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Preface to First Edition
With the advances in the semiconductor and communication industries, it has become
increasingly important for electrical engineers to develop a good understanding of micro-
electronics. This book addresses the need for a text that teaches microelectronics from a
modern and intuitive perspective. Guided by my industrial, research, and academic expe-
rience, I have chosen the topics, the order, and the depth and breadth so as to efficiently
impart analysis and design principles that the students will find useful as they enter the
industry or graduate school.
One salient feature of this book is its synthesis- or design-oriented approach. Rather
than pulling a circuit out of a bag and trying to analyze it, I set the stage by stating a
problem that we face in real life (e.g., how to design a cellphone charger). I then attempt
to arrive at a solution using basic principles, thus presenting both failures and successes in
the process. When we do arrive at the final solution, the student has seen the exact role of
each device as well as the logical thought sequence behind synthesizing the circuit.
Another essential component of this book is “analysis by inspection.” This “mentality”
is created in two steps. First, the behavior of elementary building blocks is formulated using
a “verbal” description of each analytical result (e.g., “looking into the emitter, we see
1/gm.”). Second, larger circuits are decomposed and “mapped” to the elementary blocks
to avoid the need for writing KVLs and KCLs. This approach both imparts a great deal of
intuition and simplifies the analysis of large circuits.
The two articles following this preface provide helpful suggestions for students and
instructors. I hope these suggestions make the task of learning or teaching microelectronics
more enjoyable.
A set of Powerpoint slides, a solutions manual, and many other teaching aids are
available for instructors.
Behzad Razavi
November 2007
vi
Acknowledgments
This book has taken four years to write and benefited from contributions of many indi-
viduals. I wish to thank the following for their input at various stages of this book’s devel-
opment: David Allstot (University of Washington), Joel Berlinghieri, Sr. (The Citadel),
Bernhard Boser (University of California, Berkeley), Charles Bray (University of Mem-
phis), Marc Cahay (University of Cincinnati), Norman Cox (University of Missouri,
Rolla), James Daley (University of Rhode Island), Tranjan Farid (University of North
Carolina at Charlotte), Paul Furth (New Mexico State University), Roman Genov (Uni-
versity of Toronto), Maysam Ghovanloo (North Carolina State University), Gennady
Gildenblat (Pennsylvania State University), Ashok Goel (Michigan Technological Univer-
sity), Michael Gouzman (SUNY, Stony Brook), Michael Green (University of California,
Irvine), Sotoudeh Hamedi-Hagh (San Jose State University), Reid Harrison (University
of Utah), Payam Heydari (University of California, Irvine), Feng Hua (Clarkson Univer-
sity), Marian Kazmierchuk (Wright State University), Roger King (University of Toledo),
Edward Kolesar (Texas Christian University), Ying-Cheng Lai (Arizona State Univer-
sity), Daniel Lau (University of Kentucky, Lexington), Stanislaw Legowski (University of
Wyoming), Philip Lopresti (University of Pennsylvania), Mani Mina (Iowa State Univer-
sity), James Morris (Portland State University), Khalil Najafi (University of Michigan),
Homer Nazeran (University of Texas, El Paso), Tamara Papalias (San Jose State Univer-
sity), Matthew Radmanesh (California State University, Northridge), Angela Rasmussen
(University of Utah), Sal R. Riggio, Jr. (Pennsylvania State University), Ali Sheikholeslami
(University of Toronto), Kalpathy B. Sundaram (University of Central Florida), Yannis
Tsividis (Columbia University), Thomas Wu (University of Central Florida), Darrin Young
(Case Western Reserve University).
I am grateful to Naresh Shanbhag (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign) for
test driving a draft of the book in a course and providing valuable feedback. The fol-
lowing UCLA students diligently prepared the solutions manual: Lawrence Au, Hamid
Hatamkhani, Alireza Mehrnia, Alireza Razzaghi, William Wai-Kwok Tang, and Ning
Wang. Ning Wang also produced the Powerpoint slides for the entire book. Eudean Sun
(University of California, Berkeley) and John Tyler (Texas A&M University) served as
accuracy checkers. I would like to thank them for their hard work.
I thank my publisher, Catherine Shultz, for her dedication and exuberance. Lucille
Buonocore, Carmen Hernandez, Dana Kellogg, Madelyn Lesure, Christopher Ruel, Ken-
neth Santor, Lauren Sapira, Daniel Sayre, Gladys Soto, and Carolyn Weisman of Wiley
and Bill Zobrist (formerly with Wiley) also deserve my gratitude. In addition, I wish to
thank Jessica Knecht and Joyce Poh for their hard work on the second edition.
My wife, Angelina, typed the entire book and kept her humor as this project dragged
on. My deepest thanks go to her.
Behzad Razavi
vii
Suggestions for Students
You are about to embark upon a journey through the fascinating world of microelectronics.
Fortunately, microelectronics appears in so many facets of our lives that we can readily
gather enough motivation to study it. The reading, however, is not as easy as that of a novel;
we must deal with analysis and design, applying mathematical rigor as well as engineering
intuition every step of the way. This article provides some suggestions that students may
find helpful in studying microelectronics.
Rigor and Intuition Before reading this book, you have taken one or two courses on
basic circuit theory, mastering Kirchoff’s Laws and the analysis of RLC circuits. While quite
abstract and bearing no apparent connection with real life, the concepts studied in these
courses form the foundation for microelectronics—just as calculus does for engineering.
Our treatment of microelectronics also requires rigor but entails two additional com-
ponents. First, we identify many applications for the concepts that we study. Second, we
must develop intuition, i.e., a “feel” for the operation of microelectronic devices and cir-
cuits. Without an intuitive understanding, the analysis of circuits becomes increasingly
more difficult as we add more devices to perform more complex functions.
Analysis by Inspection We will expend a considerable effort toward establishing the

mentality and the skills necessary for “analysis by inspection.” That is, looking at a complex
circuit, we wish to decompose or “map” it to simpler topologies, thus formulating the
behavior with a few lines of algebra. As a simple example, suppose we have encountered
the resistive divider shown in Fig. (a) and derived its Thevenin equivalent. Now, if given
the circuit in Fig. (b), we can readily replace Vin , R1 , and R2 with a Thevenin equivalent,
thereby simplifying the calculations.
(a) R1 (b) R1
V in R2 Vout V in C1 R2 L1 Vout
Example of analysis by inspections.
40 Pages per Week While taking courses on microelectronics, you will need to read
about 40 pages of this book every week, with each page containing many new concepts,
derivations, and examples. The lectures given by the instructor create a “skeleton” of each
chapter, but it rests upon you to “connect the dots” by reading the book carefully and
understanding each paragraph before proceeding to the next.
Reading and understanding 40 pages of the book each week requires concentration
and discipline. You will face new material and detailed derivations on each page and should
set aside two- or three-hour distraction-free blocks of time (no phone calls, TV, email, etc.)
so that you can follow the evolution of the concepts while honing your analytical skills. I
also suggest that you attempt each example before reading its solution.
viii
Suggestions for Students ix
40 Problems per Week After reading each section and going through its examples, you
are encouraged to evaluate and improve your understanding by trying the corresponding
end-of-chapter problems. The problems begin at a relatively easy level and gradually
become more challenging. Some problems may require that you return to the section and
study the subtle points more carefully.
The educational value provided by each problem depends on your persistence. The
initial glance at the problem may be discouraging. But, as you think about it from different
angles and, more importantly, re-examine the concepts in the chapter, you begin to form a
path in your mind that may lead to the solution. In fact, if you have thought about a problem
extensively and still have not solved it, you need but a brief hint from the instructor or the
teaching assistant. Also, the more you struggle with a problem, the more appealing and
memorable the answer will be.
Attending the lecture and reading the book are examples of “passive learning:” you
simply receive (and, hopefully, absorb) a stream of information provided by the instructor
and the text. While necessary, passive learning does not exercise your understanding, thus
lacking depth. You may highlight many lines of the text as important. You may even
summarize the important concepts on a separate sheet of paper (and you are encouraged
to do so). But, to master the material, you need practice (“active learning”). The problem
sets at the end of each chapter serve this purpose.
Homeworks and Exams Solving the problems at the end of each chapter also prepares
you for homeworks and exams. Homeworks, too, demand distraction-free periods during
which you put your knowledge to work and polish your understanding. An important
piece of advice that I can offer here is that doing homeworks with your fellow students
is a bad idea! Unlike other subject matters that benefit from discussions, arguments, and
rebuttals, learning microelectronics requires quiet concentration. (After all, you will be on
your own during the exam!) To gain more confidence in your answers, you can discuss the
results with your fellow students, the instructor, or the teaching assistants after you have
completed the homework by yourself.
Time Management Reading the text, going through the problem sets, and doing the
homeworks require a time commitment of at least 10 hours per week. Due to the fast
pace of the course, the material accumulates rapidly, making it difficult to keep up with the
lectures if you do not spend the required time from the very first week. In fact, the more you
fall behind, the less interesting and useful the lectures become, thus forcing you to simply
write down everything that the instructor says while not understanding much. With your
other courses demanding similar time commitments, you can soon become overwhelmed
if you do not manage your time carefully.
Time management consists of two steps: (1) partitioning your waking hours into solid
blocks, and (2) using each block efficiently. To improve the efficiency, you can take the
following measures: (a) work in a quiet environment to minimize distractions; (b) spread
the work on a given subject over the week, e.g., 3 hours every other day, to avoid saturation
and to allow your subconscious to process the concepts in the meantime.
Prerequisites Many of the concepts that you have learned in the circuit theory courses
prove essential to the study of microelectronics. Chapter 1 gives a brief overview to refresh
your memory. With the limited lecture time, the instructor may not cover this material in
the class, leaving it for you to read at home. You can first glance through the chapter and
see which concepts “bother” you before sitting down to concentrate.
Suggestions for Instructors
Teaching undergraduate courses proves quite challenging—especially if the emphasis is on
thinking and deduction rather than on memorization. With today’s young minds used to
playing fast-paced video games and “clicking” on the Internet toward their destination, it
has become increasingly more difficult to encourage them to concentrate for long periods
of time and deal with abstract concepts. Drawing upon more than one decade of teaching,
this article provides suggestions that instructors of microelectronics may find helpful.
Therapy The students taking the first microelectronics course have typically completed
one or two courses on basic circuit theory. To many, that experience has not been partic-
ularly memorable. After all, the circuit theory textbook is most likely written by a person
not in the field of circuits. Similarly, the courses are most likely taught by an instructor
having little involvement in circuit design. For example, the students are rarely told that
node analysis is much more frequently used in hand calculations than mesh analysis is. Or,
they are given little intuition with respect to Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
With the foregoing issues in mind, I begin the first course with a five-minute “therapy
session.” I ask how many liked the circuit theory courses and came out with a “practi-
cal” understanding. Very few raise their hands. I then ask, “But how about your calculus
courses? How many of you came out of these courses with a “practical” understanding?”
Subsequently, I explain that circuit theory builds the foundation for microelectronics just
as calculus does for engineering. I further mention that some abstractness should also be
expected in microelectronics as we complete the foundation for more advanced topics
in circuit analysis and design. I then point out that (1) microelectronics is very heavily
based on intuitive understanding, requiring that we go beyond simply writing KVLs and
KCLs and interpret the mathematical expressions intuitively, and (2) this course offers
many applications of microelectronic devices and circuits in our daily lives. In other words,
microelectronics is not as dry as arbitrary RLC circuits consisting of 1- resistors, 1-H
inductors, and 1-F capacitors.
First Quiz Since different students enter each course with different levels of preparation,
I have found it useful to give a 10-minute quiz in the very first lecture. Pointing out that
the quiz does not count towards their grade but serves as a gauge of their understanding,
I emphasize that the objective is to test their knowledge rather than their intelligence.
After collecting the quizzes, I ask one of the teaching assistants to assign a binary grade to
each: those who would receive less than 50% are marked with a red star. At the end of the
lecture, I return the quizzes and mention that those with a red star need to work harder
and interact with the teaching assistants and myself more extensively.
The Big Picture A powerful motivational tool in teaching is the “big picture,” i.e., the
“practical” application of the concept under study. The two examples of microelectronic
systems described in Chapter 1 serve as the first step toward creating the context for the
material covered in the book. But, the big picture cannot stop here. Each new concept may
merit an application—however brief the mention of the application may be—and most of
this burden falls on the lecture rather than on the book.
x
Suggestions for Instructors xi
The choice of the application must be carefully considered. If the description is too
long or the result too abstract, the students miss the connection between the concept and
the application. My general approach is as follows. Suppose we are to begin Chapter 2
(Basic Semiconductor Physics). I ask either “What would our world look like without
semiconductors?” or “Is there a semiconductor device in your watch? In your cellphone?
In your laptop? In your digital camera?” In the ensuing discussion, I quickly go over
examples of semiconductor devices and where they are used.
Following the big picture, I provide additional motivation by asking, “Well, but isn’t this
stuff old? Why do we need to learn these things?” I then briefly talk about the challenges
in today’s designs and the competition among manufacturers to lower both the power
consumption and the cost of portable devices.
Analysis versus Synthesis Let us consider the background of the students entering
a microelectronics course. They can write KVLs and KCLs efficiently. They have also
seen numerous “random” RLC circuits; i.e., to these students, all RLC circuits look the
same, and it is unclear how they came about. On the other hand, an essential objective
in teaching microelectronics is to develop specific circuit topologies that provide certain
characteristics. We must therefore change the students’ mentality from “Here’s a circuit
that you may never see again in your life. Analyze it!” to “We face the following problem
and we must create (synthesize) a circuit that solves the problem.” We can then begin with
the simplest topology, identify its shortcomings, and continue to modify it until we arrive
at an acceptable solution. This step-by-step synthesis approach (a) illustrates the role of
each device in the circuit, (b) establishes a “design-oriented” mentality, and (c) engages
the students’ intellect and interest.
Analysis by Inspection In their journey through microelectronics, students face increas-

ingly more complex circuits, eventually reaching a point where blindly writing KVLs and
KCLs becomes extremely inefficient and even prohibitive. In one of my first few lectures,
I show the internal circuit of a complex op amp and ask, “Can we analyze the behavior
of this circuit by simply writing node or mesh equations?” It is therefore important to
instill in them the concept of “analysis by inspection.” My approach consists of two steps.
(1) For each simple circuit, formulate the properties in an intuitive language; e.g., “the
voltage gain of a common-source stage is given by the load resistance divided by 1/gm plus
the resistance tied from the source to ground.” (2) Map complex circuits to one or more
topologies studied in step (1).
In addition to efficiency, analysis by inspection also provides great intuition. As we
cover various examples, I emphasize to the students that the results thus obtained reveal
the circuit’s dependencies much more clearly than if we simply write KVLs and KCLs
without mapping.
“What If?’’ Adventures An interesting method of reinforcing a circuit’s properties is

to ask a question like, “What if we tie this device between nodes C and D rather than
between nodes A and B?” In fact, students themselves often raise similar questions. My
answer to them is “Don’t be afraid! The circuit doesn’t bite if you change it like this. So go
ahead and analyze it in its new form.”
For simple circuits, the students can be encouraged to consider several possible mod-
ifications and determine the resulting behavior. Consequently, the students feel much
more comfortable with the original topology and understand why it is the only acceptable
solution (if that is the case).
xii Suggestions for Instructors
Numeric versus Symbolic Calculations In the design of examples, homeworks, and

exams, the instructor must decide between numeric and symbolic calculations. The students
may, of course, prefer the former type as it simply requires finding the corresponding
equation and plugging in the numbers.
What is the value in numeric calculations? In my opinion, they may serve one of
two purposes: (1) make the students comfortable with the results recently obtained, or
(2) give the students a feel for the typical values encountered in practice. As such, numeric
calculations play a limited role in teaching and reinforcing concepts.
Symbolic calculations, on the other hand, can offer insight into the behavior of the
circuit by revealing dependencies, trends, and limits. Also, the results thus obtained can be
utilized in more complex examples.
Blackboard versus Powerpoint This book comes with a complete set of Powerpoint
slides. However, I suggest that the instructors carefully consider the pros and cons of
blackboard and Powerpoint presentations.
I can offer the following observations. (1) Many students fall asleep (at least mentally)
in the classroom if they are not writing. (2) Many others feel they are missing something
if they are not writing. (3) For most people, the act of writing something on paper helps
“carve” it in their mind. (4) The use of slides leads to a fast pace (“if we are not writing,
we should move on!”), leaving little time for the students to digest the concepts. For these
reasons, even if the students have a hardcopy of the slides, this type of presentation proves
quite ineffective.
To improve the situation, one can leave blank spaces in each slide and fill them with
critical and interesting results in real time. I have tried this method using transparencies
and, more recently, tablet laptops. The approach works well for graduate courses but leaves
undergraduate students bored or bewildered.
My conclusion is that the good old blackboard is still the best medium for teaching
undergraduate microelectronics. The instructor may nonetheless utilize a hardcopy of the
Powerpoint slides as his/her own guide for the flow of the lecture.
Discrete versus Integrated How much emphasis should a microelectronics course

place on discrete circuits and integrated circuits? To most of us, the term “microelectron-
ics” remains synonymous with “integrated circuits,” and, in fact, some university curricula
have gradually reduced the discrete design flavor of the course to nearly zero. However,
only a small fraction of the students taking such courses eventually become active in IC
products, while many go into board-level design.
My approach in this book is to begin with general concepts that apply to both paradigms
and gradually concentrate on integrated circuits. I also believe that even board-level de-
signers must have a basic understanding of the integrated circuits that they use.
Bipolar Transistor versus MOSFET At present, some controversy surrounds the in-
clusion of bipolar transistors and circuits in undergraduate microelectronics. With the
MOSFET dominating the semiconductor market, it appears that bipolar devices are of lit-
tle value. While this view may apply to graduate courses to some extent, it should be borne
in mind that (1) as mentioned above, many undergraduate students go into board-level
and discrete design and are likely to encounter bipolar devices, and (2) the contrasts and
similarities between bipolar and MOS devices prove extremely useful in understanding
the properties of each.
The order in which the two species are presented is also debatable. (Extensive sur-
veys conducted by Wiley indicate a 50-50 split between instructors on this matter.) Some
Suggestions for Instructors xiii
Bipolar First
Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar

Microelectronics Semiconductors and Circuits Transistors Amplifiers
(Chapter 1) (Chapter 2) (Chapter 3) (Chapter 4) (Chapter 5)
MOS MOS
Devices Amplifiers
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 7)
CMOS First MOS CMOS

Devices Amplifiers
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 17)

Microelectronics Semiconductors and Circuits Transistors Circuits
Course sequences for covering bipolar technology first or CMOS technology first.
instructors begin with MOS devices to ensure enough time is spent on their coverage. On
the other hand, the natural flow of the course calls for bipolar devices as an extension of
pn junctions. In fact, if diodes are immediately followed by MOS devices, the students see
little relevance between the two. (The pn junctions in MOSFETs do not come into the
picture until the device capacitances are introduced.)
My approach in this book is to first cover bipolar devices and circuits while building
the foundation such that the MOS counterparts are subsequently taught with greater ease.
As explained below, the material can comfortably be taught even in one quarter with no
sacrifice of details of either device type.
Nonetheless, the book is organized so as to allow covering CMOS circuits first if the
instructor so wishes. The sequence of chapters for each case is shown below. Chapter 16 is
written with the assumption that the students have not seen any amplifier design principles
so that the instructor can seamlessly go from MOS device phyics to MOS amplifier design
without having covered bipolar amplifiers.
Course Syllabi This book can be used in a two-quarter or two-semester sequence.

Depending on the instructor’s preference, the courses can follow various combinations
of the chapters. Figure illustrates some possibilities.
I have followed Syllabus I for the quarter system at UCLA for a number of years.1
Syllabus II sacrifices op amp circuits for an introductory treatment of digital CMOS
circuits.
In a semester system, Syllabus I extends the first course to current mirrors and cascode
stages and the second course to output stages and analog filters. Syllabus II, on the other
hand, includes digital circuits in the first course, moving current mirrors and cascodes to
the second course and sacrificing the chapter on output stages.
Figure shows the approximate length of time spent on the chapters as practiced at
UCLA. In a semester system, the allotted times are more flexible.
1
We offer a separate undergraduate course on digital circuit design, which the students can take only
after our first microelectronics course.
xiv Suggestions for Instructors
Quarter System, Syllabus I

First Quarter:
MOS CMOS Op Amp as
Devices Amplifiers Black Box
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 7) (Chapter 8)
Second Quarter:
Current Mirrors Differential Frequency Feedback and
and Cascodes Pairs Response Stability
(Chapter 9) (Chapter 10) (Chapter 11) (Chapter 12)
Quarter System, Syllabus II

First Quarter:
MOS CMOS Digital CMOS
Devices Amplifiers Circuits
Second Quarter:
Semester System, Syllabus I

First Semester:
MOS CMOS Op Amp as Current Mirrors
Devices Amplifiers Black Box and Cascodes
Second Semester:
Differential Frequency Feedback and Analog
Pairs Response Stability Oscillators Filters
Semester System, Syllabus II

First Semester:
MOS CMOS Op Amp as Digital CMOS
Devices Amplifiers Black Box Circuits
Second Semester:
and Cascodes Pairs Response Stability Oscillators
Different course structures for quarter and semester systems.

Suggestions for Instructors xv
Quarter System, Syllabus I

First Quarter:
1.5 Weeks 1.5 Weeks 1 Week 2 Weeks

1 Week 2 Weeks 1 Week
MOS CMOS Op Amp as

Devices Amplifiers Black Box
Second Quarter:
2 Weeks 3 Weeks 2 Weeks 3 Weeks

Timetable for the two courses.
Coverage of Chapters The material in each chapter can be decomposed into three
categories: (1) essential concepts that the instructor should cover in the lecture, (2) essential
skills that the students must develop but cannot be covered in the lecture due to the limited
time, and (3) topics that prove useful but may be skipped according to the instructor’s
preference.2 Summarized below are overviews of the chapters showing which topics should
be covered in the classroom.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Microelectronics The objective of this chapter is to pro-

vide the “big picture” and make the students comfortable with analog and digital signals.
I spend about 30 to 45 minutes on Sections 1.1 and 1.2, leaving the remainder of the chapter
(Basic Concepts) for the teaching assistants to cover in a special evening session in the
first week.
Chapter 2: Basic Semiconductor Physics Providing the basics of semiconductor de-

vice physics, this chapter deliberately proceeds at a slow pace, examining concepts from
different angles and allowing the students to digest the material as they read on. A terse
language would shorten the chapter but require that the students reread the material
multiple times in their attempt to decipher the prose.
It is important to note, however, that the instructor’s pace in the classroom need not
be as slow as that of the chapter. The students are expected to read the details and the
examples on their own so as to strengthen their grasp of the material. The principal point
in this chapter is that we must study the physics of devices so as to construct circuit models
for them. In a quarter system, I cover the following concepts in the lecture: electrons
and holes; doping; drift and diffusion; pn junction in equilibrium and under forward and
reverse bias.
Chapter 3: Diode Models and Circuits This chapter serves four purposes: (1) make the
students comfortable with the pn junction as a nonlinear device; (2) introduce the concept
of linearizing a nonlinear model to simplify the analysis; (3) cover basic circuits with which
any electrical engineer must be familiar, e.g., rectifiers and limiters; and (4) develop the
2
Such topics are identified in the book by a footnote.
xvi Suggestions for Instructors
skills necessary to analyze heavily-nonlinear circuits, e.g., where it is difficult to predict

which diode turns on at what input voltage. Of these, the first three are essential and
should be covered in the lecture, whereas the last depends on the instructor’s preference.
(I cover it in my lectures.) In the interest of time, I skip a number of sections in a quarter
system, e.g., voltage doublers and level shifters.
Chapter 4: Physics of Bipolar Transistors Beginning with the use of a voltage-

controlled current source in an amplifier, this chapter introduces the bipolar transistor
as an extension of pn junctions and derives its small-signal model. As with Chapter 2, the
pace is relatively slow, but the lectures need not be. I cover structure and operation of
the bipolar transistor, a very simplified derivation of the exponential characteristic, and
transistor models, mentioning only briefly that saturation is undesirable. Since the T-model
of limited use in analysis and carries little intuition (especially for MOS devices), I have
excluded it in this book.
Chapter 5: Bipolar Amplifiers This is the longest chapter in the book, building the
foundation necessary for all subsequent work in electronics. Following a bottom-up ap-
proach, this chapter establishes critical concepts such as input and output impedances,
biasing, and small-signal analysis.
While writing the book, I contemplated decomposing Chapter 5 into two chapters,
one on the above concepts and another on bipolar amplifier topologies, so that the lat-
ter could be skipped by instructors who prefer to continue with MOS circuits instead.
However, teaching the general concepts does require the use of transistors, making such
a decomposition difficult.
Chapter 5 proceeds slowly, reinforcing, step-by-step, the concept of synthesis and ex-
ploring circuit topologies with the aid of “What if?” examples. As with Chapters 2 and
4, the instructor can move at a faster pace and leave much of the text for the students to
read on their own. In a quarter system, I cover all of the chapter, frequently emphasizing
the concepts illustrated in Figure 5.7 (the impedance seen looking into the base, emit-
ter, or collector). With about two (perhaps two and half) weeks allotted to this chapter,
the lectures must be precisely designed to ensure the main concepts are imparted in the
classroom.
Chapter 6: Physics of MOS Devices This chapter parallels Chapter 4, introducing the
MOSFET as a voltage-controlled current source and deriving its characteristics. Given
the limited time that we generally face in covering topics, I have included only a brief
discussion of the body effect and velocity saturation and neglected these phenomena for
the remainder of the book. I cover all of this chapter in our first course.
Chapter 7: CMOS Amplifiers Drawing extensively upon the foundation established in

Chapter 5, this chapter deals with MOS amplifiers but at a faster pace. I cover all of this
chapter in our first course.
Chapter 8: Operational Amplifier as a Black Box Dealing with op-amp-based cir-

cuits, this chapter is written such that it can be taught in almost any order with respect to
other chapters. My own preference is to cover this chapter after amplifier topologies have
been studied, so that the students have some bare understanding of the internal circuitry of
op amps and its gain limitations. Teaching this chapter near the end of the first course also
places op amps closer to differential amplifiers (Chapter 10), thus allowing the students to
appreciate the relevance of each. I cover all of this chapter in our first course.
Suggestions for Instructors xvii
Chapter 9: Cascodes and Current Mirrors This chapter serves as an important step
toward integrated circuit design. The study of cascodes and current mirrors here also
provides the necessary background for constructing differential pairs with active loads
or cascodes in Chapter 10. From this chapter on, bipolar and MOS circuits are covered
together and various similarities and contrasts between them are pointed out. In our second
microelectronics course, I cover all of the topics in this chapter in approximately two
weeks.
Chapter 10: Differential Amplifiers This chapter deals with large-signal and small-
signal behavior of differential amplifiers. The students may wonder why we did not study
the large-signal behavior of various amplifiers in Chapters 5 and 7; so I explain that the
differential pair is a versatile circuit and is utilized in both regimes. I cover all of this chapter
in our second course.
Chapter 11: Frequency Response Beginning with a review of basic concepts such
as Bode’s rules, this chapter introduces the high-frequency model of transistors and ana-
lyzes the frequency response of basic amplifiers. I cover all of this chapter in our second
course.
Chapter 12: Feedback and Stability Most instructors agree the students find feed-
back to be the most difficult topic in undergraduate microelectronics. For this reason,
I have made great effort to create a step-by-step procedure for analyzing feedback cir-
cuits, especially where input and output loading effects must be taken into account. As with
Chapters 2 and 5, this chapter proceeds at a deliberately slow pace, allowing the students to
become comfortable with each concept and appreciate the points taught by each example.
I cover all of this chapter in our second course.
Chapter 13: Oscillators This new chapter deals with both discrete and integrated oscil-
lators. These circuits are both important in real-life applications and helpful in enhancing
the feedback concepts taught previously. This chapter can be comfortably covered in a
semester system.
Chapter 14: Output Stages and Power Amplifiers This chapter studies circuits that
deliver higher power levels than those considered in previous chapters. Topologies such
as push-pull stages and their limitations are analyzed. This chapter can be covered in a
semester system.
Chapter 15: Analog Filters This chapter provides a basic understanding of passive and
active filters, preparing the student for more advanced texts on the subject. This chapter
can also be comfortably covered in a semester system.
Chapter 16: Digital CMOS Circuits This chapter is written for microelectronics
courses that include an introduction to digital circuits as a preparation for subsequent
courses on the subject. Given the time constraints in quarter and semester systems, I have
excluded TTL and ECL circuits here.
Chapter 17: CMOS Amplifiers This chapter is written for courses that cover CMOS
circuits before bipolar circuits. As explained earlier, this chapter follows MOS device
physics and, in essence, is similar to Chapter 5 but deals with MOS counterparts.
xviii Suggestions for Instructors
Problem Sets In addition to numerous examples, each chapter offers a relatively large
problem set at the end. For each concept covered in the chapter, I begin with simple,
confidence-building problems and gradually raise the level of difficulty. Except for the
device physics chapters, all chapters also provide a set of design problems that encourage
students to work “in reverse” and select the bias and/or component values to satisfy certain
requirements.
SPICE Some basic circuit theory courses may provide exposure to SPICE, but it is in the
first microelectronics course that the students can appreciate the importance of simulation
tools. Appendix A of this book introduces SPICE and teaches circuit simulation with the
aid of numerous examples. The objective is to master only a subset of SPICE commands
that allow simulation of most circuits at this level. Due to the limited lecture time, I ask
the teaching assistants to cover SPICE in a special evening session around the middle of
the quarter—just before I begin to assign SPICE problems.
Most chapters contain SPICE problems, but I prefer to introduce SPICE only in the
second half of the first course (toward the end of Chapter 5). This is for two reasons:
(1) the students must first develop their basic understanding and analytical skills, i.e., the
homeworks must exercise the fundamental concepts; and (2) the students appreciate the
utility of SPICE much better if the circuit contains a relatively large number of devices
(e.g., 5-10).
Homeworks and Exams In a quarter system, I assign four homeworks before the
midterm and four after. Mostly based on the problem sets in the book, the homeworks
contain moderate to difficult problems, thereby requiring that the students first go over
the easier problems in the book on their own.
The exam questions are typically “twisted” versions of the problems in the book. To
encourage the students to solve all of the problems at the end of each chapter, I tell them
that one of the problems in the book is given in the exam verbatim. The exams are open-
book, but I suggest to the students to summarize the important equations on one sheet of
paper.
Happy Teaching!
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION TO 3.1.2 Ideal Diode 61
MICROELECTRONICS 1 3.1.3 Application Examples 65
1.1 Electronics versus 3.2 pn Junction as a Diode 70
Microelectronics 1 3.3 Additional Examples 72
1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 2 3.4 Large-Signal and Small-Signal
1.2.1 Cellular Telephone 2 Operation 77
1.2.2 Digital Camera 5 3.5 Applications of Diodes 86
1.2.3 Analog Versus Digital 7 3.5.1 Half-Wave and Full-Wave
1.3 Basic Concepts 8 Rectifiers 86
1.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals 8 3.5.2 Voltage Regulation 99
1.3.2 Analog Circuits 10 3.5.3 Limiting Circuits 101
1.3.3 Digital Circuits 11 3.5.4 Voltage Doublers 105
1.3.4 Basic Circuit Theorems 12 3.5.5 Diodes as Level Shifters and
1.4 Chapter Summary 20 Switches 110
3.6 Chapter Summary 112
Problems 113
2 BASIC PHYSICS OF
SEMICONDUCTORS 21 SPICE Problems 120
2.1 Semiconductor Materials and
Their Properties 22 4 PHYSICS OF BIPOLAR
2.1.1 Charge Carriers in Solids 22 TRANSISTORS 122
2.1.2 Modification of Carrier 4.1 General Considerations 122
Densities 25 4.2 Structure of Bipolar
2.1.3 Transport of Carriers 28 Transistor 124
2.2 pn Junction 35 4.3 Operation of Bipolar Transistor
2.2.1 pn Junction in Equilibrium 36 in Active Mode 125
2.2.2 pn Junction Under Reverse 4.3.1 Collector Current 128
Bias 41 4.3.2 Base and Emitter
2.2.3 pn Junction Under Forward Currents 131
Bias 45 4.4 Bipolar Transistor Models and
2.2.4 I/V Characteristics 48 Characteristics 133
2.3 Reverse Breakdown 53 4.4.1 Large-Signal Model 133
2.3.1 Zener Breakdown 54 4.4.2 I/V Characteristics 135
2.3.2 Avalanche Breakdown 54 4.4.3 Concept of
2.4 Chapter Summary 54 Transconductance 137
Problems 55 4.4.4 Small-Signal Model 139
SPICE Problems 58 4.4.5 Early Effect 144
4.5 Operation of Bipolar Transistor
3 DIODE MODELS AND in Saturation Mode 150
CIRCUITS 59 4.6 The PNP Transistor 153
3.1 Ideal Diode 59 4.6.1 Structure and
3.1.1 Initial Thoughts 59 Operation 154
xix
xx Contents
4.6.2 Large-Signal Model 154 6.2.6 Other Second-Order

4.6.3 Small-Signal Model 157 Effects 292
4.7 Chapter Summary 160 6.3 MOS Device Models 293
Problems 161 6.3.1 Large-Signal Model 293
SPICE Problems 168 6.3.2 Small-Signal Model 295
6.4 PMOS Transistor 296
5 BIPOLAR AMPLIFIERS 170 6.5 CMOS Technology 298
6.6 Comparison of Bipolar and MOS
5.1 General Considerations 170 Devices 299
5.1.1 Input and Output 6.7 Chapter Summary 299
Impedances 171
Problems 300
5.1.2 Biasing 175
SPICE Problems 307
5.1.3 DC and Small-Signal
Analysis 175
5.2 Operating Point Analysis and 7 CMOS AMPLIFIERS 309
Design 177 7.1 General Considerations 309
5.2.1 Simple Biasing 178 7.1.1 MOS Amplifier
5.2.2 Resistive Divider Biasing 181 Topologies 309
5.2.3 Biasing with Emitter 7.1.2 Biasing 309
Degeneration 184 7.1.3 Realization of Current
5.2.4 Self-Biased Stage 188 Sources 313
5.2.5 Biasing of PNP 7.2 Common-Source Stage 314
Transistors 191 7.2.1 CS Core 314
5.3 Bipolar Amplifier 7.2.2 CS Stage with Current-Source
Topologies 195 Load 317
5.3.1 Common-Emitter 7.2.3 CS Stage with Diode-
Topology 196 Connected Load 318
5.3.2 Common-Base Topology 223 7.2.4 CS Stage with
5.3.3 Emitter Follower 239 Degeneration 320
5.4 Summary and Additional 7.2.5 CS Core with Biasing 323
Examples 247 7.3 Common-Gate Stage 325
5.5 Chapter Summary 253 7.3.1 CG Stage with Biasing 330
Problems 253 7.4 Source Follower 331
SPICE Problems 268 7.4.1 Source Follower Core 332
7.4.2 Source Follower with
6 PHYSICS OF MOS Biasing 334
TRANSISTORS 270 7.5 Summary and Additional
Examples 336
6.1 Structure of MOSFET 270
6.2 Operation of MOSFET 273
Problems 340
6.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 273
SPICE Problems 352
6.2.2 Derivation of I-V
Characteristics 279
6.2.3 Channel-Length 8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Modulation 288 AS A BLACK BOX 354
6.2.4 MOS Transconductance 290 8.1 General Considerations 355
6.2.5 Velocity Saturation 292 8.2 Op-Amp-Based Circuits 357
Contents xxi
8.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier 357 10.3 MOS Differential Pair 458

8.2.2 Inverting Amplifier 359 10.3.1 Qualitative Analysis 459
8.2.3 Integrator and 10.3.2 Large-Signal Analysis 463
Differentiator 362 10.3.3 Small-Signal Analysis 467
8.2.4 Voltage Adder 369 10.4 Cascode Differential
8.3 Nonlinear Functions 370 Amplifiers 471
8.3.1 Precision Rectifier 370 10.5 Common-Mode Rejection 475
8.3.2 Logarithmic Amplifier 371 10.6 Differential Pair with Active
8.3.3 Square-Root Amplifier 372 Load 479
8.4 Op Amp Nonidealities 373 10.6.1 Qualitative Analysis 480
8.4.1 DC Offsets 373 10.6.2 Quantitative Analysis 482
8.4.2 Input Bias Current 376 10.7 Chapter Summary 487
8.4.3 Speed Limitations 379 Problems 488
8.4.4 Finite Input and Output SPICE Problems 500
Impedances 384
8.5 Design Examples 385
8.6 Chapter Summary 387 11 FREQUENCY
Problems 388 RESPONSE 502
SPICE Problems 394 11.1 Fundamental Concepts 502
11.1.1 General Considerations 502
11.1.2 Relationship Between
9 CASCODE STAGES AND Transfer Function and
CURRENT MIRRORS 395 Frequency Response 505
9.1 Cascode Stage 395 11.1.3 Bode’s Rules 508
9.1.1 Cascode as a Current 11.1.4 Association of Poles with
Source 395 Nodes 509
9.1.2 Cascode as an Amplifier 402 11.1.5 Miller’s Theorem 511
9.2 Current Mirrors 411 11.1.6 General Frequency
9.2.1 Initial Thoughts 411 Response 514
9.2.2 Bipolar Current Mirror 412 11.2 High-Frequency Models of
9.2.3 MOS Current Mirror 421 Transistors 517
9.3 Chapter Summary 424 11.2.1 High-Frequency Model of
Problems 425 Bipolar Transistor 517
SPICE Problems 435 11.2.2 High-Frequency Model of
MOSFET 519
11.2.3 Transit Frequency 520
10 DIFFERENTIAL 11.3 Analysis Procedure 522
AMPLIFIERS 437 11.4 Frequency Response of CE and
10.1 General Considerations 437 CS Stages 523
10.1.1 Initial Thoughts 437 11.4.1 Low-Frequency
10.1.2 Differential Signals 439 Response 523
10.1.3 Differential Pair 442 11.4.2 High-Frequency
10.2 Bipolar Differential Pair 442 Response 524
10.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 442 11.4.3 Use of Miller’s Theorem 524
10.2.2 Large-Signal Analysis 448 11.4.4 Direct Analysis 527
10.2.3 Small-Signal Analysis 453 11.4.5 Input Impedance 530
xxii Contents
11.5 Frequency Response of CB and 12.6.2 Voltage-Current

CG Stages 532 Feedback 589
11.5.1 Low-Frequency 12.6.3 Current-Voltage
Response 532 Feedback 592
11.5.2 High-Frequency 12.6.4 Current-Current
Response 532 Feedback 597
11.6 Frequency Response of 12.7 Effect of Nonideal I/O
Followers 535 Impedances 600
11.6.1 Input and Output 12.7.1 Inclusion of I/O
Impedances 538 Effects 601
11.7 Frequency Response of 12.8 Stability in Feedback
Cascode Stage 541 Systems 613
11.7.1 Input and Output 12.8.1 Review of Bode’s
Impedances 545 Rules 614
11.8 Frequency Response of 12.8.2 Problem of
Differential Pairs 546 Instability 615
11.8.1 Common-Mode Frequency 12.8.3 Stability Condition 618
Response 548 12.8.4 Phase Margin 621
11.9 Additional Examples 549 12.8.5 Frequency
11.10 Chapter Summary 553 Compensation 623
Problems 554 12.8.6 Miller
SPICE Problems 562 Compensation 626
12 FEEDBACK 563 Problems 628
SPICE Problems 639
12.1 General Considerations 563
12.1.1 Loop Gain 566
12.2 Properties of Negative 13 OSCILLATORS 641
Feedback 568 13.1 General Considerations 641
12.2.1 Gain Desensitization 568 13.2 Ring Oscillators 644
12.2.2 Bandwidth Extension 569 13.3 LC Oscillators 648
12.2.3 Modification of I/O 13.3.1 Parallel LC Tanks 648
Impedances 571 13.3.2 Cross-Coupled
12.2.4 Linearity Improvement Oscillator 652
575 13.3.3 Colpitts Oscillator 654
12.3 Types of Amplifiers 576 13.4 Phase Shift Oscillator 657
12.3.1 Simple Amplifier 13.5 Wien-Bridge Oscillator 660
Models 576 13.6 Crystal Oscillators 661
12.3.2 Examples of Amplifier 13.6.1 Crystal Model 661
Types 577 13.6.2 Negative-Resistance
12.4 Sense and Return Circuit 663
Techniques 579 13.6.3 Crystal Oscillator
12.5 Polarity of Feedback 582 Implementation 664
12.6 Feedback Topologies 584 13.7 Chapter Summary 667
12.6.1 Voltage-Voltage Problems 667
Feedback 585 SPICE Problems 672
Contents xxiii
14 OUTPUT STAGES AND 15.4 Active Filters 729

POWER AMPLIFIERS 673 15.4.1 Sallen and Key Filter 729
14.1 General Considerations 673 15.4.2 Integrator-Based
14.2 Emitter Follower as Power Biquads 735
Amplifier 674 15.4.3 Biquads Using Simulated
14.3 Push-Pull Stage 677 Inductors 738
14.4 Improved Push-Pull Stage 680 15.5 Approximation of Filter
14.4.1 Reduction of Crossover Response 743
Distortion 680 15.5.1 Butterworth Response 744
14.4.2 Addition of CE Stage 684 15.5.2 Chebyshev Response 748
14.5 Large-Signal 15.6 Chapter Summary 753
Considerations 687 Problems 754
14.5.1 Biasing Issues 687 SPICE Problems 758
14.5.2 Omission of PNP Power
Transistor 688 16 DIGITAL CMOS
14.5.3 High-Fidelity Design 691 CIRCUITS 760
14.6 Short-Circuit Protection 692 16.1 General Considerations 760
14.7 Heat Dissipation 692 16.1.1 Static Characterization of
14.7.1 Emitter Follower Power Gates 761
Rating 693 16.1.2 Dynamic Characterization
14.7.2 Push-Pull Stage Power of Gates 768
Rating 694 16.1.3 Power-Speed Trade-Off
14.7.3 Thermal Runaway 696 771
14.8 Efficiency 697 16.2 CMOS Inverter 773
14.8.1 Efficiency of Emitter 16.2.1 Initial Thoughts 773
Follower 697 16.2.2 Voltage Transfer
14.8.2 Efficiency of Push-Pull Characteristic 775
Stage 698 16.2.3 Dynamic
14.9 Power Amplifier Classes 699 Characteristics 781
14.10 Chapter Summary 700 16.2.4 Power Dissipation 786
Problems 701 16.3 CMOS NOR and NAND
SPICE Problems 705 Gates 790
16.3.1 NOR Gate 790
15 ANALOG FILTERS 707 16.3.2 NAND Gate 793
15.1 General Considerations 707 16.4 Chapter Summary 794
15.1.1 Filter Characteristics 708 Problems 795
15.1.2 Classification of SPICE Problems 800
Filters 709
15.1.3 Filter Transfer 17 CMOS AMPLIFIERS 801
Function 712 17.1 General Considerations 801
15.1.4 Problem of Sensitivity 716 17.1.1 Input and Output
15.2 First-Order Filters 717 Impedances 802
15.3 Second-Order Filters 720 17.1.2 Biasing 806
15.3.1 Special Cases 720 17.1.3 DC and Small-Signal
15.3.2 RLC Realizations 724 Analysis 807
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Reassured by the joyful reception he met, Charles returned to his
camp, weary with a ride that had lasted all night. But he had little
time for repose. Both armies were early afoot: on the one side the
flower of French and Provençal chivalry; on the other a medley of
Germans, Spaniards, and Italians. The forces were very unequal.
Conradin brought 6,000 horsemen into the field; Charles only half
the number. On both sides were equal fury, hatred, and eagerness to
commence the fray. Charles of Anjou’s audacity and impetuosity
might possibly have had disastrous results, but for the opportune
arrival of Erard de Valéry, constable of Champagne, his earliest
friend and companion in arms. “Erard was then very old, but still full
of vigour. His colossal stature, herculean vigour, and white hair gave
him resemblance to the centenary giant of an Arabian tale. Formerly
he had refused to become a priest, that he might remain in the
society of princes and noble ladies. Now, a true Christian soldier, he
lived only in God. The old chevalier was on his way from the Holy
Land, returning to France with a hundred good knights in his train.
Whilst traversing the kingdom of Naples, he heard of the king’s
presence, and would not proceed without visiting him.” Charles
urged him to take part in the approaching fight. Erard refused,
alleging his age, his wish to die in peace far from human turmoil,
and, finally, a vow to fight only against infidels. Charles overruled all
objections, replying to the last one that his opponents were
excommunicated, and consequently worse than infidels. Then the
wary old chief arranged an ambush, which would have been utterly
unsuccessful with an ordinarily prudent foe, but which answered well
enough with the unlucky Conradin, who had not even made the
necessary reconnaissances. Charles, who had great deference for the
Sire de Valéry, willingly put himself under his orders, leaving him the
direction of all things. The army was divided into three bodies, of
which the strongest, commanded by Charles himself, was placed in
ambush behind a hill in rear of the Neapolitan position. The other
two, sent forward against Conradin, were beaten and cut to pieces,
after a combat that lasted from sunrise till six in the evening. Henry
de Cousance, a French marshal, who resembled Charles in stature
and appearance, and who, with a purple mantle over his armour and
a crown upon his helm, took post in the centre of the army, to
personate the king, was killed early in the action. “Meanwhile
Charles of Anjou, in ambuscade with Erard de Valéry and his eight
hundred knights, trembled with rage. Burning with eagerness to
strike in, he rode up and down in rear of the hill, like a lion in his
cage; he was dying with impatience and grief, (moriva di dolore, says
Villani, vedendo la sua gente cosi barattare.) With inflamed eyes, he
from time to time looked Valéry in the face, thus silently demanding
permission to show himself and fight. He might have foreseen the
massacre of his two squadrons. The plan of battle adopted was likely
to entail this disaster. But what he had not foreseen was that it would
be impossible for him to support such a sight.” When the gallant
Cousance fell, pierced with a thousand blows, and Conradin’s army
made the welkin ring with exulting shouts of “Victory! the tyrant is
dead!” Charles wept with rage. But his promise to Valéry chained
him to his rock of agony. What follows is highly romantic and
chivalrous. The knights who surrounded him said, ‘So noble a fate is
it to die for the justice of a royal cause, that we would infinitely
rejoice thus to lose our lives. Be well assured, sire, that we will follow
you every where, even to death.’ With feverish impatience they
waited the signal of Erard de Valéry, who remained imperturbable.
Suddenly Guillaume de l’Estendard (one of the commanders of the
troops already engaged) crossed the battle-field at speed, feigning to
fly, in order to draw the Spaniards on. They followed. Then the old
knight raised his enormous head and gigantic person above the brow
of the little hill, and said to the King, ‘Marchons!’ Charles was off like
a dart, followed by Valéry and the eight hundred chevaliers; they
swept across the plain, and found Conradin, Gualvano Lancia, and
Frederick of Austria seated unhelmed and unarmed on the bank of
the little river Salto, like conquerors reposing; whilst the German
mercenaries were dispersed in search of booty, stripping the dead
and loading the spoils on carts. Charles and his reserve of fresh and
picked men had a cheap bargain of them, as also of the Spaniards,
who were taken prisoners, on their return from the pursuit of
Estendard, almost to a man. A complete victory, alloyed only by a
heavy loss of brave and devoted followers, remained to Charles of
Anjou. “Such,” says M. de St Priest, “was the celebrated battle of
Alba, improperly named the battle of Tagliacozzo, after a village
more than six miles from the scene of action. It is one of those deeds
of arms of which history will ever preserve the memory, less on
account of the greatness of the result, than for the dramatic interest
attaching to the quarrel and the men. On the one hand we see a
young prince in the flush of youth and brilliant valour, full of
conviction of his good right, the noblest and most unfortunate of
pretenders; on the other, a warrior terrible even to ferocity, but not
less convinced of the legitimacy of his cause, one of the greatest
princes, and, beyond contradiction, the greatest captain of his time.”
M. de St Priest proceeds to attribute the chief merit of the victory to
his hero. “In this bloody game at bars, full of snares, traps, surprises,
where we see these terrible condottieri, covered with blood, running
after each other like schoolboys at play, success was due less to the
odd stratagem of Valéry than to the rapid march, the four days’ race
in the mountains, from Lucera to Aquila. If Charles showed himself a
great general, it was less when in ambuscade behind the hill of
Capello, than when, like a bird of prey hovering above the wild
Abruzzi, he fell with a swoop upon the imprudent band, who deemed
him astray in the defiles, lost in the ravines, or fallen amongst
precipices.”
Meanwhile Conradin, his army destroyed, his hopes shattered, was
a fugitive, with scarcely a follower. One or two days he abode in
Rome, protected by the Ghibellines; then, driven forth by the return
of the Guelfs, consequent on the ruin of his cause, he fled with
Frederick of Austria and a few Italian nobles, to the sea-coast, near
the castle of Astura, a fortress of the Frangipani family. Hiring a
boat, they set sail for Pisa, but were pursued and overtaken by a fast
galley, whose commander summoned them to bring to, and ordered
the passengers to repair to his quarter-deck. Conradin asked in
astonishment who this man was, and heard in reply that it was
Giovanni Frangipani, master of the neighbouring castle. At this name
Conradin was overjoyed. “Giovanni is a Roman,” he said; “his family
have always been devoted to the house of Swabia; they have been
loaded with benefits by the Emperor Frederick; a Frangipani will
assuredly defend and befriend me.” Full of confidence, he went on
board the galley. “I am King Conrad V.,” was his hasty speech to the
lord of Astura, “and I have sought to reconquer the kingdom of my
ancestors.” Frangipani made no reply: the prince was astonished at
his silence, asked him to assist his flight, descended at last to
entreaties, offered, it is said, to marry his daughter; but the stern
pirate remained mute, and on reaching land, threw the prince and
his companions into a dungeon. Delivered up to Charles, they were
led to Rome on foot and in chains. “Oh, my mother!” cried Conradin,
with bitter tears, “you foretold this, and I was deaf to your words. Oh,
my mother! what grief for your old age!” He did nothing but sob the
whole of the road, Saba Malaspina tells us, and seemed half dead,
and as if out of his senses. But this weakness, which, in such
misfortune and in a mere child, was not unnatural, soon gave way to
tranquil fortitude and Christian resignation.
The ashes of the fires lighted in Rome to celebrate Conradin’s
triumphant passage had scarcely cooled, when he re-entered the
walls of the Eternal City, a fettered captive marching to his doom.
Thence he was taken to Naples, where an imposing and numerous
tribunal assembled to judge him. Many of its members were for a
mild punishment, some for none at all; others remained silent; one
only opined for the death of the accused. But Charles had determined
on his young rival’s destruction; he threw his word and influence into
the scale, and sentence of decapitation was pronounced on Conradin
of Swabia, Frederick of Baden, known as Duke of Austria, and the
barons taken in their company. The two princes had not expected
such severity, and were playing at chess in their prison when it was
announced to them. They piously confessed, were absolved by the
Pope, who relented at this extreme moment, and were led to the
scaffold, which was covered with a red cloth in honour of the victims’
royal blood. The executioner was there, with naked arms and feet,
and axe in hand. Conradin embraced him, having previously done
the same by his friend Frederick and the other sufferers—then laid
his head upon the block. When the axe rose, the French chevaliers
who stood around the scaffold fell upon their knees and prayed; and
as they did so, the head of Conradin rolled upon the crimson cloth.
At this sight the Duke of Austria started up as if crazed with despair;
he was seized and executed, uttering horrible cries. This butchery at
last roused the indignation of the French knights. Robert de Béthune
threw himself upon the prothonotary, who had read Conradin’s
sentence, and with a blow of his sword cast him down half dead from
his platform. This strange and unreasonable act, proceeding from a
generous but savage impulse, was greatly applauded by the
spectators. Even Charles himself was compelled to feign approval of
his son-in-law’s violence.
No funeral honours were paid to Conradin and his companions.
They were buried secretly in the sand, on the shore of the sea, at the
mouth of the river Sebeto. Of their captivity, judgment, and death,
M. de St Priest declares himself to have given, with the fidelity of a
conscientious historian, an exact and truthful account. At the same
time, he subjoins various details that have obtained more or less
credence, but which he treats as fables. It has been said, that when
Conradin embarked at Astura, he gave a ring in payment of his
passage; that the boatmen who received the jewel took it to
Frangipani, and that the fugitive was recognised and arrested upon
this romantic indication. According to traditions, the Duke of Austria
was executed the first, and Conradin kissed his head, which, all
severed and bleeding as it was, still invoked the Holy Virgin. Robert
de Béthune killed, it has been affirmed, the prothonotary Robert de
Bari, whose signature is found, however, in many subsequent acts.
And to crown all these marvels, it has been confidently asserted that,
after the execution of the two princes, a masked stranger stabbed the
headsman. Very recent and trustworthy writers have recorded as
fact, that Conradin, just before receiving the fatal blow, threw a glove
amongst the crowd, to be taken to Peter of Arragon, to whom he
bequeathed his vengeance and crown. A German chevalier,
Truchsess de Waldburg, (M. de St Priest calls him Waldburg de
Truchsess,) gathered up the gage, and with much risk and difficulty
bore it to its destination. The present historian discredits the whole
of this glove-story—a fiction, he says, of the invention of Sylvius
Piccolomini. He is more unwilling to doubt the following touching
tradition:—“One day the inhabitants of Naples beheld in their bay a
vessel of strange form and colour; hull, sails, and rigging were all
black. A woman in deep sables left the ship,—it was Queen Elizabeth-
Margaret, Conradin’s mother. At the rumour of her son’s captivity
she embarked all her treasures, and, gaining intrepidity from her
maternal love, this Elizabeth, previously so feeble and fearful that
she dared not leave her castles in Swabia and the Tyrol, exposed
herself to the perils of the sea, as bearer of her child’s ransom. But it
was too late. When she reached Naples, Conradin was dead. Then the
unhappy mother implored a single favour: she desired to erect a
monument to him she wept, on the spot where he had perished.
Charles would not consent, although he authorised the erection of a
church upon the place of execution, and contributed a considerable
sum towards the work,—an expiatory offering which, in conjunction
with the useless ransom, attested at once the grief of an inconsolable
mother, and the tardy remorse of a pitiless victor.” The church is to
be seen at Naples, upon the square of Santa Maria del Carmine;
beneath its altar is the tomb, with its inscription; the statue of
Elizabeth stands there with a purse in its hand. Surely this is
confirmation strong of the truth of the tradition! Unfortunately,
church, inscription, and statue are all of a recent date.
The events just detailed left Charles of Anjou at the pinnacle of
power and greatness. The magnitude of the danger he had run added
to the lustre of his triumph. Nothing now resisted him; he might
almost be styled the master of Italy. Every where the Guelfs drove
the Ghibellines before them; every where the Swabian eagle fled
before the red and silver lilies. The cause of the Ghibellines was lost.
The fortunate conqueror was on every point successful. His domestic
prosperity kept pace with his political and military success. Charles,
then forty-two years old, beheld himself surrounded by a numerous
posterity. He had two sons and three daughters. His queen, Beatrix
of Provence, was dead; but soon he contracted a second marriage
with the young and beautiful Margaret of Burgundy. Nature herself
seemed to favour him; for in the short space of three years, all his
enemies, in any way formidable, disappeared from the scene.
Amongst others, the valiant and adventurous Corrado Capece, taken
prisoner by the implacable Guillaume de l’Estendard, had his eyes
put out, and was hung upon a gibbet of extraordinary altitude,
erected for the purpose upon the coast of Catania. The Saracens of
Lucera still held out. Besieged by a powerful army, with Charles at its
head, they resisted for six months, till reduced to eat hay and roots.
The bodies of stragglers from the town being opened by the
besiegers, only grass was found in their bellies. At last they gave in.
Charles, with a wise policy, showed them mercy, contenting himself
with banishing them from Lucera, and distributing them amongst
the towns of the interior. Although the piety of the first French king
of Sicily was carried almost to an exaggerated extent, it did not
degenerate into fanaticism; at least not into that fanaticism which
engenders persecution. He never adopted the prejudices of the time
against the Jews; on the contrary, he delivered them from the hands
of state inquisitors, and suppressed the distinctive mark they were
compelled to wear upon their garments. Financial considerations
may not improbably have stimulated, at least as much as the dictates
of reason and humanity, this enlightened spirit of tolerance; but still
it is to the credit of Charles that he did not, like many very Christian
kings and nobles of his and subsequent centuries, smite the Israelite
with one hand whilst stripping him with the other. The King of
Jerusalem was merciful to his subjects. Charles it was who first
added this title to that of King of Sicily, by purchase from the old
Princess Mary of Antioch, who called herself Mademoiselle de
Jerusalem, and claimed that crown, then little more than a name.
When Charles, for a pension of four thousand livres tournois,
acquired her rights, he hastened to vindicate them. They were
disputed by Henry, King of Cyprus, who had the advantage of
possession; for he held Ptolemais, the last fragment of the christian
kingdom of Palestine. The Knights of St John supported him; Venice
and the Templars backed King Charles. The latter carried the day.
Master of southern Italy, armed protector of the north, Charles I.
had no longer aught to check him; the East was open before him.
Already he occupied a part of Greece. All that mountainous coast of
Albania, celebrated in our days for the devotedness of the Suliots,
belonged to him by the death of Helena Comnenus, Mainfroy’s
widow, daughter of the despot of Thessaly and Epirus. He also held
the island of Corfu, that natural bridge thrown between Italy and the
East. The town of Durazzo revolted in his favour, and called him
within its walls. He swayed Achaia and the Morea, and had
constituted himself candidate for the throne of Constantinople by
marrying his daughter to Philip de Courtenay, nominal heir to the
Latin Empire, but living in reality on the alms of his father-in-law. It
seemed, then, that he had nothing to do but to bid his fleet sail for
Byzantium. But in the midst of his ambitious projects he was
interrupted by the new crusade, the last undertaken, got up by Saint
Louis, and in which Charles could not refuse to join. The death of St
Louis terminated the expedition; and after dictating terms of peace
to the sultan of Tunis, in whose dominions the adventurers had
landed, their return to Europe, by way of Sicily, was decided upon. It
was not consistent with Charles’s character to forget or abandon an
enterprise he had once decided upon; and on landing at Trapani, he
assembled the council of crusading kings and princes, and proposed
to them to re-embark for Constantinople. It was a bold and sagacious
idea to take advantage of this unusual assemblage of naval forces to
establish French power in the East; but Charles, indefatigable
himself, spoke to disheartened and disgusted men. All refused, and
Edward Plantagenet (afterwards Edward I. of England) rejected with
insulting energy his uncle’s proposition, declaring that he would
winter in Sicily, and afterwards return to Syria, which he did, without
other result than the wound cured by the well-known trait of
conjugal affection and courage of the virtuous and intrepid Eleanor
of Castile. Subsequently, the realisation of Charles’s ambitious
designs upon the East, long entertained, was continually prevented
by one circumstance or another, until at last the affairs of Sicily gave
him occupation at home, effectually precluding aggrandisement
abroad. Essentially a man of war, he nevertheless, in time of peace,
showed skill, intelligence, and activity in the administration of the
kingdom of Naples. Had the distant provinces of his dominions been
as well governed, M. de St Priest affirms that the Two Sicilies would
not, during more than two centuries, have been sundered and at
enmity. But Charles abandoned the island Sicily to his lieutenants.
He positively disliked and ill-treated it, and determined to dispossess
Palermo of its title of capital, in favour of the city of Naples, of which
he was enthusiastically fond. Palermo was too devoted to the house
of Swabia; and, moreover, to maintain correspondence with the
north of Italy, with Rome, and especially with France, it suited
Charles far better to fix his headquarters and seat of government at
Naples. From the very first moment, he had been greatly struck by
the aspect of the latter city. The bright sky and sunny sea and
mountain amphitheatre that still charm and fascinate the tourist,
had a far stronger effect upon the prince whom conquest rendered
their master. He at once mentally fixed upon Naples as his capital,
and gradually accomplished his project—without, however,
announcing it by public declaration, and even continuing to give to
Palermo the titles establishing its supremacy. But, whilst retaining
the empty name of superiority, the Sicilian city felt itself
substantially fallen; and this may have been a cause, and no slight
one, that its inhabitants were the first to rise in arms against the
galling yoke and insolent neglect of their French rulers.
M. de St Priest’s third volume brings Charles to the zenith of his
fortunes. Invested for life with the high dignity of sole Roman
senator, he had the full support and hearty alliance of Martin IV.—a
French pope, whose election had been compelled from the conclave
by the intimidation of the sword. It was the first time since Charles
had entered Italy that the pontifical chair had been occupied by a
man on whose docility he could entirely reckon. Papal mistrust and
jealousy had been the bane of many of his projects. All
apprehensions from that quarter were now removed, and, strong in
this holy alliance, he again prepared for his eastern expedition. All
was ready; at the head of five thousand men, without counting
infantry, and of a hundred and thirty ships, he had only to give the
order to steer for the Bosphorus. But in Sicily, the storm, long
brewing, was on the eve of bursting forth; and the powerful
armament intended for distant conquest, was found insufficient to
retain present possessions. The decline of Charles’s life was also that
of his power: his last days were days of heaviness, disaster, and grief.
TRAVELLING IN TAFFYLAND.
People wander into Wales principally in search of health and

amusement; a few for business; many without any purpose whatever,
except the desire of changing place and doing something. Any one
who finds himself in either of these classes need not fear being
disappointed in the results of his visit; for there is motion and
change enough throughout the country; sufficient business to make
it worth the while of those who know how to buy and sell;
amusement for all who are worth amusing, and health enough for all
the world. Let no man, however, deceive himself with the vain
expectation that he shall have no ups and downs in his pilgrimage
through the country; let no one suppose that it is perpetual sunshine
there; nor let any one fondly think that, because he does himself the
honour of whipping a stream with fly and line, therefore, at every
throw a sixpound trout is sure to swallow his bait. Far otherwise. The
tourist in Wales must not be a man of many expectations, and then
he will not be disappointed; he must be content to go many a weary
mile to see some choice bit of scenery, and then to come as many or
more miles home again; he must make up his mind to have plenty of
rain, wind and cold, in the hottest day in summer; and he may cast
his fly all the way up from Conwy to Penmachno without having “one
single glorious rise.” In fact, he must be a patient reasonable man,
and then he may adventure himself in Taffyland without fear.
But if he is an acute observer of nature—if he loves to see the
wildest forms that mountains, and streams, and lakes can assume—if
he likes to make himself a denizen of the clouds, and to hold
converse with the children of the mist—if he can appreciate primitive
national manners—if he has ever so small a smattering of English
history—if he can listen to simple, plaintive music, and can be
content to see birds, beasts, and fishes all enjoying themselves in
their original freedom, then let him hasten to the mountain side,
wander up the valley, stroll along the river, or dream away his day by
the shingle bank on the sea shore; he will never repent of a visit to
Wales.
The old road from Chester to Holyhead has been, and now is more
than ever, the main line of entry for Saxons and other foreigners into
the Cimbric land; but there are others quite as good. From Salop to
Bangor by Telford’s Parliamentary road, through some of the finest
scenery the country affords; or from Wrexham by Llangollen’s Vale
and Bala’s Lake, athwart the land to Dolgelly; or from Aberystwyth,
creeping along the sea-coast by Barmouth and Tremadoc to
Caernarvon; or from Liverpool by the fast-going steamers close
under Orme’s Head to the Menai Bridge; any of these ways is good.
The main thing is once to get the foot fairly planted on Welsh soil;
the natural attractions of the country will be sure to lead the traveller
onward, and can scarcely lead him amiss.
Let no one come into Wales with a superfluity of luggage; the
lighter the impediments of travelling, the quicker and the cheaper is
that travelling performed. Let no one, unless absolutely forced to it,
pretend to travel alone; solitude is sweet no doubt, but Montaigne
remarks that it is still sweeter if there be somebody to whisper this
to; add to which that society enlivens the journey, and, as the Scotch
song has it,
“Company is aye the best, crossing owre the heather.”
Seeing too that conveyances are not so plentiful in the principality as

they might be; and that a car or chaise costs no more for four than it
does for one; let all those who are wise in their designs of Welsh
travel come by pairs, or double couples. Four is an excellent number
for a travelling party, since in case of dispute the votes are either
even, or are three to one; four make up a parti carré at dinner; four
balance a car well; four can split into two parties if need be; and four
coming together to an inn are sure to fare much better than one
solitary traveller.
Don’t go to Wales in July, the wettest and windiest month of the
twelve that the principality has the honour of knowing. May is a
sweet month; the colours of the woods and mountains gay and
delicate, with little rain, and generally as much sun as is wanted. In
June, every thing is in full perfection, and there are long days to
boot, and you may then remain out under a rock all night without
damage. August corresponds to June, but the days are shorter, and
the company to be met with is commonly more select. September is
generally the equivalent of May, but the colours are glowing with the
rich tints of autumn; and though the days are still shorter, yet the
sights to be seen in them will make up for this falling off. No person
goes among the mountains in winter, except those who cannot help
it; yet this is not their least advantageous period for being witnessed;
and those who can brave frost and snow, and the unchained force of
all the winds of heaven, will be repaid for the labours and
discomforts of such a visit.
For those who are fond of the rod, the gun, and the chase, North
Wales is a land of choice. Whether they bob for whales in Bardsey
Sound, or hunt up the brooks and prattling streams of
Merionethshire, or seek the banks of many a glassy mountain pool,
they will find enough to repay them for their trouble. The shooter
will find, from the grouse of Montgomeryshire and Caernarvonshire
to the partridges and the snipes of Anglesey, abundant occupation
for his gun. And the huntsman, though he cannot gallop over Caddir-
Idris, will find many a wily fox more than a match for him and all his
dogs, among the desolate cairns of the mountain tops, or may find
hares as big as sheep, and fleet enough to try the mettle of the best
horse he will dare to ride after them.
Whenever a tourist wishes to pass his summer months healthily
and agreeably, but is in doubt whither to go, let him start off for
Wales—North Wales—forthwith; and let him not return till wood and
water, and hill and dale have ceased to call forth his admiration.
Do not trust too implicitly to guidebooks, good traveller; take them
and consult them; but beware of their lying propensities. They have
inveigled many a loving subject of her Majesty’s into a scrape, and
have proved the dearest things he ever admitted into his pocket. Go
with your eyes open; go with a little common sense; go to be pleased:
don’t go to find fault. Make up your mind to rough it if need be; and
don’t give yourself the airs of my Lord Duke at every little wayside
inn that your dignity may be forced to put up at. You may then travel
smoothly and cheerfully through the Cimbric territory.
Take also this along with you. The Welsh are tremendously slow
coaches. Indolent, pig-headed, and careless, the dolce far niente is
their motto throughout life; and, were they left to themselves, they
would positively retrograde through unwillingness to go a-head. It is
of no use hurrying them; a Welshman was never in a hurry in his life;
time, like water, is to him of little value; he has plenty and to spare of
it, and the waste of either commodity is not thought of. In Wales,
they let both run away often to little purpose; they have fewer “water
privileges” than any one could imagine; and they turn their privilege
of an ad libitum supply of leisure to very poor account. So do not
hurry a Welshman; for you will not gain any of his time, but will only
lose some of your own, by so doing.
The true way to enjoy Wales, and to understand the country, is to
go and fix your quarters at some quiet little country inn in a spot to
your taste; and remain there for a fortnight—a month—or as long as
your gusto endures; walking up the whole country around, until you
know every crook and cranny of it, until it becomes in fact your
“ancient neighbourhood.” Many, or rather innumerable are the spots
where you may so fix yourself, and where your enjoyments, though
simple, may be extreme. If you are a bachelor, you can get clean
beds, sheets of driven snow, plenty of good milk, mountain mutton,
and bread and butter à discrétion; and what the deuce does a man
want more? If he is young, and in good health and spirits, and cannot
fare upon this, let him put up his traps and go to the antipodes. Or, if
you are in the softer predicament of having with you what, when you
and I were young, you know, used to be called poetice, the “girl of
your heart”—but what now in Polichinellic phraseology is termed the
“wife of your bussum”—why, even in this extremity, you may find
room for two in any inn that you venture to light upon. The lady
must not be too fine in her notions, it is true; she must be of that
breed and mettle that will enable her to face the mountain breeze,
and wipe with hasty foot—as friend Gray says,—the dews of the
upland lawn; to meet the sun or the moon, or any other natural
phenomenon that is to be encountered on the hill-side. In short, she
must be the sort of girl that can mount a rough pony, or scramble
over a stone wall, and not care for her bonnet or her locks in a pelting
shower, but must be content to follow her liege lord, and love him—
and love his pursuits too, whether by the purling brook, or on the
misty height. Be sure of it, my friend, that with such a companion as
this, Welsh scenery—mountain scenery—nay, any scenery, will have
for you a double—ay, a tenfold charm.
Men enjoy mountains: women enjoy waterfalls. There is no saying
why it is; but the fact is positive. Perhaps it may be that men can toil
up the rugged steep with greater ease, and therefore enjoy
themselves the more when they reach the top. Perhaps it is that there
is something grand, and bold, and rough, and dangerous, in the very
nature of a mountain, which the masculine mind is alone capable of
fully understanding. In waterfalls, there is all the beauty of form, and
light and graceful motion, and harmonious sound, and cooling
freshness, and ever-changing variety that woman always loves; and
there are overshadowing trees, and an escape from the noontide sun,
and the hum of insect life, and moss-grown stones, and soft grassy
banks. Waterfalls and their adjuncts have a kind of mystic influence
about them that acts with all-persuasive energy on the female mind:
hearts like stones are worn down by their action, and the swain has
often been indebted to the Naiad for the granting of his prayer.
Well; wherever you may be, whether single or double, any where in
Wales, the first thing to do is to make a bargain with your landlady,
(Welsh inns are always kept by women,) whereby you may be
“boarded and lodged and done for” at so much a day, or a week, or a
month, or whatever time it may please you to stay. This is the very
best of all plans for “taking your pleasure in your inn;” you know
then the exact cost of your stay—the precise damage done to your
pocket; you dine comfortably, without fearing that you are
swallowing a five shilling piece in the midst of each chop, and you
can witness the last day of your sojourn arrive without dread of that
unpleasant winding up—the bill. You may get boarded and lodged
comfortably, nay luxuriously, as far as mountain luxury goes, for a
pound a-week: you may take your full swing of the house for this;
and your landlady will ask for a repetition of the honour next year
when you depart. So let no man say that living in Wales is
extravagant; it is only the savoir vivre that is the scarce commodity.
And if you would know where to go and find comfortable quarters
of this kind, and at this rate, then take our advice, gentle reader, and
listen to a few experiences. Go to Bala, and fish the lake there till not
a trout is left in it, and cut away at mine host’s mutton and beef,
when you come back from your day’s excursion, as though you had
not eaten for a week; and turn in by ten at night,—not later, mind;
and be up again by five, and out on the mountain side, or amid the
woods by six, and home again by seven to your morning fare. So shall
you have health and happiness, and freedom from ennui the livelong
day.
Or go to Ffestiniog, up among its mountains, and ramble over to
the lakes below Snowdon, and visit the company at Beddgelert and
Tan-yBwlch—rather aristocratic places in their way, and made for
travellers with long purses. At Ffestiniog you are in the
neighbourhood of the best mountain scenery of Wales; and as for
vales and streams, you have such as you will never see elsewhere.
Or else go to Bettws-y-Coed near Llanrwst, the village of the
confluence of so many streams and valleys; that sweet woodland
scene, that choice land of waterfalls, and sunny glades, and wood-
clad cliffs. Here you may have variety of scenery in the greatest
perfection; and here you may enjoy the happiest admixture of the
wild and the beautiful that the principality can boast of. It is indeed a
lovely spot; and, provided the visitor has some intellectual resources
and amusements within himself, one that the tourist can never get
tired of. It will bear visiting again and again. Decies repetita placebit.
But, dear sir, if you are bent upon making the grand tour, and if
you positively will see the whole of the country, then by all means
start from Chester, and make a continual round until you arrive at
Shrewsbury; so shall you see the whole length and breadth,—the
bosom and the very bowels of the land. You must go and see Conwy,
Penmaen Mawr, and “the Bridge,” as it is still emphatically called—
Telford’s beautiful exemplification of the catenary curve—and then
go and hunt out Prince Edward’s natal room in Caernarvon’s towers;
and then clamber up Snowdon; and then go down again to Capel
Curig and Beddgelert, and so pass by Pont Aberglaslyn to Tan-y-
Bwlch, Ffestiniog and Dolgelly; and then mount Cadair Idris; and
then run up to Bala and Llangollen, and so stretch away to the abode
of the “proud Salopians.” And a very agreeable tour you will have
made, no doubt; but you will not know Wales for all that. You have
not been along the byeways, nor over the dreary heath, nor into the
river’s bed, nor under the sea-crag’s height: you will not have seen a
tithe of the wonders of the country. You must see all these great
places of course: but you ought to look after much more than this;
you must wander over the broad lands of the Vale of Clwyd, and look
up all its glorious little trout streams; you must go to the solitary
heights of Carnedd Llewelyn, and the Glidr above Nant Francon; and
you must get up to Llyn Idwal, and have nerve enough to climb over
and under the rocks of the Twll Du; and you must go to the very end
of Llŷn, or else you will never know what it is to lie down flat at the
edge of the Parwyd precipice, and look down six hundred feet sheer
into the sea, with not a blade of grass nor a stone between you and
the deep blue waters fresh from the Atlantic. And you must climb
over the bleak Merionethshire hills to seaward, and hunt up the
lonely fishing pools that abound in their recesses; and you must dive
into the green wooded valleys of Montgomeryshire, and learn
whence the Severn draws all its peat-brown waters. There is
occupation enough in this for the longest summer that ever yet shone
on Wales; you may start on your pilgrimage with the first green bud
of spring, and end it with the sere and yellow leaf of autumn: but it is
only in such lengthened and lonely rambles as these that the real
beauties of the country are to be seen, and that the full loveliness of
nature—unsophisticated nature—is to be perceived.
Take your fishing rod with you, take your sketch book; explore the
whole country; bring it away with you both in mind and on paper:
leave care and trouble behind you; banish all reminiscences of town;
go and be a dweller with the birds and the dumb animals, with the
leaves and the stones, with the oak in the forest and the carn on the
mountain, and gain thereby a fund of health and satisfaction, that
shall endure for many a long day and year, nor be exhausted even
then.
You are too old a traveller, we will suppose, to need many
instructions as to the general apparatus required; only mind and err
rather on the side of scantiness than otherwise; you can get all you
really want at the first town you come to. Who is the rash man that
would risk a good hat or a good coat on a Welsh mountain? Alas! he
shall soon know the end of his gear, and lament over the loss of his
pence. The very idea of going into cloud-land with anything on that
you care about spoiling, or rather that can by any possibility be
spoiled! Is it not your privilege, your aim, your pride, when you get
among the mountains, to be able to go right on end, through stream
and bog, over rock and swamp, without stopping to think of
habilimentary consequences? You may tell an old traveller by the
“cut of his jib;” it is only your thorough cockney that comes down in
his new green shooting coat, and his bright shepherd’s plaid
trowsers, just out of the tailor’s hands, and a hat with the shine not
yet taken out of it. Look at that tall, thin, bony, sinewy man, going
along the road there with an easy gait, neither stiff nor lax, neither
quick nor slow, but always uniform, whether up hill or down hill, or
on level ground, always at the same pace; his knees never tightened,
his instep never approaching to a hop; but in all weathers and in all
seasons, over rough or smooth, never falling under three nor quite
coming up to four miles an hour. And look at his low-crowned felt
hat,—he wears a Jim-Crow one, by the way, in very hot weather,—
why, you would not give it to a pig-driver, so brown and battered it
seems: and look at his funny little coat; neither a coat nor a jacket,—
neither black, nor brown, nor blue, but a mixture of all colours, just
as the rain may have been pleased to leave portions of its dye
remaining. And his trowsers, shrunk to mid-leg proportions, are just
covering the tops of his gaiters, yet allowing a bit of his gray worsted
socks to appear. A stout stick which he twirls merrily in his hand,
and a light leathern wallet, not bigger than your letter-bag, thrown
over one shoulder,—or else his fishing-basket coming snugly under
his elbow. He is the true pedestrian,—he is the ancient traveller,—he
is the lover of the Cymro and the Cymraeg,—he is the man that
enjoys himself thoroughly in Wales.
Once upon a time, dear friend, we found ourselves coming over
Moel Siabod, that wild and beautiful hill rising over the eastern side
of Capel Curig; swinging away in our simplicity of heart, and
purposing to reach the lonely fastness of Dolwyddelan by noon, on a
piping hot July day. We had crowned the mountain ridge, and had
come half-way down the eastern slope, when we found ourselves at
the edge of a great peat bog, with never a path, nor a stone, nor any
thing to guide us through it. Beyond and below it lay the valley for
which we were making, green, smiling, and beautiful, as Welsh
valleys generally are. Above and behind us rose the bare crags of the
mountain, darkening into a purple crest as their summits reached
the fleecy clouds. We had nothing to do but to adopt the glorious old
rule of following our nose; and so, without further ado, we tried to
pick our way across the bog. We have a reminiscence of sundry
skippings from tuft to tuft of heather, and of wonderful displays of
agility; and at last we began to congratulate ourselves on the
immense display of juvenile vigour which we were making. One more
leap on to a fine bright piece of green grassy sward, and we were safe.
Beyond it lay a ridge of rock and terra firma to carry us onward. One
more spring and we should have crossed the bog. So now here goes
for it; three paces backwards, a good swing with the arms,—one, two,
three, and away!—plump into the very middle of the green sward,—
and through it, down, down, down, until our hat and stick alone
remained aloft! Why, ’twas the most treacherous place of the whole;
a kind of syren’s isle that tempted men to destruction by the beauty
of outward form,—though beauty of sound, indeed, there was none.
How we got out has always remained a mystery; but we floundered
and tumbled about, and cut more extraordinary figures with our
arms than we had done at any time the last ten days with our legs,
until at length we seemed to crawl out like a fly out of a treacle pot,
and to attain some drier ground. Our black velvet shooting coat, and
our nice white ducks had never made such an approximation of
colour before: we had put on the sad and sober russet brown in
which dame nature so much delights, and we came forth from our
grassy bed a good specimen of the tints of the mountain dye-house.
It was enough; our resolution was taken:—half an hour’s sharp
walking down the descent brought us to the banks of the Lledr; we
were not five minutes in selecting a proper spot; and there we
immediately converted ourselves into our own washerwoman, after
the most primitive fashion that any antenoachite ever adopted. In
another half hour we were beginning to look whitish again; and by
the end of the sixty minutes we were clad in garments on the most
approved hydropathic principles; wet bandages we had plenty of,—
for if any one had offered us the wealth of India, we could not at that
moment have produced a single dry thread on our body. But here our
pedestrian resources again came to our aid; the sun shone more
bright than ever; we were in the bottom of the valley: the heat was
intense. The village was still four miles off, and by the time we
arrived abreast of the welcome notification of “Cwrw dda,” we were
dried, ironed, mangled, folded, and plaited, more commodiously,
(though less uniformly,) than ever our buxom little laundress could
have done for us.
Once and again we got into a brown predicament in Wales, not so
easily got rid of, nor leaving so few disagreeable reminiscences. You
will excuse us for mentioning it, if you please; but our tableau de
mœurs would not be complete without it. And here we beg leave to
give notice that fastidious readers may at once close their eyes and
read no more, or else skip over this page and try another. If they
become offended, ‘twill be their own fault; what business have they
to be prying into our secrets?
Once upon a time we did a rash thing: we made up our mind—and
also our knapsack—to go to Bardsey Island. Now, ’tis a hundred to
one that you never heard of Bardsey Island; and that, though your
careful parents may have paid many a guinea per quarter for you,
while at school, to learn Geography and the use of the Globes, you
never yet were questioned by your usher as to where Bardsey Island
was, nor what sort of a place it might be. Know, then, that it lies, a
solitary green isle, some three miles or so from the extreme south-
western point of Caernarvonshire,—a sort of avant-poste to Wales,
like the Scilly Isles to Cornwall. On it live some five-score of
inhabitants, real natives, supporting themselves on oysters and
lobsters, and other marine monsters. An occasional dog-fish is there
reckoned a luxury. ’Tis a vastly curious place,—the oddest kinds of
sea-birds to be found there of any spot under the sun,—at least in
these latitudes; the rarest shells; the most unique sea-weeds; the
greatest pets of periwinkles; and such loves of limpets! We were off,
then, for Bardsey:—do not go there, dear reader—take our warning
by the way, and remain rather at home. We got to a place with a most
out-of-the-way name—Pwllheli; a sort of ne plus ultra of stupidity
and dulness; and from thence we made our way in a car to one of
more euphonious denomination, Aberdaron. This was really a lovely
spot, embosomed in a deep valley, at the corner of a romantic bay,
with an expanse of snow-white sand, sufficient to accommodate all
the bathers in England,—the sea of as deep a blue as at Madeira, and
rocks like those of Land’s End, with the eternal spray of the ocean
playing over them. A picturesque old church, partly converted into a
school, partly into a pigeon-house—and the main entry to which was
by one of the windows, stands at one end of the village with a
miserable pot-house at the other. There is a stream and a bridge for
loungers to lean and spit over; but other amusement in the place is
none. As for public accommodation, it has not yet been thought of;
strangers do not come there. None but the adjoining boors come
thither to sot and gossip;—and as for our dear mellifluous Anglo-
Saxon tongue, ’tis a thing never heard of. On arriving there and
exploring the localities, and arranging for a boat to Bardsey next
morning, we began to think about a bed, and soon perceived, on
reflection, the total absence of any suitable accommodation within
the limits of the village. But mark you the excellence of Welsh
hospitality. The grocer of the place, the man of “the shop” par
excellence, hearing of, or rather seeing us in a quandary, sent us his
compliments, with a polite request that we would take up our
quarters under his roof for the night. This was genuine hospitality;
we hesitated not; and a better turn out in the way of feeding we have
not often met with. Broiled steaks of salmon, fresh caught in the
adjoining stream, fowls, and a good slice of Cheshire cheese, soon set
our gastronomic capabilities at ease. Porter—some of Guinness’s best
—and a glorious jorum of whisky and water, moistened our clay, and
comforted our inward man. None of your wishy-washy whisky, or
poor pale limpid compound, such as you buy in London; but some of
the real potheen, just arrived from Wicklow—thick, yellow, oily, and
slow to come out of its narrow-necked bottle. And then such a
bouquet!—none but a genuine smuggler ever tasted the like. ’Twas a
thing to be tasted, not described,—the real nectar of the Druids—if
not of the Gods. Being somewhat fortified by these stout appliances,
and having discussed half-a-dozen of Pontet’s best Havannahs, we
mounted the rickety stairs that led through the lofts of our host’s
dwelling to a goodly dormitory at the further end. And here the
worthy man had really set out for us his best bed: all the little china
and plaster images were ranged in prime order on the mantel-piece;
and pictures of the Queen of Sheba and the Prodigal Son adorned the
walls with unfading brilliancy. The bed looked as clean as ever we
saw a bed in our lives; there was an odour of lavender about the
room, and we were soon between the sheets, lost in dreamy oblivion.
We awoke: ’twas a lovely morning, with the earliest sun shining
brightly in through the lattice; and we thought in our emotion to
spring out of bed. Off went the bed-clothes at a bound, and we sat
erect!—but how shall we describe our horror? We had gone to bed
more or less white—more or less European in the tinge of our skin:
we awoke of a glaring red, or, where the crimson dye was less vivid,
we bore a mottled appearance, like a speckled toad. And, as Gulliver
once lay among the Lilliputians, who ran from him, on his stirring, in
frightened thousands, so there were now our accursed night visitants

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(Original PDF) Fundamentals of

Microelectronics 2nd by Behzad Razavi

Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits 2nd eddition

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Analysis by Inspection We will expend a considerable effort toward establishing the

Example of analysis by inspections.

Analysis by Inspection In their journey through microelectronics, students face increas-

“What If?’’ Adventures An interesting method of reinforcing a circuit’s properties is

Numeric versus Symbolic Calculations In the design of examples, homeworks, and

Discrete versus Integrated How much emphasis should a microelectronics course

Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar

CMOS First MOS CMOS

Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar

Course Syllabi This book can be used in a two-quarter or two-semester sequence.

Quarter System, Syllabus I

Quarter System, Syllabus II

Semester System, Syllabus I

Semester System, Syllabus II

Different course structures for quarter and semester systems.

Quarter System, Syllabus I

Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar

MOS CMOS Op Amp as

Current Mirrors Differential Frequency Feedback and

Timetable for the two courses.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Microelectronics The objective of this chapter is to pro-

Chapter 2: Basic Semiconductor Physics Providing the basics of semiconductor de-

skills necessary to analyze heavily-nonlinear circuits, e.g., where it is difficult to predict

Chapter 4: Physics of Bipolar Transistors Beginning with the use of a voltage-

Chapter 7: CMOS Amplifiers Drawing extensively upon the foundation established in

Chapter 8: Operational Amplifier as a Black Box Dealing with op-amp-based cir-

4.6.2 Large-Signal Model 154 6.2.6 Other Second-Order

8.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier 357 10.3 MOS Differential Pair 458

11.5 Frequency Response of CB and 12.6.2 Voltage-Current

14 OUTPUT STAGES AND 15.4 Active Filters 729

People wander into Wales principally in search of health and

Seeing too that conveyances are not so plentiful in the principality as

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