Earth in space
In this chapter you will learn:
A Figure 17.1 The Earth in
space.
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
Some large asteroids
have been given
names. Many names
relate to characters
from ancient stories
and legends.Use the
internet to find out
the names and some
other facts about
asteroids. Try to make
a note of at least
ten facts that you
discover. Then share
and compare your
findings in a small
group.
t
• where asteroids are found In the solar syS em climate change and mass
• how asteroid collisions with Earth can lead to
extinctions f mass extinction event (Science ext, .-i)
• how new species can emerge a ter a d to the formation of the
I
• how asteroid collisions with Earth may have e
Moon
• where stars are born t t)
• about astronomy across the world (Science in con ex
. h • erse (Science extra).
• about the unsolved mysteries oft e univ
j
• Name the planets of the solar system, starting with the one nearest
the Sun.
What is a galaxy?
What is a planetary system?
Asteroids
Where are asteroids found?
Earth and other planets and objects in space were formed from the disc
of dust and gases around the Sun, but not all the material there formed
planets and moons. Some rocky objects remained much smaller and
formed asteroids. Most asteroids are found in a ring around the Sun,
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This ring is known as the asteroid
belt. There are two other groups of asteroids, called trojans. They are
found on either side of Jupiter and move in its orbit around the Sun. The
positions of the asteroid belt and the trojans in the solar system are shown
in Figure 17.2 on the next page.
DID YOU KNOW?
There are millions of asteroids in the asteroid belt, but they cover such a large
area of space that there can be as much as 515000km between any two
asteroids!
 17 E:. ,~n ,n p:ic

...
Tro1ans

:;/
./·
j

Tro1ans

....
..
. • ~: ·~---- ------

• Figure 17.2 Positions of asteroid belts and troians in the solar system.

near-solar orbit Asteroid collision

Asteroids are held in position by the forces of gravity between
them and the forces of gravity between them and Jupiter. As
all these objects move in their orbits. there can be changes in
the forces of gravity, which can cause an asteroid to change
Earth the direction of its movement and set up another orbit around
the Sun. Some of these orbits may cross the orbits of planets
and their moons and. 1n time. may lead to a collision.

"-polio a~t<"O,J Figure 17.3 The path of an asteroid across the Earth's orbit.

b
 EAR'T1-t
··········~~~ SPAce........
• ••••............................................................................................
When an asteroid collides with a planet or a moon, it produces an impact
crater. On our Moon where there is no atmosphere to cause weathering
and erosion, the crat~rs remain as they first formed ofter impact. The Moon
keeps one surface facing towards Earth as it moves through ~pace: this is
called the near side and it is the side that we see. The other side, the side
we never see, is called the far side.
a

.& Figure 17.4 The craters on a the near and b the far side of the Moon.

1 Look at the craters

on both sides of
the Moon. How
How does asteroid speed affect crater depth
and width?
eo
do they compare?
Construct a
hypothesis to You will need:
explain what you a bowl of flour, sand or moist clay to represent the surface of the
see.
Moon, a model of an asteroid (attach a thread to it, so that you can
pull it straight up out of the crater after impact), a wooden spill on
which millimetre marks have been made (to measure crater depth),
a ruler (to measure crater width), a metre rule (to measure 'asteroid'
height above the 'surface of the Moon').

·-------~
Hypothesis
Construct a testable hypothesis to answer the question.

Prediction
Make a prediction based on your hypothesis.

II
 17 Earth in space
0 0 0 0 t • • 0. • •. • • • 0. 0 •• • • • e • . • t O • f t • . o O I• I•• 0 e I t . • t t t t • • • t I I••. t t t t • t It O o Ott• t • t •et too O O t • o • t • t • • • t O •

Planning and investigating

Construct a plan to investigate your prediction, explaining
your choice of asteroid and Moon surface
your experimental technique
the number of measurements taken and how they are recorded
what risks need to be considered.
If your teacher approves your plan, try it.

Examining the results

Present your data in the form of a graph and predict results between
the data points collected. In the data, look for a trend or a pattern, then
identify any anomalous results and explain them.

Conclusion
Compare your evaluation with your hypothesis and prediction and draw a
conclusion.

What are the limitations of your conclusion? How might the conclusion be
further investigated?
What improvements could you make to your investigation? Explain why
you would make them.

The effects of asteroid collision on Earth

Climate change
The climate in any place on the planet depends on the amount of heat and
sunlight it receives from the Sun. When an asteroid hits the land on Earth. it
sends a huge amount of dust and ash into the atmosphere. If it lands in the
sea, it also sends up water vapour and droplets. This means that wherever
the asteroid strikes. it sends material into the atmosphere which blocks
out the Sun's light and heat. This results in a darkening of the skies and a
cooling of the planet's surface. These conditions are sometimes described
as an 'impact winter' and can last for a number of years.

Mass extinctions
A mass extinction is an event in which a very large number of plant and
animal species (more than 75 per cent of the species on the planet)
become extinct. They die out because their populations shrink to a size
where the death rate is greater than the reproductive rate. The reason for
their death is a change in conditions on the Earth.
There are many sources of change in conditions on the Earth. The activities
of a large number of volcanoes erupting at the same time, for example, can
produce changes in the atmosphere when they emit ash and smoke, which
block out sunlight. The planet also varies its tilt as it orbits the Sun, and this
can reduce the amount of heat being received in the northern hemisphere,
 SPACE
......... 0 e • • • • • • • • 0 • • • • e e e o • • • • o • • •
• • • • • e • • • • • e • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • •

which can start an ice age. Such changes can lead to extinctions of plant
and animal species.
There have been five mass extinctions in Earth's history and scientists have
been unsure of their causes but the last one, which happened 66 million
years ago, is thought to ha;e been brought about by an impact w!nter. This
was called the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction and was responsible for the
extinction of the tyrannosaurus rex and many other land-dwelling dinosw II s,
as well as other animal. reptile and marine species, such as ammonites.

DID YOU KNOW?

Many scientists
believe that today we
are living through the
sixth mass extinction
event, and that the
main cause of the loss A Figure 17.5 An artist's impression of the asteroid in the atmosphere at the end of the age
of animal and plant of dinosaurs.
life is human activity
on the planet. It is believed that when this happened, there was a great deal of volcanic
activity on the Earth. An asteroid of between 11 and 81 kilometres
in diameter struck the Earth and made a huge crater, now called the
Chicxulub crater. which is 20 kilometres deep and can be found in Mexico.
It is believed that the impact would have produced instant firestorms and
complete devastation over thousands of square kilometres around it before
2 How do you think the impact winter set in.
an impact winter
affects plants?
3 How do you think
an impact winter
affects carnivores?
4 Use the internet to
find the location
of the Chicxulub
crater on a map,
and the location
where you live.
If the impact
happened today,
would it affect
you? Explain your
answer.
A Figure 17.6 The asteroid colliding with Earth.
 .. . .. . .. . . . •••.. .. •... ••.. ... . .. .. .. .. .. ..... .. ... 17 Earth in space
••• ••••••••••••••••••••·······································•••••••••••

LET'S TALK Science extra: New species

DO you think
asteroids are After a mass extinction, many species that shaped habitats and
important in the upon whi~h other species relied are wiped out. This presents an
evolutionary process?
?PPOrtunity for other species that survived the extinction to evolve
Work in a gro 10 to
discuss your 1r 1s.
into new species, as conditions become more favourable for them.
Mammal species which survived mass extinctions have evolved into a
wide range of species, including humans. Dinosaur species which had
feathers and survived the last mass extinction evolved into birds, so
when you hear a bird singing, you are listening to a living dinosaur!

The formation of the Moon

There is a theory for how the Moon formed. It is a collision theory called
the giant-impact hypothesis, but is also known as the Big Splash. Scientists
have constructed this collision theory by studying a variety of topics, such
as the rocks on the Moon and the Earth, the way the Earth and Moon
move, and observations and theories about the material that forms around
stars. Evidence to support the hypothesis comes from a variety of sources.

Evidence from rocks

The composition of rocks on the Moon and the Earth is identical,
suggesting that they formed from one rocky body in space. Moon rock
samples show evidence of being molten at some time, which would happen
in a collision.

Evidence from movement

The spin of the Earth and the way the Moon orbits the Earth suggest there
is a close relationship between them.

Evidence from observations and theories

Stars have been found with discs of material around them, called debris
discs, which could have formed by objects colliding. The theory of the
formation of the solar system supports the idea of objects in the early solar
system colliding together.
The collision theory of the Moon's formation has been developed from
this evidence and suggests that, about ~.S billion years ago, the Earth
that was forming crashed into a planet-like object about the size of Mars,
which scientists called Theia. This collision resulted in a ring of rocky debris
forming around the Earth from the two objects. In time, gravitational forces
pulled the rocks in the ring together to form the Moon. In the collision,
Theia was destroyed.
EARTH
....... .....
··········~NDspACe
.......................................................................................................................................... ....
~o:.D::-:Y:0-::-U-K_N_o_w_.,_ _
Th e Planet-rk •
ob· , e
T J~ct Was called
he1a because .
th I 'in
A e _egends of the
nc1ent Greeks Th .
wa th , e1a
s e mother of
Selene, Who was their
goddess of the Moon.

A Figure 17.7 The Big Splash.

Can you model the 819 Splash'

You will need:

modelling clay, video recording equipment (optional).

Planning and investigating

Show how you could break up a lump of modelling clay and use it to
LET'S TALK model how the young Earth and Theia came together and produced a
Does knowing about debris ring that eventually became the Moon.
the way the Moon
You may wish to make a storyboard before you start making the model.
formed affect the way
you look at it? Explain If you can, you could make a recording of how your model can be used to
your answer. explain the Big Splash.

Where stars are born

There are huge clouds of dust and gas spread out across the universe.
These clouds are called nebulae. A nebula may form from the gas and dust
produced when a star explodes in a supernova. It may also be developed
as gravity pulls together the gas and dust in intergalactic space. In this
type of nebula, the forces of gravity between the atoms and molecules
of helium and hydrogen gas bring them together into a huge ball. The
force of gravity continues to act between the gas particles and squashes
them closer and closer together, and the pressure inside the ball increases.
Eventually, the pressure pushing on the hydrogen atoms becomes so great
that they fuse together to make helium atoms and release energy as heat
and light. Gradually, the ball begins to glow and eventually, as the pressure
continues to increase and more hydrogen is converted into helium, the
ball starts to shine and becomes a star. The star is then said to be 'born'.
As this 'birthing' process takes place inside nebulae, they are called stellar
nurseries and many stars can be forming inside them at the same time.
 17 Earth in space
•
··•••• ···•••

A Figure 17.8 A stellar nursery

Can you make an @lectnc ar rwry'

You will need:

one or more cells, lamps, switches, a variable resistor, a number of
wires depending on your model, translucent material, video recording
equipment.

Planning and investigating

Use the equipment to show how one or more stars in a stellar nursery
start to glow and shine.
Make one or more circuit diagrams to make a star shine. Make a drawing
of how you will use the translucent material to make a nebula.
Show your work to your teacher and, if approved, make your stellar nursery.

Science in context

Astronomy across the world

Even the earliest humans would have looked up at the night sky and
wondered at it. As time went on, human civilisations began to explain
the night sky in a variety of ways and related it to events taking place on
the Earth. Today we are still fascinated by the night sky, and scientists

II
EARTHA
•••••••··· NDSPACE
····························•• .............................................................................. .

. . in the universe. This in turn

study It to find out more about 11 and our Pace1 this means tryin
helps us try to understand to existence, and for many, b . t . . g
. t ·n life y main amIng
to conserve the conditions on Earth which sus ai
ecosystems and trying to control climate change.
• ce such as stars. planets
Astronomy is the study of objects found in spa • •
f henomena that occur
moons and asteroids. It is also the study O P .
. ment of galaxies and
in space. like the formation of stars, the move
. . . h t dy
the formation of planets. Sc1ent1sts w o s u astronomy .
are called
,
astronomers and many of them work in observatories around the worlc
collecting data from huge telescopes which use light or radio waves to
· ·
look into space. There are maJor observat on·es all around the world -
some of the biggest can be found in the USA, th~ Canary Islands and
Chile. Most observatories are built away from c,t,es, where the sky is n
as polluted, so a clearer view of space can be seen.

CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
Find the location
of the nearest
observatory to where
you live. It might be
a major observatory
like those in Figure
17.9 or it may be
a smaller, local
observatory. Do some
research about the
observatory and the
astronomers who A Figure 17.9 a Roque de Los Muchachos Observatory, La Palma. Canary Islands,
work there. Spain and b Mauna Kea Observatories. Big Island, Hawaii, USA.

Scientists and astronomers also collect data from telescopes on satellites

and instruments on space probes, which visit planets and moons in the
solar system. All the data collected by observatories from satellites is
recorded and examined, and then conclusions can be drawn.
 .... ··•••••• 17 Earth 1n space

CHALLENGE Ideas, conclusions and suggestions from sc1ent1sts ore published as research
youRSELF papers and read by other sc1ent1sts around the world This process 1s called
In prior learning. you peer review. In the process of peer review comments about the data and
rnaY have found out constructive rnt1osms of the methods of observation are mode. so that
about exoplanet a general conclusion con be drawn and agreed on As we hove seen rn
and hOW they wr "
science, a conclusion 1s only prov1s1onol and may hove to be revised when
discovered. If Y <t1d, 0ther observations and experiments are mode
100k at your SOL
again and sec
Observatories around the world also scan the skies for asteroids
many more P
have been d, d approaching the Earth (known as Near-Earth Objects) and when one 1s
since then W discovered, the data about rt 1s shored by all observatories worldwide. This
you find? allows further observations 1n a variety of locations to be mode and the risk
of a collision or threat can be calculated more accurately. In this way,
astronomy helps to keep the planet and its 1nhab1tants safe.
cHALLENG
YOURSELF Science extra: Understanding the universe
use the inter i J
see if you car J out The universe is still a mysterious place for scientists. The laws of
the latest ide" .;out physics that explain how objects move cannot explain how galaxies
dark matter af'• J<1rk rotate. If the laws applied, the galaxies would pull themselves apart.
energy. Do sc1f.:11t1sts
As they do not do this, scientists believe that there is some matter
agree or do th0y
hold different views
that cannot be seen helping the galaxies to rotate. Scientists have
and make different called this dark matter, but they do not know what it is.
explanations? The movement of galaxies presents another mystery that cannot be
Remember: When explained: they are moving away from each other much faster than
you use the internet expected as the universe continues to expand. The source of the
for research, think
energy which is causing this movement is unknown, and scientists call
carefully about
your sources of
this dark energy. Discoveries about dark matter and dark energy are
information! constantly being made in science.

( Summary J
ti An asteroid can collide with planets and moons.
ti The effects of an asteroid collision with Earth include climate change
and mass extinctions.
ti It is thought that our Moon was formed when Earth and another small
planet collided. The small planet was destroyed as a result of the
collision.
ti Nebulae are huge clouds of dust and gas that are spread out across
the universe. The force of gravity between particles in these clouds
forms stars in stellar nurseries.
ti Astronomers around the world collect data from observatories and
satellites to increase their understanding of the universe. New theories
are evaluated by other scientists in a process known as peer review.
........
••••••••····· ..........................................................................................................................................................

End of chapter questions

1
What did the disc of gas and dust around the Sun form?
2
What holds the asteroids in place?
3 What
makes an asteroid change its orbit?
4 What can happen on
Earth if a large asteroid crashes into it?
5 How did the Moon form?
6 Why is astronomy important to us today?

Q) Now you have completed Chapter 17, you may like to try the Chapter 17
online knowledge test if you are using the Boost eBook.