployed people. New government agencies provided
financial assistance to farms and businesses.

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● Huge amount of public money was earmarked for relief and welfare programmes. Roosevelt
and his advisers believed that government expenditure would generate employment and the
economy would recover. Regulations were introduced to reform the stock market and the
banking system. Despite these efforts, recovery was slow.
● The New Deal did ultimately reform the American economic system. Roosevelt’s leadership
helped to preserve the country’s faith in its democratic political system.
The League of Nations (1920-1935)

● American President Woodrow Wilson intended the League of Nations to be the primary body
of a new style of international relations based on the cooperation of all of the nations of the
world.
● The League was to be centered in Geneva, Switzerland, a neutral location. Small nations as
well as large nations were asked to join, dependent on their acceptance of the Covenant of the
League.
● The League of Nations first met in November 1920. Forty-two nations were represented at this
first meeting.
● Notably absent were German, Russia, and the United States. Germany, identified as the
aggressor in World War I, was barred from admission at first, and admitted in 1926.

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(Complete Course)
● Russia, now the Soviet Union, was not invited to join the League due to the radical policies of
the new communist government. The Soviet Union finally became a member of the League in
1935. In November 1919, the US Senate voted against accepting membership to the League,
and the nation never joined.
● The League of Nations operated through three agencies: the Assembly, the Council, and the
Secretariat.
Agencies of League of Nations
Assembly The Assembly met annually, and consisted of a delegation from each
member nation. Each member had one vote.
Council The Council was composed of four permanent members and four
non-permanent members, serving as a sort of cabinet, with some
executive powers. The Council was responsible for the prevention of war
through disarmament, resolving disputes, and supervising the mandates of
the League.
Secretariat The Secretariat was the League's civil service, preparing the agenda for the
Assembly and the Council, serving a clerical purpose, and preparing
documents for publication.

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(Complete Course)
Evaluation of Working of League of Nations

Success
● Many of the commissions and committees achieved valuable outcomes which fostered
international co-operation. One of the most successful achievements was the establishment of
the International Labour Organization (ILO) under French socialist director, Albert Thomas.
● Its intention was to improve conditions of labor all over the world by persuading governments to:
○ Fix a maximum working day and week.
○ Specify adequate minimum wages.
○ Introduce sickness and unemployment benefits.
○ Introduce old-age pensions.
● The Refugee Organization, under the leadership of Fridtj of Nansen, a Norwegian explorer,
resolved the problems of thousands of former prisoners of war stranded in Russia; nearly
half a million were returned home. After 1933, significant help was provided to thousands of
people escaping from the Nazi persecution in Germany.
● The Health Organization did a commendable job in investigating the causes of epidemics,
and successfully tackled a typhus epidemic in Russia, which would have engulfed Europe.
● The Permanent Mandate Commission supervised the governments of the territories taken from
Turkey and Germany, while another commission was responsible for administering the Saar.
It did this very efficiently and concluded by organizing the 1935 plebiscite in which a large
majority voted for the Saar to be returned to Germany.
● Resolution of minor International disputes: In this regard the League had partial success. It
forced Greece to pay compensation to Bulgaria when Greece invaded Bulgaria.
● The League solved a territorial dispute between Columbia and Peru.
● In 1921, when there was a dispute over Upper Silesia (an industrial region) between Poland and
Germany, the League successfully made both the parties reach a settlement and Upper Silesia
was partitioned between the two.
Why Did the League Fail to Sustain the Peace?

● It was too closely linked with the Treaty of Versailles.
● This made the League look like an organization established especially for the benefit of the
victorious allied powers. Along with it had to defend the peace settlement which was far from
practicable.

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● The provisions of the treaty were inherently troublesome such as, the inclusion of Germans
in Czechoslovakia and Poland and the disappointing territorial gains of the Italians.
● Rejection by the USA:
○ USA never joined League.The League without a powerful member like the USA meant that
it was deprived of great psychological and financial benefits.
● USSR didn't get membership till 1934,due to fear of communism.
● Germany didn't membership till 1925,due to distrust of Allied powers.In 1933,Germany
withdrawal from League.
● Conference of Ambassadors: It was established as a temporary body to resolve disputes
regarding peace treaties until the League was constituted and made fully operational.
However, it continued to exist even after the establishment of the League. This hurt the
authority and legitimacy of the League. Many times the Conference of Ambassadors overruled
decisions of the League, such as, in case of the Corfu incident (1923) involving Italy and Greece.
● Failure of Disarmament: Only Germany was disarmed under the Versailles Settlement. The
League failed to convince other great powers like Britain & France to initiate disarmament.
● It was very much a British/French affair
○ In the absence of the USSR and the USA, along with the hostility of Italy, it made the
League very much a British/ French affair. However, as their rejection of the Geneva
Protocol showed, the Conservatives in British were not very enthusiastic about the
League. Instead, they preferred to sign the Locarno Treaties (1925), outside the League,
instead of conducting negotiations within it.
● The world economic crisis of 1929 and its impact
○ The situation really started drifting out of control with the onset of the economic crisis or
the Great Depression of 1929.
○ Rising unemployment and decline in living standards became a common scene in most of
the countries. It resulted into rise of extreme right-wing governments in Germany and
Japan; together with Mussolini, they declined to follow the rules and took a series of
actions which revealed the League’s weaknesses.
○ For example, Manchuria was invaded by Japan In 1931.
○ Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935, the Spanish Civil War of 1936 saw military intervention
by Hitler and Mussolini in favor of France, Japan’s invasion of China in 1937 and Hitler’s
annexation of Austria in 1938.

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○ In all the above cases, the League looked like powerless and failed to check the military
aggression by the member states.
○ In case of Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the League’s decision was that Japan
should evacuate Manchuria. However, Japan did not follow this decision and withdrew
from the League of Nations membership in 1933.
○ Economic or Military sanctions against Japan were not even discussed as France and
Britain were under economic stress due to the Great Depression.
○ Likewise, when Abyssinia appealed the League against the Italian aggression of 1935, the
League imposed sanctions which were enforced half-heartedly. Italy was still permitted to
import important goods like steel, oil, and coal, and hence, the sanctions failed to force
Italy to withdraw from Abyssinia.
● Over the period of time, small states lost all faith in the League because of its inaction
against the invasion of Manchuria and Abyssinia by Japan and Italy, respectively. The seeds
of Fascists started taking roots. This boosted Hitler’s confidence to violate the Treaty of Versailles.
Due to these reasons, World War II could not be prevented.
Rise of Fascism in Italy - Mussolini

● Fascism's rise in Italy had been fueled by bitter disappointment over the failure to win
significant territorial gains at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Rising inflation and
unemployment also caused a widespread social uproar. Italy's upper and middle classes were
scared a Communist revolution, like Russia. To growing numbers of Italians, their government
appeared helpless to deal with the country's problems. They needed a leader who would take
action.
Rise of Mussolini and March on Rome (1922)

● A newspaper editor and politician who backed Benito Mussolini openly promised to save Italy by
improving its economy and reorganizing its military forces. He promised to provide Italy with
strong leadership. Mussolini founded the Fascist Party in 1919 with vigorous propaganda of
Anti-socialism and Radical Nationalism. In the beginning, he failed to win support. As economic
conditions worsened, his popularity rapidly grew.
● Finally, Mussolini criticized Italy's government openly. Groups of Fascists wore black shirts and
attacked Socialists and communists on the street. This campaign terrorizes his opposer.

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● Because Mussolini played on the fear of a workers' revolt, he began to win support from the
middle classes, aristocrats, and industrial leaders.
● In October 1922, about 30,000 Fascists stormed on Rome. They called for King Victor Emmanuel
III to let Mussolini lead the government. The King decided that Mussolini would be the best hope
for his dynasty to get through and let Mussolini make a government. Thus, after extensive violence
and a threat of armed uprising, Mussolini took power "legally."
Why Was Mussolini Able to Come to Power?

● Disappointment with the Treaty of Versailles:
○ Italy was not given all the territory she was promised in 1915 to enter WWI on the
Allies' side. For example, some of the parts promised to Italy were given to Yugoslavia.
Also, Albania, which had pledged to Italy, was made an independent country. That
decreased the prestige of the government, and the public sentiment turned against the
government.
● Poor Economy:
○ That was a significant reason for the rise of Mussolini. The economic conditions worsened
due to high war expenditure. Also, Italy had incurred massive debt from the US to fund
its war effort. This debt would now be repaid in dollars.
○ Also, there was massive unemployment as heavy industries had to cut down their
wartime production levels.

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● Poor Economy:
○ Because of the cost of World War I, the post-war economic crisis, and the debt from the US,
which now repaid- Italy's currency "lira" depreciated (as there was an outrush of dollars
and lessen in production), and consequently, there was inflation that hurt the ordinary
people who were unemployed. The 2.5 million ex servicemen were unable to find a job.
● System of Proportional representation:
○ In the 1919 elections, voting for only "men" and the proportional representation system
had been introduced.
○ As in the System of Proportional Representation, the parties had allocated seats in the
Parliament in proportion to each party's votes in the elections. This system resulted in
many parties coming to Parliament (the Liberals, the Nationalists, the Socialists,
Communists, Catholic Popular Party, and Italian Fascists Party).
○ Thus, it could form only a weak coalition government as no single party could get most
seats. These governments remained unstable (five governments from 1919-22- all unable
of decisive action). That led to a decline in the Parliamentary form of government's
credibility. However, as the economy deteriorated, his popularity rapidly increased. The
masses felt that the system was impotent to provide a decisive government.
● Violence by Communists:
○ The communist-led a surge of strikes during 1919 and 1920. From 1919 onward, there
were many violent strikes, rioting, looting of shops, and factories' occupation.
○ Soviet-like organizations began to prop up and evict wealthy landlords from their lands.
Thus, there was a real danger of the communist revolution in 1920. But after that, the
threat, of course, declined as suppliers did not supply raw materials to workers.
○ Hence, the factory occupation began to fail. Also, the formation of the Communist party
in 1921 decreased the chances of revolution because it implied a split in the left-wing
(Socialists Party and Communists party).
○ In 1922, the communists had tried out a general strike. The credibility of the
government declined due to depriving the security of the property. In such an
atmosphere, Mussolini led the March on Rome in 1922.
● Popularity of Mussolini:
○ Mussolini was a well-known journalist who started as a socialist but turned against them
because they opposed Italy's inclusion in World War I. He then founded a newspaper.

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○ From 1920 onward, he increasingly adopted a reforming stand against the communists,
and his Black Shirt squads began to attack the socialist headquarters. The propertied
class viewed him as a savior by the end of 1921, especially after the formation of the
Communist Party in 1921. He gave pro-Church speeches in 1921-22 to reach out to the
Catholic Church.
○ In 1922, he dropped the republican part of his party program, and thus, the King's
attitude towards Mussolini softened. Therefore, Mussolini's policies from 1920-22 made
him popular among the conservative and right-wing sections like the army, the church,
the industrialists, and the landlords. Also blamed socialists for failing to work with the
government to check violence by Fascist squads.
What Does the Term 'Fascism' Stand for?

● It is critical to try to define what the term "fascist" meant because it was later applied to other
regimes and rulers, such as Hitler, Franco (Spain), Salazar (Portugal), and Peron (Argentina), who
were very different from the Italian version of Fascism. Fascism, unlike communism, had no
clearly specified ideology or programme.
The Fascism of Mussolini had certain basic characteristics

● Stress on Action.
● Opposition to Democracy- Government by handful people rather than elected one. Eg-
Corporate State system.
● Belief in Dictatorship- One party and one Leader,should be obeyed by all people.
● Views about State- State is above all,individual has no meaning.Supported Radical Nationalism.
● Views about war- Natural duty of state.Militarization of State,repudiation of International
treaties.
● Views about Liberty- No meaning,it is duty and not Right.
● Views about Socialism- Anti-Socialism, state should link economy with national life.
● A stable and autocratic government
○ The Italian fascist movement made stable democratic government impossible, just when
solid and decisive leadership was needed.
○ An authoritarian government was aroused with mobilizing the great mass of ordinary
people and also controlling many aspects of people's lives possible with solid discipline.
One aspect of this was the 'corporate state’.

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○ That was a way of promoting efficiency by setting up a separate organization of workers

and employers for each economy branch. Every 'corporation' had a government official
appointed to that, which was a good way of managing the workforce.
● Extreme nationalism. An emphasis on the nation's rebirth after the declined period, building up
the standing and prestige of the state, with the inference that one's own country is higher than
other countries.
● A one-party state was important.
○ There was not a place for democratic debate, which made decisive government
impossible. Only Fascism could provide the necessary advanced action to guarantee Italy
a great future.
● A one-party state was important.
○ It also involved the huge charismatic leader cult who would guide and arouse the nation
to prominent things. Mussolini did not see himself as prime minister or president - rather,
he took the title il Duce ('the leader') as Hitler called himself Fuhrer.
○ Economic self-sufficiency (Autarky) This was absolutely important in developing the
state's greatness; the government must therefore direct the nation's economic life (though
not in the Marxist sense of the state-owned land and factories).
● Great use was made of all the latest modern forms of propaganda - uniforms, marches, songs,
and displays, to demonstrate that fascists were a wholly new and dynamic alternative to the
bland, old-fashioned traditional parties and mobilize mass support behind the determined
leader.
● Military strength and violence were a basic part of the fascist way of existence. In domestic
affairs, they prepared to use utmost violence against opponents. Mussolini also gave the idea to
pursue a forceful foreign policy; he also remarked: 'Peace is absurd: fascism does not believe in it.'
Consolidation of power under Mussolini

● He declared himself to be the head of education department, judicial department and the
Army. (Total 8 major departments)
● He dismissed the elected bodies like municipalities and corporations in towns and cities and
started to appoint officers like 'Podesta'. The officer reported directly to the central government.
● By 1928 election procedure was almost scrapped. Now Italian people had to elect only those
members who were in the list of members nominated by fascist party.

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● Fascist party regulated the scholars & artists as well and they were supposed to glorify the
state and the party.
● There was a change in educational curriculum as well. It was altered in such a way that it was
reduced to a single text prescribed by the fascist party.
● Fascist party in Italy created a separate labour front and capitalists were supposed to talk to the
workers through this front.
● When the World Economic Depression of 1929-30 surfaced, the fascist party presented a
solution to it in the form of the ‘Corporate State System’. It was partially based on the
medieval guild system & syndicalism. Under this system economy was divided in 7 regions and
in every region a corporation of employers and those of employees was formed.
1934- Formation of Corporation-

● Total 22 in number.
● Equal representation of both Labours and Capitalists.
● Each 1 corporation for 1 Economic activity.
● Each corporation has 1 Council.
● These all councils formed one “National Corporation Council” at centre level.
● Mussolini was head of National Corporation Council.
● Here the basic objective was to organize the whole production under the state and put a
check over class conflict. (A member of fascist party headed these corporations to resolve
issues). But in spite of his best of the efforts, Italy was overwhelmed by the world economic
depression.
● The state was inclined to take the support of youths and youths were suffering from a severe
problem of unemployment. So Mussolini decided to take a military adventure and he attacked
over Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in Oct 1935 and sent nearly 3 lakh youths in that war as soldiers.

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Inter War Years Part-II

Background:
● In 1918, as Germany moved towards defeat, public opinion became negative for the
government. The Kaiser, in a desperate move to retain the power, appointed Prince Max of Baden
as Chancellor. He was known to be in favour of a more democratic form of government in which
parliament had more power. But it was too late: in November revolution broke out, the Kaiser
escaped to Holland and abdicated, and Prince Max resigned.
● The left-wing Social Democrat Party came to head the government after the January 1919
democratic elections. (Social Democrats: They had some Marxist ideas but believed that
socialism is best achieved by peaceful means and through a Parliamentary democracy rather than
violent revolution).
● At the same time, the Spartacist Uprising (January 4, 1919 - January 19, 1919) was taking
place in Germany. It was a violent revolution (including general strike and street battles) by
the more radical communists who were inspired by Russian Revolution (1917) and they took
over many cities including Berlin. The Spartacist Uprising degraded the authority of the
government because the government had to take the help of Freikorps (a private army raised by
anticommunist ex-army officers) to crush it.
● A new Constitution was adopted at Weimar in August 1919 (because Berlin was in turmoil in
1919 so the Constituent Assembly met at Weimar and therefore the name “Weimar Republic”).
Thus Weimar Republic came into existence and it lasted from 1919 to 1933.
● Meanwhile Hitler and his National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis - NSDAP) had been
carrying out a propaganda campaign blaming the government for all the ills Germany was
suffering from and portraying Nazi solutions to the problems.
● President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor in January 1933, and immediately
afterwards democracy ceased to exist in Germany; the Weimar Republic was about to end, and
from then until April 1945, Hitler remained the dictator of Germany. Only after the defeat in the
World War II and the death of Hitler (30 April 1945) freed the German population from the Nazi
tyranny

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About Weimar Republic

● By the end of 1919, a new Constitution had been drafted and agreed by the National
Assembly (parliament). This Weimar Constitution (sometimes referred to as the most perfect
democratic Constitution of modern time, at least on paper) gave its name to the Weimar Republic,
which lasted until 1933, when it was destroyed by Hitler.
● Instability (1919-23): During this phase, the Republic was struggling to survive due to various
attempts to overthrow it viz. Spartacist Uprising, Kapp Putsch, and the Beer Hall Putsch. The
harsh provisions of the Treaty of Versailles weakened the economy of Germany, degraded the
image of the government, and hurt the self-esteem of the people.
● Stability and Economic Growth (1923- 29): Under the able leadership of its foreign minister
Gustav Stresemann, Germany eased tensions with Britain, France, and USA. Germany got US loans
under the Dawes Plan (1924) and its economic recovery began.
● Instability (1929-33): Due to the Great Depression of 1929, the US economy was down and thus
no more US loans were available. This hurt the German economy. Its exports declined and the
currency depreciated. Also, there was high unemployment. Simultaneously, the Nazis had been
carrying on an anti government propaganda blaming the government for all the ills of Germany.

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Rise of Nazis and acceptance of Hitler’s propaganda as an alternative

● Hitler and the Nazi Party gave what seemed to be an attractive alternative just when the republic
was most ineffective. The fortune of the Nazi Party was linked closely to the economic
situation: the more unstable the economy.
● In July 1932 election, with unemployed persons were increased over 6 million, the Nazis
became the largest single party, with 230 seats out of 608
● Hitler constantly targeted the government through his propaganda. Though Hitler became
Chancellor (1933) under the Weimar Republic, he did not believe in the Weimar Republic and
even its constitution. He constantly called the politicians who had agreed to the provisions of
Treaty of Versailles as the ‘November Criminals’. He argued that Germany was "stabbed in the
back" by the November Criminals only because they signed the Treaty of Versailles.
● The public perception was heightened by the Nazi propaganda with the ‘stab in the back’
myth - the idea which the German armies could have fought on but were betrayed by the traitors
who had surrendered unnecessarily.
● They offered national unity, prosperity, and full employment to masses.
● They promised to undo the justice of the Treaty of Versailles, which was not so popular with
most of the Germans, and to make Germany a great power again. This would include bringing all
Germans (in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Austria) into the roof of the Reich.
● The fear of communism spreading in Germany resulted in mass support for Nazis not only
from the lower middle class but also from the workers who went on to support Nazis rather
than Social Democrats. It also led to support from wealthy landowners and Industrialists who
funded Hitler especially after his ascendancy to power.
● The private army of Nazi, the SA (Sturmabteilung - Storm Troopers), attracted young people
who were unemployed; it gave them a much needed small wage and a uniform.
● Hitler himself had extraordinary political capabilities. He had tremendous will power and
energy and a remarkable gift of public orator, which enabled him to propagate his ideas with
great emotional force. Hitler used the latest modern communication techniques like mass rallies,
parades, radio, and film; he travelled all over Germany by air.
● The striking contrast between the governments of the Nazi Party and the Weimar Republic
impressed people. The latter were respectable, dull, and unable to maintain law and order; the
former promised strong, decisive government and the restoration of national pride which became
an irresistible combination.

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● Without the economic crisis, though, it was doubtful whether Hitler would have had much
chance of gaining power. It was the widespread social misery and unemployment, together with
the fear of communism and socialism, that gained the Nazis mass support.
Consolidation of power under Hitler

● After coming to power, Hitler invoked article 48 of the Weimar constitution and imposed an
emergency in Germany.
● When President Hindenburg passed away in 1934, Hitler consciously amalgamated the “post of
chancellor” and the “president” and occupied the combined post.
● In June 1936, he committed a great purge within the party and eliminated the members with
socialist temperament (‘Night with the long knifes'). Then in 1938 he purged the army as well
and eliminated unwanted officers.
● Like Mussolini he too brought changes in educational curriculum. So it is rightly said that it
was the “educational curriculums and guns which formed a complete fascist government”.
● He also commanded the artists and scholars to glorify the Nazi party and the state.
● Above all he successfully solved the problem of unemployment in Germany by creating the
Public Works Department (PWD) and started wider military conscription. In this way he
converted whole German economy into a 'war economy' (Capture new region to gain more
resources to finance home economy).
● For women he took a very tough stand and recommended “Kinder, Kirch, Kuch” (Kid, Church,
Kitchen) for them. They were either suspended from the higher posts or for the same works their
salary was reduced.
● In 1935, on the basis of 'Nuremberg law' he started to deprive Jews from citizenship of
Germany and finally in 1938 he launched riots against Jews.
Hitler's Foreign Policy

● It was basically shaped by the domestic policy of Hitler. As we know Hitler came to power in
Germany on the basis that, apart from that Hitler created a “war economy” in Germany, so
naturally Germany had to move towards an aggressive foreign policy.
● His foreign policy was guided even by racist ideas which are expressed in his "secret book'. He
emphasized racial superiority of Germans who he considered to be were purely “Aryans”.

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● Being a competent race, he explained, Germans have been assigned limited space in Europe while
even after being of inferior racial origin 'Slavs' had occupied a larger chunk of land in Europe.
So, Slavs should be expelled from the region.
● World Disarmament Conference
○ The World Disarmament Conference was held in 1932-33. Under League Covenant all
members had agreed to decrease armament, but it was only Germany which had to
disarm following the Treaty of Versailles. Germany demanded that either all should
disarm or it should be allowed to at least have parity with France in terms of
armament. Britain and Italy sympathized with Germany. Finally, when the French did not
budge, Hitler withdrew Germany out of the conference and also from the League of
Nations (both in 1933).
● In 1933,Germany retreated from Treaty of Versailles and withdrew from League of Nation.
● In 1934,Germany signed a Non-aggression pact with Poland for 10 yrs.
● In 1935,Britain signed a naval pact with Hitler.
● In 1936,the Rome-Berlin Axis emerged.Also,there was repudiation of Locarno Pact and
militarisation of Rhineland.
● In 1937,the Anti-Comintern Pact signed between Italy,Germany and Japan against communism.
● In 1938,there was annexation of Austria.
● Also in 1938 ,the Munich pact was signed,through which Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia
annexed by Germany. This pact is considered as culmination of Appeasement Policy of Allied
powers.
● In 1939,Pact of steel was signed between Germany and Italy.It was politico military
alliance.Through this Germany gave unconditional support to Italy.
● In August 1939- Germany signed Non aggression pact with USSR.Also known as
Molotov-Ribbentrop pact.Both the countries agreed not to attack each other and secretly
divided the countries lay in between them.
● 1st September 1939- Germany invaded Poland and beginning of WW2.

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NAZISM AND FASCISM

Similarities:
● Both were intensely anti-communist and, because of this, drew a solid basis of support from all
classes.
● They were anti-democratic and attempted to organize a totalitarian state, controlling industry,
agriculture, and the way of life of the people, so that personal freedom was limited.
● They attempted to make the country self-sufficient.
● They emphasized the close unity of all classes working together to achieve these ends.
● Both emphasized the supremacy of the state, were intensely nationalistic, glorifying war, and
the cult of the hero/leader who would guide the rebirth of the nation from its troubles.
Differences
● Nazis doctrine of Blood & Soil,which represents the biased towards Peasants.Peasants were
given highest status in new social order. Such doctrine was absent in Fascist Italy.
● Fascism never seemed to take root in Italy as deeply as the Nazi system did in Germany.
● The Italian system was not as efficient as that in Germany. The Italians never came anywhere
near achieving self-sufficiency and never eliminated unemployment; in fact, unemployment rose.
The Nazis succeeded in eliminating unemployment, though they never achieved complete
autarky.
● The Italian system was not as ruthless or as brutal as that in Germany and there were no mass
atrocities, though there were unpleasant incidents like the murders of Matteotti and Amendola.
● Italian fascism was not particularly anti-Jewish i.e Anti-Semitism until 1938, when Mussolini
adopted the policy to emulate Hitler.
● Mussolini was more successful than Hitler with his religious policy after his agreement with the
pope in 1929.
● Finally, their constitutional positions were different: the monarchy still remained in Italy. and
though Mussolini normally ignored Victor Emmanuel, the king played a vital role in 1943 when
Mussolini's critics turned to him as head of state.He was able to announce Mussolini's dismissal
and order his arrest. Unfortunately, there was nobody in Germany who could dismiss Hitler.
● In Italy Corporate State system was present,whereas in Germany it was absent.

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Spanish Civil War (1936-39)

● The main causes of the Spanish Civil War were deep-rooted socio- economic inequalities,
political instability, and ideological differences which emerged in the decade of 1920s & 1930s.
● Republicans were advocate of democracy and social reforms.
● Nationalists were supporters of authoritarian regime & wanted to established it in Spain.
● Eventually led to the outbreak of the conflict between Republicans and Nationalists.
● The Spanish Civil War was a conflict that occurred in Spain from 1936 to 1939.
● It was a political and social struggle between Republicans & Nationalists.
● Republicans- were a coalition of left-wing and anti-fascist groups.
● Nationalists- representing conservative, monarchist, and fascist factions,who were led by
General Francisco Franco.
● Foreign powers were involved in the Spanish Civil War.
● The conflict attracted international attention.
● Nationalists received support from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
● Republicans received support from the Soviet Union and international brigades.
● The Spanish Civil war served as a prelude to the larger geopolitical struggles of World War Il.
● It is considered as “Dressed Rehearsal Of WW2”.
Important Information/events Related to Spanish Civil War

● During the Civil War, Italy and Germany supported the Nationalists with tanks, troops, air
shelling, food supplies and raw material. Germany bombed the town of Guernica in 1937 and
1600 innocent civilians died.
● The Nationalists slowly but surely wore down the Republicans, capturing Barcelona and the
whole of Catalonia in January 1939. Only Madrid remained in Republican hands and the war
ended in March 1939 when Madrid surrendered to Franco’s forces.
● Reasons for the Nationalist victory.
○ Franco was extremely skilful in holding together the various right-wing groups (army,
Church, monarchists and Falangists) so that they worked as a single military and political
unit with one central aim -to crush the godless republicans.
○ Disunity among the left wing (example Anarchists and Socialists fought against each
other in Barcelona).
○ Support from Italy and Germany who aided Franco with a hope of creating another
Fascist state in Europe.

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Second World War

Introduction
● World War II, was a conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during the years 1939 –
45.
● The principal belligerents were the Axis powers – Germany, Italy, and Japan and the Allies –
France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China.
● It was the biggest conflict in history that had lasted almost six years.
● Nearly some 100 million people had been militarized, and 50 million had been killed (around 3%
of the world's population).
Cause of Second World War

Failure of the Treaty of Versailles:
● The Treaty of Versailles which was signed in 1919 at Paris formed the main cause of the Second
World War.
● Germany was vanquished and forced to sign the treaty.
● Germany had lost her territories, colonies, coal and iron mines. This treaty reduced its lands
and also decreased the soldiers and armaments of Germany.

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● Thus, the desire of revenge was lighted among the people of Germany. In course of time,
Germany had disobeyed all the provisions of the treaty of Versailles. It contained germs for the
Second World War.
Failure of the League of Nations

● The League of Nations was an international organization set up in 1919 to keep world peace.
● It was intended that all countries would be members and that if there were disputes between
countries; they could be settled by negotiation rather than by force.
● The League of Nations was a good idea, but ultimately a failure, as not all countries joined the
league.
● Also, the League had no army to prevent military aggression such as Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia
in Africa or Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in China.
Hitler and Nazism

● After the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was crippled politically and economically and there was
public unrest and unemployment. At this time, Adolf Hitler rose as the Saviour of Germany.
● As the dictator of Germany, Hitler’s activities were violating the conditions of the Treaty of
Versailles.
● In 1936, he occupied the Rhineland and in 1938, he occupied Austria and annexed them to
Germany. Thus, the prestige of Germany increased.
● The rise of Hitler was the chief cause of the Second World War.
Mussolini and Fascism:

● As Italy was a winning nation, it was underestimated in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919.
● After the First World War there was unemployment, labor strikes, riots, movements and
class struggle in Italy.
● This critical juncture led to the rise of Benitto Mussolini. He declared in favor of War – “What War is
to man, maternity is to woman”.
● He promised to establish the pride of ancient Rome in Italy. He established Fascism in Italy in
order to extend its boundary.
● So, he established a friendly relationship with Hitler, the Dictator of Germany. It created an
environment of fear in the whole of Europe. Mussolini occupied Ethiopia.

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Great Depression of 1929

● The worldwide economic depression of the 1930s took its toll in different ways in Europe and
Asia.
● In Europe, political power shifted to totalitarian and imperialist governments in several
countries, including Germany, Italy, and Spain.
● In Asia, a resource-starved Japan began to expand aggressively, invading China and maneuvering
to control a sphere of influence in the Pacific.
Emergence of Japan:
● The Emergence of Japan in the Far East was another cause of the Second World War.
● After the First World War, Japan tried to emerge as an important and powerful nation.
● Its main aim was to extend its empire and to acquire several colonies.
● In 1931,Japan attacked and occupied Manchuria. Then it captured one after another city of
China.
● The imperialist policy of Japan increased largely under its Emperor Hirohito. His alliance with
Hitler and Mussolini created a volcanic situation which paved the way for the outbreak of the
World War II.
Conflict of Ideologies
● After the First World War, the whole world came under the spell of ideological conflicts i.e
Dictatorship & Democracy.
● Italy, Germany, Japan and Spain believed in Dictatorship and Militarism. On the other hand, the
United States of America, England and France believed in the Democratic Principles. Germany
and Italy violated the system of the Treaty of Versailles.
● This ideological conflict divided the world into two groups. Mussolini, the dictator of Italy had
remarked – “The Struggle between the two worlds can permit no Compromise-either we or they”.
● America, England and France who believed in the democratic principles prepared themselves to
give a setback to this ideology of Mussolini.

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Failure Policy of Appeasement

● Policy followed by Britain & France towards Germany.
● Hitler openly denounced the Treaty of Versailles and began secretly building up Germany’s army
and weapons.
● Although Britain and France knew of Hitler’s actions, they thought a stronger Germany would stop
the spread of Communism from Russia.
● An example of appeasement was the Munich Pact of September 1938. In the Agreement, Britain
and France allowed Germany to annex areas in Czechoslovakia where German-speakers lived.
● Germany agreed not to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia or any other country. However, in March
1939,Germany broke its promise and invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia.
● Even then, neither Britain nor France was prepared to take military action

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Failure Policy of Appeasement

Battles and Turning Points of WWII
Aggression in Europe and Asia 1930-39
Events of World War II

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The Start
● Three years of mounting international tension - encompassing the Spanish Civil War, the union
of Germany and Austria, Hitler's occupation of the Sudetenland and the invasion of
Czechoslovakia led to deterioration of ties between Axis Power and Allied Powers.
● Ribbentrop Pact.
● However, the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 and subsequently two days
later, Britain and France declared war on Germany.
● This marked the beginning of World War II.
Ribbentrop Pact
● By the early part of 1939 the German dictator Adolf Hitler had become determined to invade and
occupy Poland.
● Poland, for its part, had guarantees of French and British military support should it be attacked by
Germany. Hitler intended to invade Poland anyway, but first he had to neutralize the possibility
that the Soviet Union would resist the invasion of its western neighbor.
● Secret negotiations in August 1939, led to the signing of the German-Soviet Non-aggression
Pact in Moscow.
● Further, Russia followed Germany into Poland in September and Poland was carved up between
the two invaders before the end of the year.

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Germany Invades Poland

● September 1, 1939 is the date most scholars give as the beginning of World War II in Europe.
● Led by its führer (supreme leader), Adolf Hitler, Germany had, for several years, been amassing a
military powerful enough to conquer Europe and possibly even the world.
● Hitler choose Poland as a target for his ambitions and began the German invasion of Poland on
September 1.
● Both France and England had promised to help Poland should it ever be attacked, and so on
September 3, 1939, the two countries declared war on Germany. In the months that followed,
Germany troops either occupied or invaded Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and
eventually France.
Phoney War
● It was a 6-month period, coined as the Phoney war, during which Germany did not attack any
parts of the Western Europe in the hope that Britain and France would call for negotiations
for peace.
● The German Generals were happy with the period of lull as they felt that Germany was not strong
enough to fight a war of bigger scale at that time.
● In the East, when Finland was attacked by USSR in 1939, the League of Nations expelled the
Russians.
● Finland had gained independence from Russia during the Russian Revolution and the Russian
Civil War (1917, 1918-20 respectively). Russia did not occupy the whole of Finland but forced it to
cede a large part of its territory.
● Only those areas were taken away from Finland which would help the Russians deal with an
attack from the West. In 1940, Russia invaded and occupied the Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia
and Lithuania which were taken away from it by the Germans under the Treaty of Brest Litovsk
(1917) and then made independent states under the Treaty of Versailles (1920). Stalin wanted
them back under the Russian fold.

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Winter War 1940

● The 'winter war' between Russia and Finland concluded in March, and in the following month
Germany invaded Denmark and Norway.
● Denmark surrendered immediately, but the Norwegians fought on - with British and French
assistance -surrendering in June 1940.
Battle of Britain 1940

● By June 1940, nearly all of Western Europe was under Nazi control. In a speech to the British
House of Commons, Prime Minister Winston Churchill told his fellow politicians, “The Battle of
France is over. I expect the Battle of Britain is about to begin.” The fighting that followed took
place mainly in the air.
● Despite heavy losses, the British Royal Air Force defied the German Luftwaffe for three
straight months and ultimately took the air battle to the skies above Germany. As summer
turned to fall, Hitler had no choice but to call off the attack.
Operation Barbarossa
● After facing defeat in Britain, Hitler broke the Ribbentrop Pact and invaded Russia in 1941.
● The initial advance was swift, with the fall of Sebastopol at the end of October, and Moscow
coming under attack at the end of the year.
● The bitter Russian winter, however, like the one that Napoleon had experienced a century and a
half earlier, crippled the Germans.
● The Soviets counterattacked in December and the Eastern Front stagnated until the spring.
Japan Attacks Pearl Harbor

● While Hitler’s forces marched through Europe, Japan’s military was attempting something similar
in Southeast Asia.
● The raid on the United States Navy base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 damaged or
destroyed more than 20 American ships and 300 aircraft. More than 4,000 Americans were killed
or wounded. The following day, the United States officially entered the war.

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American Entry into the War

● Through the Battle of Midway 1942, the US entered World War II. In this battle, US sea-based
aircraft destroyed four Japanese carriers and a cruiser, marking the turning point in World War II.
● Also, the news of mass murders of Jewish people by the Nazis reached the Allies, and the US
pledged to avenge these crimes.
● The Battle of Midway (1942) served as a turning point as during this Battle; the U.S. bombers
destroyed Japanese Aircraft Carriers. It was almost impossible to win naval battles without
aircraft carriers.
● After this Battle, the U.S. started what came to be known as 'Island Hopping' whereby between
1942-44, it won back from Japan the Pacific islands one by one, via a strategy of aerial bombing
of islands followed by ground assaults on them.
Nazi Germany Surrenders

● As Allied forces drew closer to Berlin, they began to discover the full horror of the Holocaust.
● They liberated multiple concentration camps, where hundreds of thousands of
● Jews were still being held. For most, the rescue had come too late – an estimated six million of
them had already been killed.
● When Nazi leaders at last signed the document of surrender, on May 7, 1945, people around
the world took to the streets to celebrate. United States President Harry Truman called it “a
victory only half won,” however, as American soldiers in the Pacific were, at that very moment,
engaged in one of history’s most vicious battles, on the island of Okinawa.
Nuclear Bombing and the End

● Plans were being prepared for an Allied invasion of Japan, but fears of fierce resistance and
massive casualties prompted Harry Truman - the new American president to sanction the use of
an atomic bomb against Japan.
● Such bombs had been in development since 1942, and on 6 August 1945 one of them was
dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima.
● Three days later another was dropped on Nagasaki.
● No country could have withstood such attacks, and the Japanese surrendered on 14 August.
● With the surrender of Japan, World War II was finally over.

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Impact of World War

Social impact
● Mass killing and adverse effect on demographic trends.
● Freedom of Women- Financial & personal.
● Mass killing put question mark on Religion. It fostered some atheist trends.
● Growth of Anti-War literature.
● Disillusionment of middle class & question mark on efficacy of war.
● Growth of Education.
● Growth of science & Tech.
● Attacked on Racist approach.
● Beginning of new Era of Human Rights
Economic Impact
● Shortage of food and hunger prevailed
● Rise in inflation
● Emergence of global economic institution-World Bank and International Monetary Fund.
● Hegemony of US dollar and act as reserve currency.
Political Impact-
Process of Decolonization begin
● Economic & Military exhaustion of European countries.
● After the war, Britain and France were confronted with various domestic and external problems.
● Both of them could no longer hold onto their respective colonies
● Thus, the post-war world witnessed the end of colonialism in Africa and Asia.
Emergence of Bipolar world

● The European domination of the world ended with the World War II and the balance of power
shifted in favour of the USSR and US. Due to high war costs, Italy, Germany, Britain and France
were on the verge of bankruptcy.
● Britain was under high US debt which it acquired due to the US aid provided under the
Lend-Lease Act (1941).
● After the war, Britain was forced to ask for another US loan. Also, European exports declined.

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● The US was economically strong while the USSR had the largest army. The world after the
World War II was a bipolar world, which became engulfed in a Cold War rivalry between the two
superpowers.
Birth of UN (United Nations)

● One of the momentous results of the war was the birth of the United Nations Organisation.
● Although the League failed to deliver, mankind did not altogether lose its hopes of making the
world a safer and happier place to live in.
● The UN Charter enshrines the hopes and ideals of mankind on the basis of which countries can
work together to maintain lasting peace.
● However, the establishment of the UN was agreed, much before the end of World War II under the
Atlantic Charter.
Beginning of Cold War

● After the end of the war, a conference was held in Potsdam, Germany, to set up peace treaties. The
countries that fought with Hitler lost territory and had to pay reparations to the Allies. Germany
and its capital Berlin were divided into four parts.
● The zones were to be controlled by Great Britain, the United States, France and the Soviet Union.
● The three western Allies and the Soviet Union disagreed on many things and as time went on
Germany was divided into two separate countries: East Germany, which had a Communist
government and West Germany, which was a democratic state.
● Ideological conflict between Capitalism & Communism.
● Leader of Capitalist world was USA and Communist world was USSR.
Emergence of Non Aligned movement

● The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of 120 countries that are not formally aligned with
or against any major power bloc. It was founded with the view to advancing interests of
developing countries in the context of Cold War confrontation.After the United Nations, it is the
largest grouping of states worldwide.
● The movement originated in the aftermath of the Korean War, as an effort by countries like India,
Egypt, Indonesia etc to counterbalance the rapid bi-polarization of the world during the Cold
War, whereby two major powers formed blocs and embarked on a policy to pull the rest of the
world into their orbits.

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(Complete Course)
Concept of Total War

Term coined by German military General Ludendorff in 1918.
● It involves entire nation and national life.
● Involves mass mobilization of Resources.
● Contribution of Doctors, Engineers & Scientists along with Army in WW.
● Shift from Traditional Weapons to Modern.
● Total war represents New capabilities- air force, submarines etc.
● Gave birth to problem of Stateless people.
PYQ
Q.1) To what extent can Germany be held responsible for causing the two World Wars? Discuss
critically.
● Responsibility of Germany for Causing World War I
● Aggressive Foreign Policy:Alliance System:Militarization:Support for Austria-Hungary:
● Responsibility of Germany for Causing World War II
● Treaty of Versailles:Nazi Expansionism,Violations of Treaties:
● Critical Perspective
● Both World Wars were results of complex interplay of multiple factors, including alliances,
imperialism, nationalism, and economic conditions.

WORLD HISTORY
(Complete Course)
Cold War
Introduction
● It was a Ideological or diplomatic war whose objective was to extend the area of influence of one
bloc at the cost of the other, just after the end of WWII, there started WWIII, although it was
different in nature from earlier wars.
● It is characterized either as 'Cold war' or 'Hot peace'.
Causes of Cold War

● During the World War Allied countries (US, UK and France) and Soviet Union fought together
against the Axis powers (Nazi Germany, Japan, and Austria). However, this wartime alliance
could not workout after World War II, due to multiple factors:
● The issue of the opening of the 2nd military front during WWII (difference between Russia and
western power).
● The issue of the surrender of Italy in 1943 (Russia not invited).
● The USSR put east European countries and a part of Germany under its control.
● The Yalta Conference, held in February 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of
government of the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union to discuss the
postwar reorganization of Germany and Europe & agreement on formation of democratic
governments in liberated countries through free elections.
● At Yalta, the Soviets had pressed for heavy post war reparations from Germany, half of which
would go to the Soviet Union.
● Potsdam conference-July-August 1945
○ The Potsdam conference was held at Berlin in 1945 among US, UK and Soviet Union to
discuss:
○ Immediate administration of defeated Germany.
○ Demarcation of boundary of Poland.
○ Occupation of Austria.
○ Role of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe.
● The Soviet Union wanted some portion of Poland (bordering the Soviet Union) to be
maintained as a buffer zone.
● However, the USA and UK didn't agree to this demand.

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● Also, the USA did not inform the Soviet Union about the exact nature of the atomic bomb,
dropped on Japan. This created suspicion in the Soviet Union about the intentions of western
countries, embittering the alliance. This created suspicion in the Soviet leadership.
● Iron Curtain-1946
○ Churchill's declaration at Fulton speech in the USA in March 1946 here he gave his famous
'Iron curtain'
○ Iron Curtain is the political, military, and ideological barrier erected by the Soviet
Union after World War II to seal off itself and its dependent eastern and central European
allies from open contact with the West and other noncommunist areas.
○ On the east side of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or
influenced by the Soviet Union i.e Communist, while on the west side were the
countries that were allies of the US, UK i.e Capitalists.
● After almost every major war some political vacuum was created which was being tilled by new
powers. After WWII, both the USA and USSR tried to fill up this vacuum.
● Conflict and political rivalry are inherent in world history. There is relatively a short time of
cooperation and a long time of conflict. For example, after WWI, the Paris Peace Conference made
an appeal for launching a new era of cooperation but fresh conflicts appeared between
communism and fascism.
● Then after WWII, a new era of peace was again being hoped particularly for the fact that western
powers and USSR were fighting against fascism together. But unfortunately, it was in the
course of WWII itself that the cold war started.
● Economic: The United States desired to prosper free trade around the world. The Soviet Union
wanted to seal its own sphere from international commerce. These differences led to harsh
feelings between the US and Soviet Union.
● The Armament race between the two superpowers was another cause behind the Cold War.
After World War 2, Soviet Russia had enormously increased its military strength which was
considered a threat for the West. This caused America to start the manufacturing of the Atom
bomb, Hydrogen bomb and other weapons of deadly nature. Participation in this race took place
by other European countries also. So, the whole world was bifurcated into two power and paved
the way for the Cold War.
● Declaration by Russia made another reason for the Cold War. Soviet Russia showed
Communism through mass-media and encouraged and added flavour to the labour revolution i.e
Cominform in 1947. On the other hand, America aided the Capitalists against Communism. So it
helped the growth of the Cold War.

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● America's Nuclear Programme was majorly responsible for another cause of the Cold War. After
the bomb disposal of America on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Soviet Russia got afraid of its
existence. So, it also took the same path to combat America. This led to the growth of the Cold
War.
● The Veto Enforcement by Soviet Russia against the western countries made them dislike Russia.
When the western countries put any sort of view in the Security Council of the United Nations
Organization, Soviet Russia immediately opposed it through veto power. So western countries got
annoyed by Soviet Russia which gave birth to the Cold War.
Events of the Cold War

WORLD HISTORY
(Complete Course)
Formation of two blocs(Iron curtain) and Truman doctrine

● First open reference to Cold War was made by the then former PM of Britain Winston Churchill in
1947 during a speech in US in which he said that an Iron Curtain has descended across the
European continent which referred to the division of Europe into pro-Soviet and pro-Western
areas and that East European states lived in strict censorship isolated from the rest of the
world. He also appealed to the American and British political establishment to counter
Soviet influence.
Truman doctrine- Policy of Containment.

● US decision to intervene in Greece Civil war after Britain backed out made the first overt act
in the Cold War. The US president put forth a doctrine called the Truman Doctrine which stated
that it is the responsibility of the US government to support the freedom of people around the
world. It in a way declared Communism as the greatest threat to the free world and declared
the US as guardian of the free world. This doctrine guided American foreign policy for years to
come and the US saw every conflict in light of struggle between the US and USSR.
Developments in Eastern Europe

● Developments in Eastern Europe revived the pre-war phobia of communism as communist
governments were formed in seven East European countries which were liberated by the
USSR.
● Communist governments in Czechoslovakia and Poland especially alarmed Western countries
as they saw it a violation of Yalta Conference promises which called for formation of
democratic governments in liberated countries through free elections.

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● Developments in Germany further complicated matters. The Potsdam Conference had divided
Germany into four parts under four powers, but envisaged a single economic system with
single currency. Berlin was also divided into similar four zones.
● But later in 1949, Western powers merged their part together to form Federal Democratic
Germany or West Germany (Capitalist))with Bonn as capital and German Democratic republic
or East Germany(Communist) with Berlin as capital which was also divided into West Berlin and
East Berlin though Soviet Union opposed this division of Berlin and in 1948, she closed all the
roads leading to West Berlin and West Germany.
● This Soviet blockade created a situation of war as neither side budged and Western powers
airlifted all supplies to West Berlin before the Soviet Union lifted the blockade in 1949 and the
crisis averted.
● In the meantime a new military alliance NATO came into existence in 1949 with West European
countries as members along with USA, Canada and Iceland and the US gave massive military aid
to NATO members. West Germany also became its part in 1955.
● Warsaw Pact(1955)- Communist response to NATO.It was collective defense treaty signed
between Soviet Union & 7 Socialist republics of Eastern & central Europe.
● Greece was also center of tussle between communism and capitalism and a civil war ensued
post independence.

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● There was an uprising in Hungary in 1956 and change of government in Yugoslavia in 1968 and
in both cases USSR made armed intervention and again pro-Soviet governments were installed.
● Soviet Union also sent her troops to Afghanistan in 1979 to help Afghan government crush
Afghan fighters which were armed by US to counter USSR and it was at this time that
Al-Queda was born with US aid which later under Osama Bin Laden led a terror attack on twin
trade towers on 9/11 2001. USA and her NATO allies invaded Afghanistan in Operation Enduring
Freedom.
Alliance system and nuclear tests

● Slowly Cold War took the whole world into its grip and NATO style military alliances like SEATO,
CENTO, Baghdad Pact cropped up supported by Western powers. US monopoly in nuclear
weapons was also broken in 1949 by USSR when it conducted an atomic test and race for
dangerous weapons started.
● USA conducted Hydrogen bomb test in 1952 and USSR followed in 1953. Some even claimed
that American scientists passed on atomic secrets to USSR and there were many spy stories
making round which further created mutual suspicion.
Formation of People Republic of China(PRC) as communist nation 1949

● Western powers received another shock when the People's Republic of China was established
as another communist power.
● In the preceding years, Civil war had resumed in China in 1946 after the external threat of Japan
was no longer there.
● In this Civil War, Chiang Kai Shek’s forces were completely defeated despite US supply and he
fled to Taiwan,which was freed from Japan after the war.
Formation of People Republic of China as communist nation

● Western powers refused to recognize PRC for over 20 years and tried to dislodge communist
rule in mainland China and instead, recognized Taiwan as China.
● PRC was also kept outside the UN and instead her seat was given to Kai Shek, who ruled Taiwan.
The US also intervened in many other regions and watched every activity through the lens of
communist threat.

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Deterrence and Brinkmanship

● In the 1950s, USA pursued policy of brinkmanship under secretary of state Dulles i.e. pushing the
adversary to the utmost limit by provocations and advancements to extract concessions and
it heightened tensions.
● Many other countries acquired nuclear power on dubious ground of having a ‘deterrent’
capability. Other doctrines like MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) were given which implied
that in case of nuclear war neither side will survive as even the aggressor will not be spared.
● Military alliances in Asia were aggressively formed which even included and promoted many
undemocratic regimes as well and massive military aid was given to member countries of these
alliances and it created tension with neighbors which were not part of these alliances.
● It was in this context that the Non-Aligned Movement was born. Dulles called non-alignment as
‘immoral’. The CIA was established in 1947 and it played an important role in destabilization of
various governments especially in those areas which were strategically important and where
natural resources like oil were found.
Korean War(1950-53)
● The first war in which the USA got directly involved was the Korean War of 1950. After Japanese
defeat, Korea was also divided like Germany into two zones – Northern zone under USSR and
Southern under USA and division was along 38th parallel and in 1948, Southern Korea
declared itself Republic of Korea and Northern Korea declared itself as People’s Democratic
Republic of Korea and soon Soviet and American troops left Korea's by 1949 and despite having
ideologically opposite governments, the two Koreas stated unification as their goal.
Korean War
● In 1950, war broke out between the two and North Korea entered South. At this juncture US
military intervened and in a reaction to it China too moved its troops and war entered a
stalemate. India played an important role in bringing armistice in 1953 which holds till date
and two sides retreated to pre-war boundaries.
● 1.5 lakh American soldiers died in this war and 40 lakh Koreans died. The war remained a
localized one though it created a major scare of snowballing into a global war and use of nuclear
weapons was also imminent.

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Emergence of Non-Aligned Movement in 1961

● It emerged in the background when some countries had already emerged independent and
wanted to preserve their independence and promote others as well. It emerged as an
institution, which promoted an anti-colonial ideology.
● It saw the emerging bi-polar world and arms race as threat for independence of newly emerged
nations as well as to larger humanity. It also recognized the unequal world order and wanted to
make it more democratic.
● The movement was given a formal shape in 1961 when the first conference was held in
Belgrade, Yugoslavia, but its roots can be traced to Asian Relations Conference held in Delhi in
March 1947.
● It laid down principles of peaceful mutual coexistence, anti-racial, anti-imperialism and
anti-Cold War. It also addressed letters to US and the USSR presidents to come together for
negotiations.
Vietnam war
● Another important international development happened in Vietnam, revolutionary leader Ho
Chi Minh proclaimed independence of Vietnam from French rule, but France tried to
re-establish it with US support.
● Ho Chi Minh was supported by the Soviet Union and popular support within the country was
immense and as a result France was defeated in 1954 and Vietnam was divided into two parts
north and south which were to be reunited after the 1956 elections.
● It was certain that Ho Chi Minh’s party would win elections, but the US started to develop South
Vietnam as a separate state under corrupt and autocratic rule of Ngo Dinh Diem and tried to
maintain anti-communist rule in the South.
● The US saw Vietnam as an important piece in communist framework and argued that if
Vietnam is made free of communist rule, it will have a domino effect on other communist
countries as well and if it fell under communist rule, the opposite will happen.
● This belief dragged the USA into a protracted Vietnam War in which the US dropped more bombs
than it did in Europe during WW-2. It led to immense unpopularity of the USA around the world
and even at home.
● The North Vietnamese government viewed the war as a colonial war, fought initially against
France, backed by the US, and later against South Vietnam, which it regarded as a US puppet
state.

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● It was a debacle for the USA which left Vietnam in 1975 in which more than 60,000 US troops
died and an entire country was ravaged and millions of Vietnamese, Cambodians died.
● Vietnam soon united and it was a great humiliating defeat for the biggest military power.
Israel -Palestine(Arab) conflict

● The Arab World was another major area of turmoil. Arab nationalism was one of the major
causes and Western antagonism made the Arab region conflict prone. The West intervened in
Arab politics in the name of preventing communism. Israel emerged as the biggest source of
conflict and Jewish settlement further stoked Arab nationalism.
● The UN passed a resolution in 1947 to divide Palestine into two parts – an Arab state and a
Jewish state. The West quickly recognized Israel and it was followed by the Arab-Israeli War in
1948 in which Arabs were defeated and millions of Palestinians were rendered homeless to take
refuge in other Arab countries. Arab states refused to recognize Israel and saw it as a danger to
Arab nationalism.

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(Complete Course)
Suez Crisis-1956
● Egypt asked Britain to withdraw her forces completely under Gamal Abdel Nasser with
Soviet support.
● After Egypt started receiving Soviet arms, the USA stopped the help which she provided for the
building of Aswan dam on the Nile.
● In July 1956, Suez was nationalized and it made Britain and France insecure as Suez was a
major route of their trade .
● Britain & France tacitly supported Israel to attack Egypt in October 1956 and joined themselves
later on. Israel captured Sinai Peninsula and bombarded the egyptian airfield.
● Attack was widely condemned in the UN and even by the USA(because of fear of losing Arab
support)
● France and Britain had to withdraw when the Soviet Union issued an ultimatum of using missiles.
● This marked a victory of Arab nationalism and strengthened Soviet influence in the region.
Naseer also made an active effort to unite Arab nations.
● The US was alarmed at this and in 1957 she proclaimed Eisenhower Doctrine which called for
curbing ‘international communism’ by supplying arms and finances to willing Arab nations and
also supporting pro-West autocratic regimes.
Israel -Palestine(Arab) conflict

● In 1967, another war broke out between Israel on one side and Egypt, Jordan and Syria on
the other side, known as Six Days War in which Arabs were again defeated and Israel occupied
West Bank, Gaza Strip, a part of Egypt in Sinai peninsula and Golan Heights from Syria.
● Another war happened in 1973 between Israel and Arabs,known as Yom Kippur war in which
Arab countries declared that they wouldn’t ship oil to pro-Israeli countries. European countries
distanced themselves from the conflict and even the USA was forced to put pressure on Israel for
declaring a ceasefire.
Space Rivalry
● US supremacy for the first time was shaken when Sputnik was launched by Russia in 1957
which put the first satellite in space. The US retaliated by putting two astronauts on the moon in
1969.

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Cuban missile crisis

● Another notable event during the Cold War was the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. America had
installed nuclear missiles in different parts of the world aimed at the Soviet Union, but the
Soviet Union generally didn’t have such installations. Each side had, however, submarines around
the world carrying such missiles, but these had limited range and hence made it necessary to
install long range missiles near enemy territory.
● After the 1959 revolution, government under Fidel Castro came to power displacing Batista – a
military dictator and a close ally of USA – and it alarmed USA as it also started developing
closeness with USSR and China,though Castro was not a communist and reorganized his party as
a communist party only in 1965.
● Che Guevara was one of the important leaders of revolution who was born in Argentina, but
joined Castro in 1956 and was murdered by CIA in Bolivia in 1967. US even tried to topple this
government in 1961 through Bay of Pigs, but grossly failed.
● USA, however, keep on promoting anti-government elements. IN 1962, US spy planes took
pictures of Cuban sites which were being prepared for missile docking just 150 km from USA.
● Although Soviet Union had done something which US was doing since long, it raised sharp
reactions from USA and created a danger of war between the two.
● The US even imposed a naval and air blockade on Cuba and threatened to launch an attack on
Cuba. The USSR blinked in this game of brinkmanship and removed missiles on the US
promise of not attacking Cuba and removing missiles from Turkey.
● US intervention continued post war also in many countries in the name of containing
communism. In Chile, a socialist government was overthrown with the CIA hand in glove with
General Pinochet in the 1970s and it attracted global criticism. A democratic government could be
restored in Chile only in the 1990s. Similar interventions were made in Nicaragua, Honduras,
Panama, El Salvador and so on.
Diffusion of tension- DETENTE/THAW

● On the one hand, there were events which were raising tensions vis-à-vis the Cold War, there were
other incidents also which aimed at diffusing tensions. Formation of NAM was one major
development as it dissuaded many neutral countries from joining two rival camps.
● Many scientists and peace groups also propagandized about fall-outs of a future nuclear war and
disarmament became an important issue in all international forums. In the 1960s, rigid military
alliances also showed signs of crack, France and Pakistan withdrew from SEATO in the 1970s.

WORLD HISTORY
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Diffusion of tension
● The period starting from 1969 was marked by DETENTE/THAW in relations between the US
and Soviet Union- the President of America Nixon and Russian President Brezhnev played an
important role in bringing cold war to an end.
● There was also a split in communist movement as a result of hostility between the USSR and
China in the 1950s which lowered the perceived threat of communism. US-China relations also
improved and China was admitted to the UN in 1971.
● Some steps were also taken towards disarmament like the Test Ban Treaty was signed
between USA and USSR in 1963. In 1973, USA and USSR also started SALT (Strategic Arms
Limitation Talks) to limit certain categories of missiles.
● NPT (NonProliferation Treaty) was also signed by many countries, but it was discriminatory
since it prevented other countries from acquiring nuclear weapons and had no provisions for
those who already possessed them and hence was seen as an attempt to limit nuclear weapons to
an elite group.
● Ostpolitik, West German foreign policy begun in 1969. The policy was one of détente with
Soviet-bloc countries, recognizing the East German government and expanding commercial
relations with other Soviet-bloc countries.
● The Helsinki Accords of 1975 were primarily an effort to reduce tension between the Soviet and
Western blocs by securing their common acceptance of the post-World War II status quo in
Europe. The agreement recognized the inviolability of the post-World War II frontiers in Europe
and pledged the 35 signatory nations to respect human rights and fundamental freedoms and to
cooperate in economic, scientific, humanitarian, and other areas. The Helsinki Accords are non
binding and do not have treaty status.
● However, disarmaments initiatives received a major setback when the USA launched a new
missile program in the 1980s called Strategic Defense Initiative or ‘Star Wars Program’ and it
aimed at deploying missiles into space and hence could take arms race to outer space.

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Post War Soviet Union and Disintegration of USSR
● The Soviet Union won admiration of anti-fascist elements during WW-2. It made significant
development on the front of military, industry and technology, but the standard of living of
people remained low as the consumer goods industry was not promoted.
● In heavy industry also, major developments were made in space and defense and many other
areas were neglected. Economy was a command economy with a centralizing tendency.
● Excessive defense and space expenditure weakened the Soviet economy fundamentally as
little funds were available for other sectors and social welfare. On the political front also, Stalin
ruled like a dictator and Communist Party was a single political party till 1991. During his
time dissenters were sent into forced labor camps called ‘Gulags’ and prisons. In the mad race
with the US, USSR spent most of its energy in Weapons and other non socialist activities and the
state soon became hollow from inside.
● The bureaucracy soon spread its tentacles and the common man felt the pinch in every
republic. After years of being told that the Soviet system was better than Western capitalism, the
reality of its backwardness came as a political and psychological shock to the people.

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● The 70 years old Communist Party became unresponsive and often showed apathy that hurt
the people. In other East European countries also similar tactics were used which gradually led to
rise in unpopularity of the communist governments. Yugoslavia was expelled from the world
communist movement in 1948 for her refusal to accept Soviet control.
● Repression ended only with the death of Stalin in 1953 and Nikita Khrushchev became
president. Nikita gave the concept of peaceful co-existence and many disarmament measures
were taken during the 1950s.
● The Soviet Union even supported NAM in many cases and liberation of many countries was
supported. In this period, the policy of peaceful co-existence even created rift in the communist
movement as Mao Zedong led China still believed in the inevitability of war and revolution
against bourgeoisie.
● Despite her espousal of peaceful coexistence, it continued to interfere in East European countries
– most notably in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968.
● A truly democratic government was formed only after Mikhail Gorbachev became president of
USSR in 1985.
● Gorbachev made an attempt at redemption by declaring his intent to revive the Soviet Union
economy and political system as he advocated – Glasnost( transparency or openness) and
Perestroika(Restructuring/Structural change)
● Glasnost involved openness in government working, openness in political discourse, removal
of civic disabilities and so on. Non-communist parties were also allowed to enter politics.
● Perestroika aimed at restructuring the economy, but little was achieved. Failure on economic
front also led to strengthening of demands of autonomy by republics.
● The USSR was a union of Soviet Republics. One of the major issues with the Soviet Union was
dominance of the center and Russia in this union. The communist ideals could not be fully
realized and it paved the way for dissatisfaction. Corruption, high centralization and high handed
attitude further alienated republics.
● This bid at liberalization led to emergence of pant up frustrations and ethnic disputes emerged.
Fall of many other socialist states around the globe at the same time also led to the rejection of
single party authoritarian states.
● Gorbachev’s decision to normalize relations with the West and democratize and reform the
Soviet Union had some other effects that neither he nor anyone else intended or anticipated. The
people in the East European countries which were part of the Soviet bloc started to protest
against their own governments and Soviet control.

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● Unlike in the past, the Soviet Union, under Gorbachev, did not intervene when the
disturbances occurred, and the communist regimes collapsed one after another. In the
meanwhile, Gorbachev further introduced greater political reforms. He introduced direct
elections and ban on political parties was ended.
● Baltic republics (Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia) were the ones which were most vociferous and
soon legislatures of many of the republics started passing legislations undermining the control of
the central government and endorsing independence.
● In August 1991,this unrest also alerted the military and Communist Party which tried to do away
with Gorbachev government in a failed coup as popular agitation was led by Boris Yeltsin
who was president of Russia.
● But the coup attempt heightened the fear in minds of people about the undoing of the reforms by
a new government and as a result many of the republic started to declare unilateral
independence.
● End of the Cold War was imminent in the 1980s. In 1989, monopoly of communist parties in
Eastern Europe came to an end as Soviet control over government of these countries was
loosened up under new Soviet leadership of Gorbachev. Germany was reunited in 1990 and in
1991, Warsaw Pact was formally dissolved in 1991, but not only NATO was not dissolved, it
expanded its membership. In the USSR also the monopoly of communist party came to an end in
1991 and the USSR itself disintegrated by the end of 1991.
● The USA emerged winner in the Cold War and world transformed into unipolar world for a
long time to come.
● Post Cold war Russia and its close aides mooted the idea of dissolving the Soviet Union, but
retaining the unity via a loose alliance which later came to be known as Commonwealth of
Independent States. However, soon Gorbachev resigned in December 1991 and with this ended
Soviet Union and Cold war. Russia became the heir of the USSR and inherited permanent
membership in the Security Council and its nuclear arsenal. Break-up was sudden and
unexpected. With this also came to end ‘practically existing socialism’ as an alternative to
capitalism.
● Post USSR disintegration, authoritarian regimes came up in many of the 15 republics. In
Russia also, an environment of political instability prevailed for some time and mafia like
Industrialists prevailed who became billionaires within a short time period by plundering the
natural wealth of Russia. NATO expanded post disintegration and despite its promises and earlier
treaties, missiles were stationed in Poland and Czechoslovakia

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Impact of Cold War

● The Cold War led to diminishing Communism and the rise of globalization worldwide.
● America became the supreme power of the world.
● Communism collapsed worldwide.
● Thus, it is relevant to conclude that the Cold War was an important worldwide conflict, which
was due to various ideological perceptions as well as experiences, depending on one's locations
and societal standings. The importance of the Cold War in Modern World History is clear.
● Both the US and the USSR were founded on the ideology which mainly aimed for
improvement of human life. However, the same approaches to economy as well as social
development led to the conflict between two countries.
● The Cold War assisted in shaping Modern World History, providing huge opportunities for
political, economic, and social development of the countries. Modern World History would be
different if the Cold War would not have taken place.
● The collapse of the USSR and its communist system provided considerable changes in foreign
policies of many countries, including the United States.

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INDUSTRIALISATION
● Industrial revolution is the revolution in the economic processes of production of goods in the
economy, aided by the technological innovations, and their spread, which gave a boost to the
pace at which goods could be produced.
● The economic changes which took place in Britain between 1760 and 1840 is known as the
Industrial Revolution.
● Innovations that resulted in mechanized production, development of new sources of
powering these machines, technological forays in fields of communication and transport are
some processes, which when clubbed together are referred to as Industrial revolution.
● In other words, it denotes the application of machines in place of manual power in production
as well as in transportation.
● At first, French scholars used the word “Industrial Revolution". Then a British scholar Arnold
Toynbee used the term Industrial Revolution. But certain other scholars made an objection to
the term industrial revolution. They said that the changes took place over a long period of time.
It means it was a slow process. Then why should we use the term revolution?
● Although initially the pace of change was slow, still it was much faster than the change we
witnessed in the past.
● It affected a larger part of society, i.e. it changed the fundamentals of the society.
● In fact, the Industrial Revolution in Europe was not an isolated event rather it was linked to the
changes which Europe has manifested since the last three centuries.Pre-Industrial Europe
● Pre-industrial society refers to social attributes and forms of political and cultural
organization that were prevalent before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, which occurred
from 1750 to 1850. Pre-industrial is a time before there were machines and tools to help
perform tasks en masse.
● Pre-industrial civilization dates back to centuries ago, but the main era known as the
Pre-Industrial Society occurred right before the industrial society. Pre-Industrial societies
vary from region to region depending on the culture of a given area or history of social and
political life. Europe is known for its feudal system and medieval era.

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The main attributes of Pre-industrial Europe.

● Limited production
● Extreme agricultural economy
● Limited division of labour. In pre-industrial societies, production was relatively simple, and the
number of specialized crafts was limited.
● Limited variation of social classes
● Parochialism—Communications were limited between communities in pre-industrial societies.
Few had the opportunity to see or hear beyond their own village.
● In contrast, industrial societies grew with the help of faster means of communication, having
more information at hand about the world, allowing knowledge transfer and cultural diffusion
between them.
● Populations grew at substantial rates.
● Social classes: peasants and lords.
● Subsistence level of living.
● Population dependent on peasants for food.
● People were in villages rather than in cities.
Why was the Industrial Revolution first in England?

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Revolution in Steam power

● The invention of the use of steam was one of the most revolutionary discoveries which greatly
facilitated the adoption of the machine methods of production.
● Steam power could be generated at any place and in any quantity according to the requirements.
This was made possible with the help of an engine designed by Newcomen. This engine was
further perfected by James Watt and it was possible to turn wheel and drive machinery.
Revolution in Iron and Steel

● Iron was not available in sufficient quantity, an effort was made to increase its production
through the use of a coking process.
● In 1829 Nelson invented a hot blast which made the use of raw coal, instead of coke, possible
for the manufacture of iron. This invention greatly helped the growth of the iron industry of Clyde.
● The metal industry made yet another breakthrough with the discovery of cheap methods of
making steel, which was superior to iron on account of its lightness, hardness and durability.
● It particularly proved quite useful for the making of rails, building of ships and construction of
factories and dwelling houses.

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Revolution in Textile Industry

● By 1800, several major inventions had modernized the cotton industry. In the process one
invention led to another.
● First the invention of the flying shuttle, a boat-shaped piece of wood to which yarn was
attached, doubled the work a weaver could do in a day.
● Later in 1764, a textile worker invented a spinning wheel he named after his daughter, spinning
jenny, allowing one spinner to work eight threads at a time.
● Later many small adaptations to these developed a spinning mule.
● Wealthy textile merchants set up the machines in large buildings called factories, which
multiplied the production several times within a short duration.
Agriculture Revolution
● Another aspect generally missed in the Industrial Revolution is the agricultural revolution that
started before the former.
● It involved the production of more cash crops to meet the demands of the British industry.
● The new farm machinery like steel plough and harrow for breaking the ground, mechanical
seed drills, horse-drawn cultivator that replaced hoe and machines for reaping and threshing
reduced the labor requirement in the Agriculture sector.
● The new farm practices like intensive manuring and crop rotation increased the soil fertility
and ensured food security of Britain.
Spread of industrial revolution outside England

● The Industrial Revolution spread to the rest of Europe and North America over the course of
several decades after it was developed in Britain.
● Belgium was the first country after Britain who witnessed industrial development because they
managed to discover important coal fields, forming the base for other inventions.

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● Belgium saw the establishment of rail lines which linked up England, France, Germany, and
Holland with Belgium, and made it the commercial entrepot of Western Europe and the
metallurgical centers making it the best machinery seller all over Holland, Germany and even
Russia. Also, it became a self-sufficient economy in its entire requirements of food and other
economic industries.
● After 1830, France, Switzerland, and Germany began to imitate the English industrialization
process by introducing machinery into the production process, concentrating workers in
factories, and beginning to build their transportation network. In Europe, Industrialisation has its
own features such as the greater role of the governments who provided capital for
industrialization process such as building up of rail-road systems, banks who financed major
initiatives industry, the development of the rail-road system which eventually stimulated other
industries to meet its needs by the markets it created.
● In the United States, the Industrial Revolution began in the 1820s with the textile industry of
the northeast and it then continued with the development of heavy industry. U.S.
industrialization followed patterns borrowed from England and Europe. Like England, it also had
a vast supply of raw materials but relatively better labour conditions. After 1865, U.S. industry
began to expand rapidly.
Industrialisation in Japan(Period:- 1853 to 1894).

● This period of industrialization, popularly Known as "Meiji Era". This led Japan to
westernization of industrialization.

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Why was there a need for an Industrial Revolution in Japan?

● Japan was in "self imposed isolation" for a long time.
● Japan was brought out of this isolation in 1852 by the U.S. Navy. So, Japan is exposed to
Modern ideas & modern realities.
● Japanese Emperor realized the importance of industrialization as he saw the fate of India, china
and other south-East Asian countries.
● So, to bring Industrialization, he removed the Obstacles like he subdued "war lords "& established
the Imperial government based on the "Prussian Model".
● Expansionist policies adopted by European powers.
● Steps taken by Emperor to bring Industrial Revolution in Japan:
○ Subdued Warlords
○ Scrapping the feudal system of the past, check points, Merchant guilds etc.
○ Build new infrastructure like Telegraph line (Tokyo to Yokohama), Railway lines,
Modern post etc.
○ Adopted model of "Prussian Imperialism".
○ Iwakura Mission:- A mission consist of students, Silentists, scholars etc sent to Britain,
Other European countries and usa in between 1871 and 1873, to learn Industrial
revolution and how it could be applied in Japan to boost Economic & military strength
○ Gave patronage to private players who can compete with western industries.
Like-Mitsubishi etc
Japanese Industrial revolution

● It has "Twin objectives-
○ Built infrastructure & industries.
○ Established a strong Military.
● State led industrialization. The Emperor Invested in industrialization.
● Finance provided by the "Agriculture sector". And for that Japan adopted modern agricultural
practices, new varieties of seeds, expansion of agricultural land etc. These all produced the
Surplus.
● Japan paid attention to both "Light and Heavy" Industries at the same time and involved
Private players too
● Establishment of Bank of Japan to fund Model Steel & textile factories.

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● Development of infrastructure like Railways, telegraph, ports etc to give boost to Industrial
Revolution.
● Balanced growth of both Modern & Traditional industries.
● Followed the process of "Reverse Engineering" that is Innovation
● Japan was poor in resources; so the Japanese industrial revolution depended upon the "import
of resources".
● Ethics too played an important role in the Japanese industrial revolution, as they followed the
Confucian philosophy".
● Japanese industrialization was faster, as it took around 30 years to build modern industries.
● Japanese Industrialization is closely linked with military demands.
Socialist Pattern of Industrialisation

● In contrast to laissez-faire philosophy, which advised governments to leave business alone,
other theorists believed that governments should intervene. These thinkers believed that
wealthy people or the government must take action to improve people’s lives. According to Marx
and Engels, the Industrial Revolution had enriched the wealthy and impoverished the poor.
Two notable examples include the industrialization efforts in the Soviet Union and China.

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Features of Socialist Industrialization

Central Planning:
● State Control: Socialist industrialization involves significant state control over the economy.
Central planning authorities determine production targets, resource allocation, and economic
priorities.
● Five-Year Plans: Socialist countries often implement Five-Year Plans, setting specific economic
goals and targets for industrial development.
Collectivization:
● Agricultural Transformation: Socialist regimes may implement collectivization policies in
agriculture.
● This involves consolidating individual farms into collective or state-owned farms to achieve
efficiency and equity in resource distribution.
State Ownership of Means of Production:

● Nationalization: Key industries, such as heavy manufacturing, energy, and transportation, are
often nationalized, placing them under state ownership and control.
● Socialized Ownership: The means of production are considered social property, intended to
benefit the entire society rather than private individuals.
Emphasis on Heavy Industry:

● Strategic Development: Socialist industrialization typically prioritizes heavy industry, including
sectors like steel, machinery, and infrastructure.
● This emphasis is often driven by strategic considerations such as national defense.
Social Equality and Ideological Goals:

● Elimination of Class Distinctions: Socialist industrialization aims to eliminate class distinctions
by creating a more egalitarian society. The focus is on reducing economic disparities between
different social classes.
● Communist Ideology: The process is often guided by Marxist or communist ideologies, seeking
the eventual establishment of a classless, stateless society.

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Labor Mobilization:
● Centralized Labor Force: The state plays a key role in mobilizing and organizing the labor force
for industrial projects. Labor is often directed toward strategic economic goals.
● Emphasis on Workers' Rights: Socialist regimes may emphasize workers' rights, with policies
promoting job security, social benefits, and collective bargaining.
Economic Transformation:
● Rapid Industrial Growth: Socialist industrialization efforts have, in some cases, led to rapid
economic growth, particularly in heavy industry and infrastructure development.
● Diversification of Economy: The emphasis on industrialization diversifies the economy, reducing
dependence on agriculture.
Social Changes:
● Urbanization: Socialist industrialization results in significant urbanization as people migrate from
rural areas to work in expanding industrial centers.
● Improved Social Services: Socialist regimes often invest in social services, including education,
healthcare, and housing, aiming to improve the quality of life for citizens.
Political Control and Authoritarianism:

● Centralized Power: Socialist industrialization often centralizes political power in the hands of the
state. The government plays a crucial role in economic planning and decision-making.
● Authoritarian Tendencies: Some socialist regimes exhibit authoritarian tendencies, with limited
political pluralism and restrictions on political dissent.
Challenges and Shortcomings:

● Bureaucratic Inefficiencies: Centralized planning can lead to bureaucratic inefficiencies and
mismanagement of resources.
● Resource Allocation Issues: Socialist industrialization may face challenges in effectively
allocating resources and responding to market demands.

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Global Impact:
● Global Influence: Socialist industrialization efforts have had global geopolitical implications,
contributing to the ideological and economic competition between socialist and capitalist blocs
during the Cold War.
Environmental Impact:
● Environmental Considerations: Some socialist industrialization efforts have faced
environmental challenges, including pollution and resource depletion, similar to capitalist
industrialization.
Impact of Industrial Revolution

Impact on workers
● In the process of industrial revolution, new cities developed at the expense of villages. Several
cities developed in Britain in the late 18 century. But initially the living standard of the workers
was very poor.
● In the absence of proper infrastructure in cities they had to stay in small rooms without any
facilities. Their residence was generally near the factory site. Thus the emissions had an adverse
effect on the health of the workers.
Impact on workers
● By the early 19 century, opposition started against increasing mechanization and the deplorable
condition of the workers. ‘Black Tears March ' of 1816 was one such opposition against the
government.
● However, these developments forced the government to think in the direction of reforms which
were done in 1819, 1833 and 1847. For example, working hours were regulated.
● In the reforms of 1847 the working hours for men were fixed at a maximum of 10 hours. For
women and children it was further relaxed.

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Impact on Polity
● As a result of the Industrialisation the responsibility of the government increased. It started
working for the betterment of the workers.
● Moreover a middle class emerged which demanded the extension of franchise. Thus reforms
were carried out in 1832.
Impact on Economy
● Industrialisation encouraged the policy of free economy in Britain , and in 1846 Britain officially
accepted the policy of free economy .
● Industrial revolution also resulted in increased contact between the Industrialized and
non-industrialized world.
● But this contact was not based on equality. The demand for raw materials and export markets
made the Colonial powers to look for more territories to colonize.
Impact on society
● An empowered middle class emerged in Britain. An industrial worker class also emerged
parallel to it. They demanded reforms but sometimes there were conflicts as well between these
two classes.
● There was increased migration from the villages to the cities in search of employment. More
people now lived in cities and worked in factories and this population was not connected to the
land.
● The urban areas now became the centers of production and were no more limited to being the
center for trade and administration. A downside of this process was the crowding in cities,
which led to problems of housing and sanitation.
Impact on Women
● The Industrial Revolution marked a dramatic change for women as many of them entered the
workforce for the first time. Women had to compete with men for jobs.
● Female factory workers often made only one-third as much as men. Women began leading
reforms to change this. As women became more involved in politics, some began to demand
suffrage, the right to vote.

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● By 1918, Great Britain granted women the right to vote. The United States granted women
suffrage with the passing of the 19th amendment in 1920.
Impact on environment
● With relatively few exceptions, the world’s modern environmental problems began or were
greatly exacerbated by the Industrial Revolution.
● To fuel the factories and to sustain the output of each and every type of manufactured goods,
natural resources (water, trees, soil, rocks and minerals, wild and domesticated animals, etc.)
were transformed, which reduced the planet’s stock of valuable natural capital.
● The global challenges of widespread water and air pollution, reductions in biodiversity,
destruction of wildlife habitat, and even global warming can be traced back to this moment in
human history.
● As the world’s human population continues to grow and more and more people strive for the
material benefits promised by the Industrial Revolution, more and more of Earth’s resources
are appropriated for human use, leaving a dwindling stock for the plants and animals upon
whose ecosystem services (clean air, clean water, etc.) the biosphere depends.
Impact on Urbanization
● Industrialisation has historically led to urbanization by creating economic growth and job
opportunities that draw people to cities.
● Urbanization typically begins when a factory or multiple factories are established within a
region, thus creating a high demand for factory labor.
● Other businesses such as building manufacturers, retailers, and service providers then follow the
factories to meet the product demands of the workers.
● This creates even more jobs and demands for housing, thus establishing an urban area.
Impact on Democracy
● The Industrial Revolution increased the penetration of democracy in England.
● The industrial revolution was the force behind this New Imperialism, as it created not only the
need for Europe to expand, but the power to successfully take and profitably maintain so many
colonies overseas.
● The industrial revolution created the need for Europe to take over colonies around the world.

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Impact on culture
● The Industrial Revolution changed the cultural tradition of Britain. Changes in socio - economic
condition influenced the cultural aspects of society as well.
● Industrialisation promoted material culture. Thus there was a decline in the emotional
aspects of humans.
● There started a stiff competition for making more and more money. The workers were exploited
by the capitalists for increasing profit. Due to unregulated migration the condition of the cities
deteriorated.
● It became dirty and crowded. The effects of Industrialisation on British life are portrayed by
famous novelists like Thomas Hardy and D.H. Lawrence.
Advantage of Industrial Revolution

● Center of economic life shifted from the villages to cities and towns where the factories were
situated.
● Urban (cities) and rural (villages) life became dependent upon one another. Isolated life of
self-sufficient villages came to an end.
● Men became free to develop their capabilities in areas other than farming.
● It brought countries and people together. There was an international awareness among people
because developments in one country influenced the others
● The aristocracy and nobility with their feudal ideas were replaced by the newly rich middle
class capitalists (bourgeoisie) who also became politically powerful.
● Better transport, communications and mechanized goods made life comfortable for man.
Disadvantages of Industrial Revolution

● Cities became crowded, smoky, with problems of slums, housing, sanitation, accidents and
epidemics.
● Women and child labour was badly exploited.
● Workers suffered from long working hours, low wages, and unemployment, unsafe conditions
of work, with no rights to vote strike or form trade unions.
● Society became divided into rich and poor, the 'Haves' and the 'Have-Nots'.
● It led to wars of imperialism and colonization.
● Environmental pollution became an emerging global problem.
Summary
“The industrial revolution thus brought about an all-round change in the socio, economic and
political dimensions of the world, leading to further progress in human life.”

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AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Introduction and background
● The American Revolution, also known as American war of independence, stands as one of the
significant landmarks in the history of the modern world as it was the world's first anti-colonial
struggle.
● As a result of this revolution, a new nation-the United States of America-was born and the
Americans were able to escape from the clutches of British imperialism.
● The American continent was discovered in the last decade of the 15th century. By the 16th
century European countries began to make settlements there. In North America, colonies were
developed by France, Holland, Spain and England.
● After the end of the Seven Years War by the second treaty of Paris (1763), England drove out
France from the eastern part of the continent and Canada.
● Earlier, England took New Netherlands from the Dutch and named it New York. By the middle of
the 18th century, there were 13 English colonies along the Atlantic coast.
● Landless peasants, traders, people seeking religious freedom and profiteers settled there.
● The 13 colonies that eventually became the United States were - New Hampshire, Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

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● They varied in size and were multicultural. Majority of the population consisted of independent
farmers. Infant industries developed in farm products like wool, flax and leather.
● In the north, fishing and shipbuilding industries were set up while in the south indulged in
plantations of tobacco and cotton.These plantations sustained slaves from Africa.
● Although these colonies were under the control of the British crown, they exercised
considerable autonomy in internal matters.
● Each colony had a local assembly elected by qualified voters and headed by a governor.
Though the colonists enjoyed considerable political autonomy, in economic matters they were
subject to various British mercantilist restrictions.
● Initially these restrictions were quite loose, but after 1763 the British monarch George III
assisted by his ministers Grenville and Townshend tightened these controls.
Reasons for American resentments against the British

● While the British Mercantilism or Mercantile capitalism created an environment of resentment
among the White
● Americans, the Seven Year War created conditions, which became the immediate trigger for
the American Revolution.
The Seven Year War laid the ground for the American Revolution (1765-83).
Economic issue –
● In one sense the American Revolution was a conflict between British Mercantilism and
American capitalism.
● As an economic ideology, mercantilism tries to subordinate the colonial economy to the
economic interest of the metropolitan state. Under its influence following step were taken:
○ The Navigation act of 1651 was introduced to promote the interest of the shipping
industry of Britain at the cost of the American shipping industry.
● As an economic ideology, mercantilism tries to subordinate the colonial economy to the
economic interest of the metropolitan state. Under its influence following step were taken:
○ Americans were compelled to sell three important products - Rice, Tobacco and Cotton
only to the British merchants.
○ The British government consciously discouraged Industrialization in America, so that
America could work as the market for British products.

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American colonies were a Nation in making

● Status of American colonies was gradually rising but the British were not in position to recognize
such status.
● Once American intellectual and leader Benjamin Franklin’ give a hint to the British government
about the new identity of America but the British did not pay heed to it.
Class interest favored Revolution

● Merchants favoured revolution against Britain in the hope of economic freedom
● Smugglers favoured revolution as they were hoping for free movement in the Atlantic Ocean
after liberation.
● Political leaders advocated for revolution as they could manifest their bright future in
independent America.
● Students and intellectuals supported revolution as they were inspired by republican ideas.
● Tobacco growers of Virginia enthusiastically participated in the revolution as the British had
restricted their westward expansion.
Constitutional Issue
● Between Britain and the American colony even constitutional issues were involved.
● The British gave primacy to Parliamentary supremacy (Sovereignty) and they try to emphasis
that all other institutions were subordinated to the British Parliament
● American (Judicial Supremacy) placed the natural right of man above all the laws including
Parliamentary laws.
No Representation in British Parliament

● The British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act in 1765, which imposed stamp taxes on all
business transactions in the British colonies in the USA.
● Since the British Parliament had no American representation, the American leaders opposed the
right of Britain to levy any taxes on them.
● In the Massachusetts Assembly, the leaders of all 13 colonies gathered and adopted the slogan
of “No Taxation without Representation”.
● The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was a protest against the Tea tax.

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Recovery of (Seven Year) War Expenditure

● The Seven Year War had cost a lot of money to Britain. When they decided to make up for the
costs of war by taxing the people in British colonies in North America, the latter opposed it.
Role of Enlightenment Thinkers

● Intellectual class also played a decisive role. It helped in spreading the ideas of injustice and
unfairness and the need to dislodge British hegemony.
● Thomas Paine published pamphlets titled ‘Common Sense’ which described economic
exploitation of America and gave solutions in the form of independence.
● Benjamin Franklin established ‘Philosophical Society of America’ with the objective of
awakening the Americans and many centers were established.
● Henry Patrick started a propaganda provoking people saying ‘give me death or independence’.
Immediate factor
● Differences already existed between Britain and American colonies but it reached up to breaking
point when having been encouraged by over ambitious King George III. The different British
ministries started to intervene in the economic matters of American colonies.
● It was the government of Grenville (Britain PM in 1763) who started to examine the American
account and to augment the British income in America. He imposed several taxes like Stamp
Act, Sugar Act etc. and also tried to enforce the navigation act forcefully.
Events of the revolution

● The Americans initially were not looking for complete independence but for an independent
relationship between the colonies and the mother country. But as events unfolded, it finally
returned out to be a war of independence. Major events in chronological order were as follows:

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The Massachusetts Assembly (1765)

● Leaders of all the colonies assembled in the colony of Massachusetts to discuss their common
problems. They insisted on 'No taxation without representation' and threatened to stop the
import of British goods.
● This threat led to the repeal of the Stamp Act.
● But the British parliament made it a point that it's their right to levy taxes by taxing consumer
goods coming into colonies like paper, glass, tea and paint.
● Townshend Act 1767- taxing consumer goods coming into colonies like paper, glass, tea and
paint.
● Again, the colonists opposed by stressing that it is only their local assemblies which had the right
to raise money via taxes from them and in protest the Americans cut down the English imports
by one-half.
● The English again back tracked but to assert their right to levy taxes, didn't abolish the tax
on tea.
The Boston Tea Party (1773)

● It gets its name from the place this event took place in, Boston. Colonies refused to unload the
tea coming in English ships. In Boston, when the governor ordered unloading of a ship, a group
of citizens led by Samuel Adams, boarded the ship dressed as American Indians and dumped the
tea crates into the water.
● This incident is known as 'Boston tea party'. The government in England ordered the closure of
the port for all trade, thus further fanning the resentment.
The Philadelphia Congress and the Declaration of Independence

● All the colonies (except Georgia), sent delegates to the first continental congress(1st
Philadelphia) held in Philadelphia in September 1774.
● This congress appealed to the British king to remove restrictions on industries and trade and
not to impose any tax without their consent.
● It also organized a continental association and decided to start military - preparations. The
British king, taking their action as a mutiny, ordered the sending of British troops to America.
● The colonists too planned for military defence with local troops. The first clash occurred in
Massachusetts in 1775.

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● After the initial skirmishes the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia (2nd
Philadelphia ) and chose George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the American
forces.
● It again reiterated its demand to the British king But the British decision to continue fighting led
continental congress to adopt the “Declaration of Independence” on 4 July 1776, it was drafted
by Thomas Jefferson.
Declaration of Independence
● The declaration asserted the equality of all men and held that the people are the source of
authority.
● It affirmed people’s right to set up their own government. Up to the declaration of independence
the colonists had been fighting for their rights as Englishmen. But after the declaration in 1776
they fought for their right to be an independent nation.
● The declaration of Independence marked the formal beginning of the American war of
Independence that was to last more than six years with fighting in every colony.
The War of Independence

● However further the Americans faced several defeats until France came to their help in 1778
after concluding a Treaty of alliance. France declared war against England and in 1779, Spain
entered the fray as an ally of France.
● Finally, in decisive battle the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at New York town in 1781.
● The revolutionary war was over with the “Treaty of Paris -1783” & recognition of American
Independence.
Second Treaty of Paris 1783

It ended the American War of Independence. Some of its important clauses were:
● Perpetual Peace between USA and Britain
● All US Colonies were recognized as free, sovereign and independent states, with Britain giving
up all claims on government, property and territory.
● The US would give back confiscated lands of Loyalists.
● Spain signed a separate treaty with Britain and it got back Florida (lost to Britain after the 1st
treaty of Paris, 1763)

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Causes of American Success

Though British forces were stronger than the American side led by George Washington, the British were
defeated. The American success in the revolutionary war was due to a variety of factors:
● From the beginning, the British authorities did not attach much importance to the
revolutionary effort of the Americans and they mainly relied on mercenary soldiers to suppress
them.
● The remoteness of the American continent and British ignorance of American geography also
contributed to the success of the Americans.
● The British authorities failed to rally the loyalist Americans.
● The fierce spirit of liberty drove the Americans to success.
● The military success owed its origin to the extraordinary military leadership of George
Washington.
● The international situation also helped the American revolutionaries.
Significance of the American Revolution

● Decline of hereditary monarchy and establishment of democracy.
● The colonies became independent.
● There was development of agriculture where large estates were fragmented into small pieces
and handed over to the people of lower and middle classes.
● American industries got rid of the mercantilist restrictions imposed by England and enabled the
development of their industries and economy.
● It brought social and intellectual awakening among the people of Europe and sowed the seeds
of revolution, especially in France.
● End of the old system with minimized state interference in the country’s economy and boosted
the growth of capitalism in American colonies. The Government encouraged and supported
private enterprises.
● The newly drafted Constitution was established in America and the Federal system was adopted
which separated powers between the Federal and the State governments.
● The new Constitution endowed the Americans with significant rights such as the freedom of
speech, press and religion, justice etc.
● It marked the growth of America’s navigation system as the ports of the colonies were opened
for world trade and was promoted by private navigation.

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● It rejuvenated her social, religious, and cultural organizations. There emerged a great demand for
public schools and the education of the common people.
● It instilled a new vigor into the anti colonial revolutionaries in Europe, Ireland, India etc.
● The significance of the American Revolution is enshrined in the Declaration of Independence
drafted before the revolution on 4 July 1776. It not only led to the declaration of freedom of a
nation but prepared the ground for political philosophy and revolutionary ideas in European
history in the 19th century. It marked the beginning of a new epoch which formed the basis for a
progressive change in the world as a whole.

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CIVIL WAR
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (1861 – 1865)
● The American Civil War (1861-1865) was one of the bitterest civil wars which were fought
between the northern states of America, known as the Union, and the Southern States of
America, known as the Confederates.
● Hardly did any destructive events produce such a constructive impact as the American Civil
war did. If the American Revolution made the USA an independent Nation, American civil war
made the USA a modern Nation. After the civil war the United States of America was more
economically and culturally unified.
Background
● When America won Independence from England in 1776, there were 13 colonies which
formed a federal government.
● Colonies expanded from east coast to west forming 34 states by 1861.
● The American civil war is the biggest conflict in the history of America. Around 3000 battles
were fought. About 7 lakh Americans died. More than 15 lakhs were injured and displaced.
● The American civil war was the biggest challenge to the integration of America.
● There were differences between states in the north and states in the south – which resulted in
the American Civil War.

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Cause behind the Civil War

● The difference in the attitude towards slavery can be seen as the root cause of the American
Civil War. This had rippling effects in the economic and political sphere too. The factors which
led to the outbreak of the Civil War in America can be consolidated as below.
Slavery Issue
● At the heart of the divide between the North and
the South was slavery. The South relied on slavery
for labor to work the fields.
● Many people in the North believed that slavery
was wrong and evil. These people were called
abolitionists. They wanted slavery to be illegal
throughout the United States.
● Abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass, John Brown, Harriet Tubman, and Harriet Beecher
Stowe began to convince more and more people of the evil of slavery. This made wealthy
landowners in the South fearful that their way of life would come to an end.
Economic Issue
● In northern American states, Industrialization started but slavery system was antithetical to the
industrial economy as a demand of the industrial economy was movement of free labor.

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● On the other hand, in southern states, plantation agriculture was the backbone of an
economy. This plantation agriculture could not survive without the slave labor that’s why
southern states widely supported the slavery system.
Constitutional Issue
● It was the time the American federation was making a westward expansion under its famous
slogan of ‘Manifest Destiny’. But whenever region was inducted into the Union as the new state,
fresh controversy started between northern states and southern states, whatever this region
concern, should be inducted as a ‘free state’ or a ‘slave state’
● This question was very important because of the fact that in a slave state, the number of slaves
had to be counted that indicates the number of representation in the House of
Representative.
● The northern free states were worried about the fact that, if more or more regions would be
inducted as slave states, the slave states would form a majority in the House of
Representative.
Missouri Compromise (1820)

● With westward expansion an issue emerged whether state to be admitted as Slave state or Free
state.
● In case of Missouri,the conflict starts between South and North state.
● Finally reached to compromise.

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● Missouri admitted as Slave state.

● All future states West of Missouri to be admitted as Free state for next 30 years.
● This provision held for 34 years, until it was repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. In 1857,
the Supreme Court ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional.
● At every occasion of integration of the new region, slave state persistently pressurizes the
federation to induct the region as slave state.
● Case of Texas 1848- Texas applied for slave state,huge protest from Northern side.But finally
admitted as Slave state.
● Case of California 1850- California applied for Free state,huge opposition from Southern
States.Finally California admitted as Free State.With this entry Balance of Power shifted in favor of
Northern States.
Bleeding Kansas
● The first fighting over the slavery issue took place in Kansas.
● In 1854, the government passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act allowing the residents of Kansas to
vote on whether they would be a slave state or a free state.
● The region was flooded with supporters from both sides. They fought over the issue for years.
Several people were killed in small skirmishes giving the confrontation the name Bleeding
Kansas. Eventually Kansas entered the Union as a free state in 1861.
Fear of reforms by Abraham Lincoln and Republican party

● Northern protested Kansas-Nebraska Act
● Formation of new Political party in north i.e Republican party in 1854.
● It has 2 programmes- Resist the extension of slavery and to pursue the policy of maintaining
high tariff.
● The final straw for the South was the election of Abraham Lincoln to President of the United
States.
● Abraham Lincoln was a member of Republican Party. He managed to get elected without even
being on the ballot in ten of the southern states.
● The southern states felt that Lincoln was against slavery and also against the South.

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Immediate Causes
● Firstly, the victory of Lincoln was one of the immediate causes of the Civil War.
● In the Presidential election of 1860, the Republican Party nominated Abraham Lincoln as its
candidate. Abraham Lincoln had an objective to regard slavery as an evil in society and
abolish it anyhow.
● The disunity of the opposing Democrats, led by Stephen A. Douglas, helped the Republican Party
to win the election of 1860.
● Secondly, the secession of the Southern states served as another immediate cause of the
war. The secession from the Union, if Lincoln were elected, was a foregone conclusion.
● Once the election results were certain, a specially summoned South Carolina convention
declared 'that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the
name of the "United States of America" is hereby dissolved'.
● Other southern states promptly followed South Carolina's example, and on 8 February 1861, they
formed the Confederate States of America under the leadership of Jefferson Davis.
Contribution of Abraham Lincoln

● In 1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the USA as a Republican Candidate.
● Southern states secede from the Union and beginning of civil war.

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● The main aim of Lincoln was to save Union,slavery was not most important issue for him during
civil war .Lincoln statement suggested the same-If I could save the Union without freeing any
slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could
save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that."
● Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation 1863, which freed the slaves in the rebellious
Southern states. This set the precedent for ultimately freeing the slaves through the 13th
Amendment after Lincoln's death.
● Abraham Lincoln not simply promoted American Capitalism and republican ideas through
abolition of slavery but also, he successfully preserved the Union.
● Lincoln also expanded the role of the federal government in his efforts to keep the union
together.
● After the civil war, citizens of all states of the USA were granted citizenship and equal rights.
● It was Abraham Lincoln who gave the famous principle of democracy – i.e. government of the
people, by the people and for the people.
Significance/impact of the American Civil War

● The war put an end to the institution of slavery (13th amendment).
● The war abolished the secession of states for all times to come.
● In the economic sphere, the war led to the growth of large scale manufacturing industries.
● More area came under cultivation – particularly in the western regions of North America.
● Use of more machines – which enhanced production, so the employment opportunities.

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● Regulation of the banking system (National Banking Act) and use of paper currency
contributed to the growth of the nationwide business.
● New weapons were used.
● Improvement in transport and communication to integrate North & South.Example- Great
trans-continental railway.
● Inspiration to other countries to abolish the evil practice of the slavery.
● While the Revolution of 1776-1783 created the United States, the Civil War of 1861-1865
determined what kind of nation it would be.

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RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Introduction
● The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social revolution across the territory of the
Russian Empire, commencing with the abolition of the monarchy in 1917 and concluding in
1923 with the Bolshevik establishment of the Soviet Union at the end of the Civil War.
● The Russian Revolution was a series of revolutions in the early 20th century that ultimately
resulted in the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of a communist government.
● The Russian Revolution dramatically changed Russia from an autocracy to a communist system
of government. The Revolution started during World War I, and eventually the Soviet Union was
formed.
● The Russian Revolution was, while a huge economic, social, and political change, the result of a
number of different factors that built up over time, including economic, military, and political
circumstances.
Conditions In Russia Before The Revolution

Social Conditions
● The Russian Society was divided into two classes before the Revolution, i.e. the rich and the
poor.
● The nobles, feudal lords and the rich belonged to the rich class. The peasants, laborers and serfs
belonged to the poor class. The vast majority of Russia’s people were agriculturists.

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● About 85 percent of the Russian empire’s population earned their living from agriculture.
However, most of the peasants only cultivated the land.
● The land mainly belonged to the Church and the nobility. In Russia, peasants wanted the lands
of the nobles to be given to them. They frequently refused to pay land rent.
● Workers were divided on the basis of their occupation. They mainly migrated to cities for
employment in factories.
Economic Condition
● The First World War (1914-18) had a disastrous impact on the economy of Russia. While
retreating from various battlefields, the Russian army destroyed crops and buildings in the
country to prevent the enemy from using them as resources.
● The destruction of crops and buildings added over 3 million refugees in Russia. People in Russia
began to question their country’s participation in the war.
● Industrial production declined in Russia as able-bodied men were sent to the warfront to fight
in the First World War.
● Russia was going through a bad period economically. Prices of essential goods rise while real
wages decreased by 20% leading to the famous St. Petersburg strike.
Political Condition
● Political parties were illegal before 1914.
● The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who respected
Marx’s ideas. In 1903, this party was divided into two groups - Mensheviks and Bolsheviks.

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● The Bolsheviks, who were in majority, were led by Lenin who is regarded as the greatest
thinker on socialism after Marx.
CAUSES
Dissatisfaction with the Tsar
● Nicholas II inherited a country with severe problems, largely
unprepared for a newly industrializing world.
● Nicholas II believed in the power of the Russian autocracy;
however, he was unable to maintain the traditional power of the
Tsar during his reign.
● As a young man, he was largely interested in his military career,
rather than the political operations of the government.
● In 1905, Nicholas faced revolution in Russia for the first time.
● The people marched peacefully, heading toward the Winter
Palace in St. Petersburg, but were, for an unknown reason, fired
upon by Russian troops.
● Several hundred of the peasants died that day.The day was soon dubbed Bloody Sunday.
● Widespread general strikes followed, and Nicholas II made a number of concessions to appease
the rebels.
● His decisions during World War I were almost all remarkably bad. He failed to choose skilled
leaders for his military, and made poor strategic decisions throughout the war.
● Russia suffered horrific military losses, costing both significant resources and massive numbers of
human lives.
● When Nicholas II chose to take direct control of the army as commander-in-chief, he removed
himself from a political role. He was, however, no better a commander than a Tsar. His choices
throughout the war years condemned him to his final end.
Russian Revolution of 1905

● Russia industrialized much later than Western Europe and the United States. When it finally did,
around the turn of the 20th century, it brought with it immense social and political changes.

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● The public unrest reached its peak in 1905. This was because the Russo-Japanese war (1904-05)
had led to further degradation of the Russian economy.
● Between 1890 and 1910, for example, the population of major Russian cities such as St.
Petersburg and Moscow nearly doubled, resulting in overcrowding and destitute living
conditions for a new class of Russian industrial workers.
● A population boom at the end of the 19th century, a harsh growing season due to Russia’s
northern climate, and a series of costly wars starting with the Crimean War (1854-1856) – meant
frequent food shortages across the vast empire.
● Large protests by Russian workers against the monarchy led to the Bloody Sunday massacre of
1905. Hundreds of unarmed protesters were killed or wounded by the czar’s troops.
● The massacre sparked the Russian revolution of 1905, during which angry workers responded
with a series of crippling strikes throughout the country
The revolution of 1905 failed due to following reasons

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October Manifesto (1905):

The concessions by the Czar took the form of a promise named October Manifesto (1905) declaring the
future intent of the Emperor:
● Czar promised to establish an elected Parliament called Duma in Russian.
● He promised a pay hike to the workers and an improvement in the working conditions at
factories.
● He promised cancellation of redemption payments by former Serfs.
● He promised greater freedom to the press.
● He promised a genuine democracy where there would be an important role of the Duma in
governance of the country.
Economic Collapse
● By the time of the Revolution, Russia was in a state of economic collapse, driven by the costs of
war and poor administration and management.
● As with other economic struggles, the greatest burden of this fell on the shoulders of the poor
Russians including both the peasants and the urban working poor.
● The addition of the Ottoman Empire to the Central Powers of World War I in 1914 cut off
essential trade routes for Russia.
● This led to munitions(military weapons) shortages for the Russian army. Other countries,
including Germany, were able to produce adequate munitions, so Russia’s failure was the result
of inadequate organization, administration, and infrastructure.
● As with the munitions shortages, food shortages were less an issue of agricultural production,
and more an issue of poor management and administration.
● Small Russian farmers lacked modern equipment and still relied upon traditional farming
techniques, with lower production output. In addition, a population explosion in the second
half of the 19th century led to increased demands for food.
● Even so, in the early 20th century, Russia was the largest exporter of food in the world. People
simply couldn’t afford to buy food, or food was not reaching the cities. This led to additional
strife, and growing support for rebellion.

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Military Defeat in World War I

● Russia entered World War I relatively underdeveloped. While the country had taken significant
steps forward in the 20 years prior to the war, it was distinctly less industrialized than its allies.
● Russia’s navy had been decimated during a conflict with Japan in 1904 and 1905, as well as
internal strife.
● When World War I began in 1914, Tsar Nicholas II was surprisingly unprepared for the conflict.
● Nicholas’ poor leadership led to significant wartime failures in Russia. First, he appointed his
inexperienced cousin as commander-in-chief of the army, and then he planned an invasion of
East Prussia. Russia suffered a massive defeat at the Battle of Tannenberg. In total, some
150,000 troops were lost in this single battle.
● By the end of 1916, Russia’s already limited resources were severely depleted by the war. Food,
goods, and other essentials were scarce in Russian cities. Strikes and protests began in late
1916; however, the Tsarina failed to respond appropriately.
Rasputin and the Tsarina Alexandra

● In her husband’s absence, Tzarina Alexandra – an
unpopular woman of German ancestry – began firing
elected officials. During this time, her controversial advisor,
Grigory Rasputin, increased his influence over Russian
politics and the royal Romanov family.
● Russian nobles eager to end Rasputin’s influence murdered
him on December 30, 1916. By then, most Russians had lost
faith in the failed leadership of the Tsar.
● Government corruption was rampant, the Russian
economy remained backward and Nicholas repeatedly
dissolved the Duma, the toothless Russian parliament established after the 1905 revolution,
when it opposed his will.
● Moderates soon joined Russian radical elements in calling for an overthrow of the hapless czar.

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Timeline Of The Events
Revolutions of 1917
February Revolution/Menshevik revolution 1917

● The non-implementation of the October Manifesto (1905) was the reason for this revolution.
● In Russia, the February Revolution (known as such because of Russia’s use of the Julian calendar)
begins when riots and strikes over the scarcity of food erupt in Petrograd.
● One week later, centuries of czarist rule in Russia ended with the abdication of Nicholas II, and
Russia took a dramatic step closer toward communist revolution.

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Menshevik /Kerensky Revolution- Feb 1917

● Nicholas attempted to return to Petrograd, he was faced with railway strikes, and was greeted by
members of the military and Duma (Russia’s national parliament). He was forced to abdicate.
● A provisional Republic government replaced the autocratic government of the Tsar.
● However, the government did not immediately withdraw from the war. Food and fuel shortages
continued throughout much of Russia. As military defeats continued, along with long lists of the
war dead, negative feelings about the provisional government grew, paving the way for the
Revolution.
February Revolution 1917

● By 1917, most Russians had lost faith in the leadership ability of the czarist regime.
Government corruption was rampant, the Russian economy remained backward, and Nicholas
repeatedly dissolved the Duma, when it opposed his will.
● However, the immediate cause of the February Revolution – was Russia’s disastrous
involvement in World War I. Militarily, imperial Russia was no match for industrialized Germany,
and Russian casualties were greater than those sustained by any nation in any previous war.
● Meanwhile, the economy was hopelessly disrupted by the costly war effort, and moderates
joined Russian radical elements in calling for the overthrow of the czar.
● On March 8, 1917, demonstrators clamoring for bread took to the streets in the Russian capital of
Petrograd (now known as St. Petersburg). Supported by 90,000 men and women on strike, the
protesters clashed with police but refused to leave the streets.
● On March 11, the troops of the Petrograd army garrison were called out to quell the uprising.
In some encounters, regiments opened fire, killing demonstrators, but the protesters kept to the
streets, and the troops began to waver.
● On March 14, the Petrograd Soviet issued “Order No. 1,” which instructed Russian soldiers and
sailors to obey only those orders that did not conflict with the directives of the Soviet.
● The next day, March 15, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the throne in favor of his brother Michael,
whose refusal of the crown brought an end to the czarist autocracy.
● The new provincial government, tolerated by the Petrograd Soviet, hoped to salvage the
Russian war effort while ending the food shortage and many other domestic crises.
● Discontent among the masses like Peasants,Workers,Soldiers etc. and they want
Bread,Peace and Land(B.P.L).

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● Menshevik government failed to provide it,so it paved the way for another revolution.
October Revolution 1917

● It would prove a daunting task. Meanwhile, Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik revolutionary
party, left his exile in Switzerland and crossed German enemy lines to return home and take
control of the Russian Revolution.
● October Revolution also called Bolshevik Revolution, (Oct. 24 – 25 1917), the second and last
major phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, in which the Bolshevik Party seized power in
Russia, inaugurating the Soviet regime.
● In the October Revolution (November in the Gregorian calendar), the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir
Lenin, and the workers’ soviets overthrew the Russian Provisional Government in Petrograd.
● On the night of October 24, 1917, Bolshevik Red Guards began to take control of key points in
the Russian capital – railway stations, telegraph offices, and government buildings.
● The Bolsheviks appointed themselves as leaders of various government ministries and
seized control of the countryside, establishing the Cheka to quash dissent.
October Revolution 1917 & Communist government

● The October Revolution ended the phase of the revolution instigated in February, replacing
Russia’s short-lived provisional parliamentary government with government by soviets, local
councils elected by bodies of workers and peasants.
● To end Russia’s participation in the First World War, the Bolshevik leaders signed the Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918.

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● Soviet membership was initially freely elected, but many members of the Socialist
Revolutionary Party, anarchists, and other leftists created opposition to the Bolsheviks through
the soviets themselves.
● When it became clear that the Bolsheviks had little support outside of the industrialized areas of
Saint Petersburg and Moscow, they simply barred non-Bolsheviks from membership in the
soviets.
● The new government soon passed the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land, the latter of
which redistributed land and wealth to peasants throughout Russia.
● A coalition of anti-Bolshevik groups attempted to unseat the new government in the Russian
Civil War from 1918 to 1922.
● In fact, at this crucial moment Provisional Government ministers could find almost no one willing
to defend them.
● That night, Bolshevik Red Guards broke into the palace and arrested the ministers, bringing
the Provisional Government to an end.
Impact Of Revolution
Social
● Its policies laid the foundations of socialism in Russia.
● World war was not in the interest of people in any country, one of its first acts was to withdraw
from the world war 1 by signing the Brest Litovsk treaty even at the cost of losing some
territory to Germany.
● The new constitution guaranteed free medical care, free and equal education for all, an
unemployment allowance, equal access to culture and cultural advancement. Not all of this
was immediately available, but by making these a right for all, the new regime showed the
direction of its policy and commitment.
● Standard of life was not dependent on whether one could personally pay, because many
things did not have to be paid for.
● Women were not just considered equal, a lot of measures were taken to make their equal
participation in social and political life possible – maternity leave, public canteens, free crèches
at workplaces etc.

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Economic
● The Bolsheviks abolished private property in the means of production i.e. land, factories, and
banks, all of which were nationalized and now owned by the state and not by private owners.
● This means that they could not be used to exploit the labour of others and make private profit
anymore. Workers organizations had a greater say in the decision making processes.
● Through the land decree of November 1917 landlordism was abolished and land was given
over to peasants for hereditary use.
● Peasants could not sell or mortgage the land or use it to exploit the labour of others, but they
were masters of their land and enjoyed the full fruits of their labour and produce from the land.
● They did not have to depend on former landlords in any way, whose powers over rural
economy and society were demolished.
International/global level
● Russia became the first country to establish a communist state. Soon after it, communist
parties were formed in many countries.
● The Russian Revolution paved the way for the rise of communism as an influential political
belief system around the world.
● It set the stage for the rise of the Soviet Union as a world power that would go head-to-head
with the United States during the Cold War. The Bolsheviks encouraged colonial peoples to
follow their experiment.
● Many non-Russians from outside the USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the
East (1920) and the Bolshevik-founded Comintern, an international union of pro-Bolshevik
socialist parties.

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● Socialism became popular by the time of the outbreak of the Second World War.
● By the end of the twentieth century, the international reputation of the USSR as a socialist
country had declined though it was recognised that socialist ideals still enjoyed respect among
its people. But in each country the ideas of socialism were rethought in a number of ways.
Significance
● The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 opened up a fresh chapter in human civilization.
● The importance of this Revolution is no less than the French Revolution of 1789. The impact of
the French Revolution was confined to Europe, but the influence of the Bolshevik Revolution
was global.
● It encouraged the downtrodden and suffering people of the world to combine and fight for
freedom.
● The Russian Revolution of 1917 brought about
far-reaching social, economic and political changes
in Russia.
● It led to the birth of the USSR or the Union of the
Soviet Socialist Republic.
● For the first time in the history of the world, a socialist
state was created. Production and distribution were
hereafter controlled by the state. Private ownership
of the means of production and private profit making
were no more allowed. Land was taken away from the
landlords and redistributed among the peasants.
● The affairs of the Soviet Union were keenly observed
by the rest of the world as it was the first implementation of the philosophy preached by Karl
Marx.
● The Bolshevik Revolution made possible the dream of the dictatorship of the proletariat a
reality.
● In time, the Bolshevik Revolution came to exert a far-reaching global impact. Germany, Italy,
England, France, Eastern Europe, Asia, and Latin America were influenced indirectly by the
Bolshevik Revolution although the degree of influence varied from place to place.

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● The writings and speeches of Marx and Lenin were translated into various languages of the
world.
● Under the forceful impact of Marxian-Leninism, communist parties were founded in different
parts of the world.
● Through the Comintern, the Russian Revolution helped to strengthen the anti-colonial
nationalist movements in different countries of Asia. For example, the Indian nationalist
struggle derived great stimulus from the Bolshevik message.
● In a long term sense, it indirectly contributed to the growth of Fascism in Europe and the
beginning of the Cold War between Russia and the United States in the post – Second World
War period.
Communist International (Third International Or Comintern)

● In 1919, two years after forming the Soviet government in Russia, Lenin established the
headquarters of the Third (Communist) International in Moscow. The Communist
International (Comintern) is known as the Third because two other international socialist
organizations of workers had previously been set up.
● These were the First (Workers) Inter-national, organized in 1864 by Friedrich Engels,
collaborator of Karl Marx. The Second (Socialist) International, formed in 1889 with
headquarters in Brussels, Belgium.
● Before it was dissolved in May 1943, the Third International was composed of representatives of
communist parties, in over 50 countries.
● Theoretically, the Russian Communist Party was only one of these 58 communist parties.
Actually, however, the Russian Communists played a dominant role in the Third International
from the day it was organized.
● This was partly due to the fact that the Third International had its headquarters in Moscow.
But most of all it was because the Russian Communist Party was the only one which, since 1919,
had succeeded in establishing and maintaining political control of a country – and this country a
great power.
● The proclaimed objective of the Third International, as set forth in its. Program, was to replace
world capitalist economy by a world system of communism through force and violence if
need be.

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CHINESE REVOLUTION
CHINESE REVOLUTION
● The Chinese revolution occurred in 2 phases.
● The first revolution happened in 1911 with overthrow of Qing dynasty.
● The second phase started with Chinese Civil War which started in 1927 and ended with
establishment of Communist China in 1949.
● Two big groups in China, the Nationalist Party or Kuomintang (KMT), and the Communist
Party of China (CPC), began to fight each other. They wanted to control China and make their
own rules.
CHINESE REVOLUTION (First Phase)

● In China, a number of revolutionary organizations emerged which later merged to form Chinese
Revolutionary League led by Dr Sun Yat Sen who played a leading role in Chinese nationalist
awakening. This league was guided by 3 principles – democracy, nationalism and socialism.
● They demanded end of Manchu/Qing Dynasty which had been ruling since 17th century.
Revolution swept Southern China in 1911 and on 1st January 1912, China was declared
republic with headquarters at Nanjing and Dr Sun Yat Sen as president.
● In Northern China also some steps were taken to introduce constitutional monarchy with
General Yuan Shi Kai as prime minister. Government of two areas disagreed on several issues
and a compromise was reached under which Manchu rulers abdicated the throne. Yuan Shi Kai
was made president and he harbored ambitions of becoming emperor and was also backed by
foreign powers.
● In the meantime, Dr Sun Yat Sen formed Kuomintang (Guomindang) or National Party and
gave a call for ‘second revolution’. Yuan was able to suppress Kuomintang and Dr Sun Yat
Sen was sent into exile.
● On death of Yuan in 1916, China came into control of regional warlords with foreign aids.
When First World War ended, Chinese national and revolutionary movement entered a new
phase.
The overthrow of the Manchu dynasty

● After the Manchu Empire was overthrown in 1911, China had a power vacuum.

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● The country’s relationship with the West, unfair treaties, and the “extraterritoriality” brought
on by the Opium Wars were still problems that the new administration had to deal with.
● The problem of foreign ownership of the railroads was one of the causes of the revolution.
● With Britain, the US, France, and Germany, a new agreement was being drafted in which they
would have authority over the huge spaces between them.
● This discovery resulted in the Manchu’s deposition, infuriating many of the Chinese
population.
Rule of Yuan Shikai

● Yuan Shikai was the title of the late Qing dynasty’s commander.
● After Japan defeated China in the 1894–1895 war, he strengthened China’s military might.
● In 1912, he was chosen to be the first president of China.
● After that, he increased his power instead of allowing democracy and reinstated the emperor’s
control.
● However, there was growing resentment against the rule of Yuan Shikai among Chinese
citizens.
● He lost his position as a monarch due to his waning popularity.
● Thus, the rule of Yuan Shikai also played a role in the Chinese Civil War.
2nd Phase- Origin of the Chinese Civil War

● In many ways, the Shanghai Massacre
and the dissolution of the First United
Front in 1927 marked the beginning
of the Chinese Civil War. However,
most people agree that most of the
Chinese Civil War occurred between late
1945 and October 1949.
Outbreak of the Chinese Civil War

● In July 1926, Chiang-Kai-Shek
initiated the Northern Expedition, a
year-long campaign against northern
forces, uniting most of China under one
rule.

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● The new capital was Nanking, where Chiang-Kai-Shek resided.

● Initially, the Kuomintang and the communists worked together, but Chiang grew wary of
significant societal changes and distanced himself from the communists.
● In 1927, Chiang's troops ousted communists from major cities, but Mao Tse-tung persevered,
continuing his fight in Kiangsi.
● When Chiang's forces attacked Mao's group in 1934, surviving communists relocated about
(Long March)6000 miles away to northern Shensi.
● In the 1930s, Chiang became the primary leader of the new China, although he relied on Western
support and faced ongoing poverty issues.
● The conflict between the communists and the Kuomintang persisted. Both also had to
contend with the formidable Japanese Empire, leading to the most brutal phase of the Chinese
Civil War.
Second Sino-Japanese War

● In 1934, the Japanese took over a region in China called Manchuria. They set up a fake
government there, Manchukuo, to help them take over the rest of China. Chiang, the leader of
China, saw the Japanese as a threat. But he thought the Chinese communists were even
scarier.
● Despite the Japanese attack on eastern China in 1937, Chiang continued fighting the
communists, while Japanese forces easily overpowered Chinese defenders in the north and along
the coast.
● Both the Chinese government and the communists faced the common enemy, the Japanese,
but their collaboration was not a genuine partnership.
● While the government confronted the Japanese directly, the communists employed cunning
guerrilla tactics, causing the government to bear the brunt of Japanese attacks and suffer heavy
losses.
● Even during World War II, they continued vying for territory while fighting the Japanese, despite
advice from the United States and the Soviet Union to unite against Japan.
● The communists fared better in the Second Sino-Japanese War, gaining support through their
guerrilla tactics in occupied areas, although Chiang's forces bore the brunt of the fighting.
● In 1944, Japan's Operation Ichi-Go significantly weakened Chiang's forces, while the
communists suffered fewer casualties due to their guerrilla tactics.

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● By the war's end, the Red Army, the communist military, had swelled to over 1.3 million
soldiers, with an additional 2.6 million volunteers and control over areas inhabited by about a
hundred million people.
End of the Chinese Civil War

● The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalists agreed to peace talks and an
unsuccessful ceasefire after Japan’s surrender in August 1945. The two were at odds once more
about who would rule China beginning in 1946.
● With the CCP’s conquest of Beijing, where its leader Mao Zedong proclaimed the People’s
Republic of China(PRC), the Chinese Civil War ended. Generalissimo Jiang Jieshi, a nationalist,
was forced to flee to Taiwan, where he set up a replacement government known as the Republic
of China (ROC).
Causes of the Chinese Civil War Long-Term Causes

Socio-economic factors of the Chinese Civil War
● China's population grew quickly around the turn of the century, but resource output lagged.
Finally, the result was a financial catastrophe. In the end, this sparked the Chinese Civil War.
● The Chinese Revolution was another factor that led to the Chinese Civil War.
● Political weakness and the influence of foreign powers
● There was political turmoil in China between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the
Kuomintang (KMT).
● This aggravated the power struggle between the two factions, ultimately leading to the Chinese
Civil War.
● Also, foreign powers like the USSR, the USA, and the West were influenced by growing
sentiments of nationalism, liberty, and equality. All these factors further aggravated the
opposition of the Nationalist Government in Wuhan in 1927 by the Communist Party.
● Hence, Political Weakness combined with the influence of Foreign Powers played a major role in
the Chinese Civil War.

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Short-Term Causes Of the Chinese Civil War

Rise of the Warlords 1916 – 28
● The death of Yuan Shikai contributed to a rise in the strife between various factions in China.
● Strong warlords from the king’s army rose to become regional leaders without any centralized
supervision.
● The Western nations negotiated their terms with these warlords to maintain their sphere of
influence in the region.
● Some just had rudimentary governments, while others frequently funded conflicts between
tribes or areas.
May Fourth Movement

● The May Fourth Movement, which started in 1919, led to the Chinese Civil War.
● Under the May Fourth Movement, two political demonstrations were started as an opposition to
the warlords and against the influence of foreign powers in China.
● The students carried out a mass struggle or demonstration against the warlords, the
Japanese foreign influence, and also against the traditional Japanese culture.
Communists and nationalists

● Some Chinese people believed it best to avoid copying Western models due to the humiliation
caused by the Treaty of Versailles. Marxism-Leninism, sometimes known as communism, was
seen as a viable alternative.
● Many reasons, like the rise of nationalism in neighboring countries like Japan and the
worsening socio-economic conditions of the citizens of China, influenced the rise of Chinese
nationalism.
● These include the growing resentment of the National Government among the citizens of
China, the protests and demonstrations led by the Communists against the ruling government,
and the foreign influence in countries such as Japan, where the sentiments of nationalism were
on the rise.
● In addition to having to pay compensation after attacking China in the First Sino-Japanese
War (1894–1895), Japan also acquired control of or increased its influence over Korea,
Manchuria, Taiwan, and the Liaodong Peninsula.

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● This further aggravated the nationalist sentiments against the influence of foreign powers like
Japan, which tried to gain control of the Chinese mainland.
● Formation of Chinese Communist Party(CCP) in July 1921.
The First United Front 1921 (KMT and CCP)

● 1923-The First United Front was founded to confront the warlords and bring the nation
together. Sun-Yat-Sen consented to the partnership with the Chinese Communist Party(CCP)
since the USSR supported the Kuomintang & CCP.
● However, after Sun passed away in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek took over, and the KMT’s northern
mission succeeded. The collaboration started to work against them.
● Chiang Kai-shek concluded that since there was disagreement on both sides, the CCP was no
longer required.
● The KMT attack on the Communists. killed 15,000 during a 1927 .
Reasons for Victory of Communist

● The triumph of the Communists over the Nationalists is widely regarded as one of the most
remarkable insurgent victories of the 20th century.
● Historians and political scientists attribute this success to various factors, including the
Communist Party's adeptness at mobilizing mass support and the shortcomings of the
Nationalist government.
● The Nationalist government, by 1945, had been severely weakened by the war with Japan,
resulting in poor governance
● Conversely, the Communists maintained their momentum by implementing effective land reform
programs, which garnered significant support from the rural population.
● This played a pivotal role in the Communists' ultimate victory, with millions of peasants
benefiting from these reforms either joining the People's Liberation Army or contributing to
its logistical networks.
● Additionally, international factors came into play, with strong initial American support for the
Nationalists eventually waning due to the failure of the Marshall Mission and, notably, the
pervasive corruption within the KMT.

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Mao Zedong’s Role in the Chinese Civil War

● Leadership and Strategy:
○ Mao's military and strategic leadership played a crucial role in the Chinese Communist
forces' victories during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalists (Kuomintang).
○ His military doctrines, including guerrilla warfare tactics and the concept of "people's
war," were instrumental in the success of the Red Army.
● The Long March:
○ Mao's leadership during the Long March (1934-1935) helped preserve the CCP's forces as
they retreated from Nationalist attacks. The arduous journey became a symbol of
resilience and endurance.
● United Front Against Japan:
○ Mao played a key role in forming a temporary alliance between the Nationalists and
Communists to resist Japanese aggression during the Second Sino-Japanese War
(1937-1945).
○ The collaboration against a common enemy laid the groundwork for the post-war
resumption of the Chinese Civil War.
● Establishment of the People's Republic of China:
○ Mao's vision for a socialist China guided the CCP's policies during the final stages of the
Chinese Civil War, leading to the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on
October 1, 1949.
● He became the founding leader of the PRC, serving as its Chairman until his death in 1976.
● Land Reforms and Social Transformation:
○ Mao initiated land reforms to redistribute land from landlords to peasants, addressing
issues of rural inequality and winning support from the agrarian population.
○ Social and economic transformations, including collectivization and the establishment of
communes, aimed at creating a more egalitarian society.
Aftermath of Chinese Civil War

Social Conditions
● Mao, a Chinese leader, said that three big problems were like giant mountains pressing on
people. These problems were called feudalism, imperialism, and bureaucratic capitalism.

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● Feudalism made it hard for women in the countryside to do what they wanted, but the CCP, a
political group, wanted to stop that.
● The CCP believed that women should have more freedom. This was a big part of their beliefs.
● The CCP made new laws to help women. Now, women could own land and leave husbands who
hurt them.
Political Conditions
● Before the fight, many people in China were becoming soldiers, and this kept happening.
● Because of the victories in the war, Mao had a lot of power over the whole country.
● The CCP still rules the country with a system where they have all the power. This is a big change
that happened because of the Civil War in China.
● This one-party system in China limits what people can do and their rights.
Economic Conditions
● The CCP wanted to introduce socialism to everyone in China. Because of this, politics was a big
part of their plans for money and jobs.
● But before they could fully start socialism, they kept capitalism. This was like what the USSR
did after their civil war.
● Instead of taking resources by force, the government decided to use the way the market works.
● The Civil War made the economy worse. The GDP was low, prices were high, and many city
people didn't have jobs.
● One of the most important things to solve was the lack of food and high prices. This made
farming important.
Military Conditions
● Even after the fighting ended in 1949, the Nationalists kept fighting. Some people who had to
leave Taiwan attacked communists there in the 1950s, while others left and started fighting in
Burma (now called Myanmar).
● People thought that the PRA, a military group, would attack Taiwan to get it back for China.
● In 1950, China and the USSR made a treaty. The USSR would send 3000 advisors to help train
the Chinese army. China needed this help if it wanted to improve its war skills, logistics, and
communication.

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Impact of Chinese revolution on International relations-

● Serious set back to prestige of US,as USA supported Nationalist government of China under
Chiang Kai Shek after defeat of japan in WW2,still communist succeeded in defeating Chiang Kai
Shek.
● Emergence of Communist China,gave new tilt in to the balance of power between western
world and Communist.
● Influenced the nationalistic forces to fight against colonialism in Asia & Africa.
● Ideological conflict emerged in between USSR & Communist China to establish control over
Communist world.
Conclusion
For Asia and Japan, the results of the Chinese Civil War were:
● The communist victory led to uprisings in Thailand, Malaya, Indochina, and Indonesia. It also
served as the spark that ignited the Korean War, the first “hot war” of the Cold War.
For USSR, the results of the Chinese Civil War were:

● The Treaty of Friendship, Collaboration, and Mutual Assistance was the outcome of Stalin’s
alliance with Mao and China in 1950. Stalin despised them because they were peasants and not
part of Marx’s proletariat. The official propaganda of the Soviet Union portrayed Mao as a great
leader, much like Stalin had in the 1920s.
● China’s post-war reconstruction received help and information from the Soviet Union.
For the Western Countries, the results of the Chinese Civil War were:
● For the West, it worsened the Cold War. If numerous Asian countries accepted communism in the
same way that China did, the US might run into problems. China and the Soviet Union now
enjoy better relations.
● Taiwan was acknowledged by the UN as the legitimate government of China. Stalin was thus
seen as a potential ally by Mao.

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DECOLONIZATION
Definition of Colonization
● Colonization is the establishment, exploitation, maintenance, acquisition, and expansion of
colonies in one territory by people from another territory.
● It is a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony, and often
between the colonists and the indigenous population.
● The colonization of Asia, Africa and America began with three focuses - Gold, Glory and God(3 G).
While Gold represented the profits from trade, Glory represented the recognition a European
power received as a world hegemon.
● With the flag of the Kingdom came the Missionaries to promote Christianity. It is to be noted
here that the country which dominated in the realm of sea power was able to benefit the most out
of the Colonial era.
Types of the colonization

● Two main types of the colonization can be differentiated: -
Settler Settler colonialism is that type of colonialism wherein a large number of

colonialism the immigrants, often motivated by religious, political, or economic
reasons, settle in a new place and dominate the local indigenous
population in economic, political as well as social aspects.
Exploitation Exploitation colonialism involves relatively less number of immigrants

colonialism and predominantly focuses on exploitation of the resources of the
colonial country.
History of Colonialism
Role of Explorations
● Modern colonialism began with the age of exploration during the early 15th century when
explorers like Christopher Columbus and Francisco Pizzaro made voyages to the American
continent.
● Geography played an important role. Without direct access to the Middle East, the Europeans
were forced to pay high prices charged by Venice. Even the wealthy had trouble paying for
spices. The routes to the east were known by the name of “Silk Routes”.

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Role of Explorations
● Along with Venice, it was the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople, which acted
as a middle man in this trade with the east. These two lay along the trade routes and had power
to choke them if they wanted. In 1453, the Ottoman Empire defeated the Byzantine Empire
and choked the sea routes.
● Soon many European explorers from Britain, France, Spain, Portugal and Netherlands would
have their own colonies in the America with the British dominating North America and the
Spanish and the Portuguese holding the Southern half of the Americas.
Technical Innovations
● Technical innovations played an important role in the success of explorers in being able to
sail to the new lands. By the end of the 15th century, innovations in the form of Compass,
Astrolabe (it helps in determining the location of ships), the Art of Mapping and development of
better ships that could travel longer, improved the explorer’s knowledge of the geography of the
sea.
● They were able to develop accurate maps of sea-routes and gain knowledge of weather
patterns that enabled them to safely reach the new lands. The period around the end of the
15th century thus came to be known as the “Age of Discovery”.

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● Christopher Columbus, funded by Spain, went out in search of India but landed up in Central
America in 1492. He had touched the shores of Haiti but mistook it for India. This is why he called
the natives as Indians and the islands as Indies.
Expansionist Policy
● By the late 19th century, the Industrial revolution would see Britain and France take over
many countries in the Middle-East, South and Southeast Asia, whose resources would be
exploited by the colonial powers well into the 20th century.
Causes of Colonialism
● Discovery of New Lands and Trade Route
● Economic Consideration: The countries like England, France, Spain and Portugal established
their colonies primarily for the economic benefits.
● Mercantilism: The policy of Mercantilism was based on the premise that the economic
development of the mother country (Metropolis) was most important and the colonies should
be governed in such a way that they lead to the benefit of the mother country.
● European Rivalry: The exploration and colonization were started by Spain and Portugal.
Gradually, other countries like France and England also entered the race. Acquiring new colonies
became a thing of national pride.
● To Spread Christianity: During the Age of Discovery; the Catholic Church started a major effort
to spread Christianity in the New World by converting indigenous peoples. As such, the
establishment of Christian missions went simultaneously with the colonizing efforts of European
powers such as Spain, France and Portugal.
● Push Factors: The enclosure movement, taking land out of cultivation and converting it into
pasture land for sheep, was creating a surplus population. Sheep raising, more profitable than
traditional agriculture, required fewer labourers. The new lands in America gave these
unemployed a place to work.
● Disunity- European powers were encouraged to embarked upon colonial ventures because of the
weaknesses and disunity among the people of Asia and Africa.

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Impact of Colonialism - Social Impact

● Columbian Exchange: The term Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread exchange of
plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas that occurred between
the new world (Americas) and the Old World (Eurasia) in the 15th and 16th centuries, as a
result of European colonization and trade
● Slave Trade: To effectively utilize the resources, colonizers needed immense amount of labour.
During the initial years, the European settlers met labor requirements by enslaving the native
populations. However, the decline in the native population led to importing slaves from Africa
which emerged as a lucrative alternative.
● Adversely affected the religion of local people.
● Christian Missionaries- played an important role in providing certain important services like
Health,Education etc.
● Colonial rule led to Racial Segregation.
● It caused untold misery & suffering to indigenous people.The various imperialist powers were
involved in number of wars with indigenous people as well as other imperialist power resulted
into loss of million lives.
Impact of Colonialism - Political Impact

● Colonization proved to be blessing in disguise for some countries.Like in India ,it established
Political Unity.
● Responsible for introduction of western ideas like Nationalism,Democracy,constitutionalism
etc in Asia and Africa.
● Colonization introduced efficient system of administration like ICS in India.
● Rise of Slavery.
● Bitter rivalry among European powers which ultimately resulted into World Wars.

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Spread of Colonialism
Colonialism In Asia
● Colonialism in India The British took control of India in 1763, after defeating the French in the
Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). The British controlled India through the British East India
Company, which ruled with an iron hand.
● In 1857, an Indian revolt, led by native soldiers called Sepoy, led to an uprising known as the
Sepoy Mutiny. After suppressing the rebellion, the British government made India part of the
empire in 1858, as mentioned previously.
● The British introduced social reforms that advocated education and promoted technology.
Britain profited greatly from India, which was called the “Crown Jewel of the British Empire.”
● The Indian masses, however, continued to live close to starvation and the British had little
respect for the native Indian culture.
● The Dutch held the Dutch East Indies and extended their control over Indonesia, while the
French took over Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam).
● The Russians also got involved and extended their control over the area of Persia (Iran)

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Colonialism In China
● Since the seventeenth century, China had isolated itself from the rest of the world and refused
to adopt Western ways.
● The Chinese permitted trade but only at the Port of Canton, where the rights of European
merchants were at the whim of the emperor.
● Colonialism in China began with the First Opium War (1839–1842) when the Chinese
government tried to halt the British from importing opium. This resulted in a war in which
Britain’s superior military and industrial might easily destroy the Chinese military forces.
● The Treaty of Nanking (1842) opened up five ports to the British, gave Britain the island of
Hong Kong, and forced China to pay a large indemnity.
● In 1858, China was forced to open up eleven more treaty ports that granted special privileges,
such as the right to trade with the interior of China and the right to supervise the Chinese
custom offices. Foreigners also received the right of extraterritoriality, which meant that
Western nations maintained their own courts in China, and Westerners were tried in their
own courts.
● Between 1870 and 1914, the Western nations carved China into spheres of influence, areas in
which outside power claimed exclusive trading rights.
● France acquired territory in southwestern China, Germany gained the Shandong Peninsula in
northern China, Russia obtain control of Manchuria and leasehold over Port Arthur, and the
British took control of the Yangzi valley.
● The United States, which had not taken part in carving up China because it feared that spheres
of influence might hurt U.S. commerce, promoted the Open-Door Policy in 1899.
Imperialism
● The process of extending power and influence by diplomatic or armed force is known as
imperialism. It could include or exclude the creation of a permanent settler population.
Imperialism is frequently driven by political issues such as:The desire to expand one's territory or
establish influence over other countries.
● Before the Industrial revolution it was confined to "Territorial Expansion".However, after the
Industrial Revolution,it got a new meaning i.e "Geographical Expansion".With the increase in
demand of tropical products, leading to establishment of colonies.

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Imperialism Examples
● Britain's Empire
● The Empire of France
● Rome's Empire
● The area of influence of the United States in Latin America
● During the Cold War, the Soviet Union dominated Eastern Europe.
Imperialism Types
Imperialism in its most direct form
● This entails gaining direct governmental authority over another country or area.
Imperialism by indirect means

● This entails using economic or military strength to influence another country's policy. This has
nothing to do with the establishment.
Relation between Colonialism and Imperialism
Aspect Colonialism Imperialism
Definition Colonialism involves the direct control Imperialism refers to a broader policy or
and governance of one nation or practice of extending the influence, power,
territory by another. It often involves or control of one nation over other
the settlement of the ruling power's nations. This is often through economic,
people in the colonized area. political, or military means.
Primary The primary goal of colonialism is to: Imperialism seeks to expand a nation's
Goal ○ establish colonies in foreign power and influence. This can be through
territories, direct control (colonialism) or other
○ exert direct control, and means. This includes economic
○ exploit the resources and labor dominance, political influence, or cultural
of the colony for the benefit of impact.
the colonial power.

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Direct Colonialism involves direct Imperialism may or may not involve direct
Governance governance. Colonial powers establish governance. It can extend influence
administrative structures, legal through various means. This includes
systems, and institutions in the economic and political pressure without
colonized territory. direct rule.
Control Colonialism exerts control through: Imperialism can involve various methods,
Mechanism ○ the establishment of colonies including:
and direct rule, ○ economic dominance through
○ involving local administration, trade,
and ○ political influence, and
○ the imposition of the ○ cultural diffusion without
colonizer's laws and necessarily establishing colonies.
institutions.
Example An example of colonialism is the An example of imperialism is the

British colonization of India. The "Scramble for Africa." European powers
British established direct rule and exerted control over various African
administrative control over the Indian regions for economic and strategic
subcontinent. purposes without necessarily creating
colonies.
Legacy The legacy of colonialism often Imperialism's legacy can include both
includes a lasting impact on the positive and negative impacts. This
culture, governance, and society of includes economic development, political
the colonized region. It sometimes changes, and cultural diffusion. It may not
leads to ongoing challenges and involve direct governance.
conflicts.
Decolonization
Factors responsible for Decolonization-
● First phase of decolonization began in Latin American countries.Simon Bolivar Played most
important role in it.

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● Second phase of decolonization began with entry of Japan in World War 2.Japan made
profound impact on decolonization process in South East Asia.
● After World War 2,USA & USSR emerged as Superpowers.They showed hostile attitude towards
colonialism and created great pressure on colonial powers.
● World War 2 brought about an economic exhaustion in Europe.
● Military collapse of Europe too was factor behind it.
● War time promises of Allied forces too created moral pressure.As allied powers claimed
that,they were fighting war for Democracy and Men’s Rights
● Eastward advances of forces of Nationalism & Democracy were accelerated by World Wars.This
strengthen Colonial Revolution in various parts of the world.
● Growth of solidarity among Third World against Colonialism.Like NAM,OAU etc
● The public opinion of west too was against the colonial powers.
The Decolonization of Latin America

● The role of Simon Bolivar is associated with the independence movement of Latin American
countries in the early decádes of the 19th century.
● Latin American regime was under "Spanish," and "Portuguese" colonialism
● Both followed the policy of Mercantilism & led to the drain of wealth from this region.
● Also both rules were Repressive & marked by Rigid control.
● Growth of Enlightened ideas in Europe too had an impact over this region.These ideas stood for
Men's' Rights & Men’s freedom,
● The American War of Independence was also an inspiring event because it was a symbol of
freedom from colonialism.
● French Revolution raised the slogans' of Liberty, Equality & fraternity too were inspiring
● Rise of Napoleon & growth of the Napoleonic empire too had an adverse impact on the powers
of Portugal & spain.
● These events created favourable conditions for Anti- colonial struggle in this region.
● Simon Bolivar gave Leadership to this independent movement. He was associated with Europe
and inspired with the ideals of the French Revolution. His role intensified the South American
revolutionary liberation movement, which yielded results in the independence of countries
like "Columbia (1818), Venezuela (1820), Ecuador (1821) .

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● The Malay Peninsula's decolonization, transitioning from British colonial rule to the
establishment of Malaysia, was a multidimensional process. This shift was marked by
political, economic, and sociocultural problems.
Political Difficulties:
● The Communist Insurgency: The Malayan Emergency (1948-1960) presented a tremendous
challenge. This guerilla struggle between the British and the Malayan Communist Party not
only delayed decolonization but also required massive resources and military deployments.
● Power Dynamics and Ethnic Tensions: With a heterogeneous population of Malays, Chinese, and
Indians, power allocation became a source of contention.
● The Bumiputera policy, which favored Malays in many areas, was intended to alleviate these
tensions but quickly became a source of dissatisfaction among non-Malays.
Economic Difficulties:
● Economic Disparities: Certain ethnic groups dominated specific economic sectors, with the
Chinese dominating commerce. As a result, there were imbalances and the possibility of ethnic
conflict.
● Transitioning from a Colonial Economy: The British had developed a tin and rubber-based
economy. Following independence, there was an urgent need to diversify and modernize the
economy in order to reduce this reliance.
Socio-Cultural Issues:
● Forging a Malaysian Identity: It was critical to integrate varied ethnic backgrounds into a
cohesive Malaysian identity. The adoption of Bahasa Malaysia as the national language was a
positive step in this regard.
● Religious Harmony: With Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity all coexisting, religious
harmony was critical. While declaring Islam to be the national religion, the constitution
guarantees religious freedom for all
Addressing the Issues:

● The Federation of Malaysia, which comprised Sabah and Sarawak, was formed in 1963 as a
strategic move to balance ethnic demography.

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● Furthermore, economic strategies to diversify the economy were implemented, and efforts
were made to build national unity through educational and cultural programs.
Thus, The Malay Peninsula's decolonization was a difficult task. While Malaysia has made
tremendous progress, these difficulties remain. The journey of the nation provides insights into the
complexities of nation-building after decolonization.
Apartheid in South Africa

● Apartheid in South Africa was a deeply entrenched system of institutionalized racial
segregation and discrimination that prevailed from 1948 to the early 1990s. Instituted by the
National Party, the policy sought to enforce racial hierarchy by categorizing people into distinct
racial groups and systematically depriving non-white citizens, particularly the majority
black population, of basic human rights.
● This discriminatory regime was characterized by laws enforcing residential segregation, strict
pass laws restricting movement, and a racially segregated education and employment
system. Apartheid generated widespread domestic resistance and garnered international
condemnation, leading to various sanctions against South Africa. The eventual dismantling of
apartheid, marked by Nelson Mandela's release from prison in 1990 and the democratic
elections of 1994, symbolized a triumph for justice, equality, and the beginning of a new era
for the nation.
Struggle
Timeline of Removal of Apartheid struggle
● 1910- Union of South Africa formed & establishment of rule of White Minority over Black. This rule
is based on Comprehensive discrimination.
● 1912- Reaction against this discrimination in the form of African National Congress.
● 1943- Youth League, as a subsidiary of Anti-Apartheid struggle. Mandela,Tombo are associated
with it.
1948-54- Policy of Apartheid

● It was introduced by Malan.
● It institutionalized segregation and discrimination.

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● Components of the policy-Isolation of residence, Ban on Black- White marriages, Identity

card,Disenfranchisement of Coloured voters etc.
● There was huge opposition from the ANC,UN,NAM etc.
P.W. Botha reforms - 1979

● Introduced some changes in policy of Apartheid and provide some relief.
● Withdrawal of stringent laws.
● Black & White marriages allowed.
● Black allowed to elect their own local body.
● New Constitution.
● These reforms didn’t work out, as it was not appreciated by ANC and others.
1989 - F. W. de Clark
● He initiated the process of End of Apartheid.
● He dropped all the Apartheid laws.
● Mandela and others were released from jail.
● There were Talks between the Government and ANC.
● 1992- Settlement reach & election announced.
● 1994- Election and Victory of ANC.
● Mandela became President.
Neocolonialism
● Neocolonialism, the control of less-developed countries by developed countries through
indirect means. The term neocolonialism was first used after World War II to refer to the
continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign countries, but its meaning soon broadened
to apply, more generally, to places where the power of developed countries was used to produce
a colonial-like exploitation—for instance, in Latin America, where direct foreign rule had ended in
the early 19th century.
● The term is now an unambiguously negative one that is widely used to refer to a form of global
power in which transnational corporations and global and multilateral institutions combine
to perpetuate colonial forms of exploitation of developing countries.

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● Neocolonialism has been broadly understood as a further development of capitalism that

enables capitalist powers (both nations and corporations) to dominate subject nations
through the operations of international capitalism rather than by means of direct rule.
Tools of Neocolonialism
● Debt: Developing countries may be encouraged or compelled to take on significant amounts of
debt, often from international financial institutions or former colonial powers.
● Unequal Trade Relations: The terms of trade may be skewed in favor of dominant countries,
leading to the exploitation of natural resources and cheap labor in less developed countries.
● Conditional Aid: Foreign aid may be provided with conditions attached, requiring the recipient
country to adopt specific policies or align with the interests of the donor country.
● Cultural Imperialism: Dominant cultures may be imposed or promoted through media,
education, and other channels, undermining local cultures and identities.

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WORLD HISTORY

FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789 - 1799)..................................................................................................................2

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FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789 - 1799)

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Social condition in the 18th century France

Causes behind French Revolution

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● In eighteenth-century Europe, autocratic and hereditary monarchies were in power, and

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THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE

Stage 1: Revolution of 1789 (1789-1792)

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National Constituent a. Initially was called the National Assembly,

Legislative Assembly a. Legislative body of the new constitutional

Players and Aristocracy a. Conservatives refused to join the National

Clergy a. Under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, all

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The Populace a. Contrary to popular belief, it was not the populace

Declaration of the a. Declared that all French citizens were subject to

Constitution of 1971 a. Set up a Constitutional Monarchy

Stage 2: Legislative Assembly (1791-92)

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Stage 3: Second Revolution (1792)

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Stage 3: The Reign of Terror (1793-1795)

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Stage 4: Establishment of the Directory (1795-1799)

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Stage 5: Consulate System(1799-1804)

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ROLE OF WOMEN IN FRENCH REVOLUTION

Outcomes of Revolution for Women

Role Of Philosophers In French Revolution

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RISE OF NAPOLEON TO POWER

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Cause for the Success of Napoleon

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Reforms undertaken by Napoleon:

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Key concepts of the Napoleonic ● Legal equality for everyone.

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The causes behind the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte

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IMPACT OF REVOLUTION ON FRANCE

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Impact on the World:

Negative Impact of the revolution

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● Spread of Revolutionary ideas implied to dissolution of empire.

Objectives of Vienna Congress

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