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ENGINEERING MECHANICS

STATICS
J. L. MERIAM • L. G. KRAIGE • J . N . B O LT O N

EIGHTH EDITION
iv F o r ewor d

Mechanics Division of ASEE bestowed upon him the Archie Higdon Distinguished Educator
Award. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and the Council for Advance-
ment and Support of Education awarded him the distinction of Virginia Professor of the Year for
1997. In his teaching, Professor Kraige stresses the development of analytical capabilities along
with the strengthening of physical insight and engineering judgment. Since the early 1980s, he
has worked on personal-computer software designed to enhance the teaching/learning process
in statics, dynamics, strength of materials, and higher-level areas of dynamics and vibrations.
Welcomed as a new coauthor for this edition is Dr. Jeffrey N. Bolton, Assistant Professor of
Mechanical Engineering Technology at Bluefield State College. Dr. Bolton earned his B.S., M.S.,
and Ph.D. in Engineering Mechanics from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
His research interests include automatic balancing of six-degree-of-freedom elastically-mounted
rotors. He has a wealth of teaching experience, including at Virginia Tech, where he was the
2010 recipient of the Sporn Teaching Award for Engineering Subjects, which is primarily chosen
by students. In 2014, Professor Bolton received the Outstanding Faculty Award from Bluefield
State College. He has the unusual ability to set high levels of rigor and achievement in the
classroom while establishing a high degree of rapport with his students. In addition to main-
taining time-tested traditions for future generations of students, Dr. Bolton will bring effective
application of technology to this textbook series.
The Eighth Edition of Engineering Mechanics continues the same high standards set by
previous editions and adds new features of help and interest to students. It contains a vast col-
lection of interesting and instructive problems. The faculty and students privileged to teach or
study from the Meriam/Kraige/Bolton Engineering Mechanics series will benefit from several
decades of investment by three highly accomplished educators. Following the pattern of the pre-
vious editions, this textbook stresses the application of theory to actual engineering situations,
and at this important task it remains the best.

John L. Junkins
Distinguished Professor of Aerospace Engineering
Holder of the Royce E. Wisebaker ‘39 Chair in Engineering Innovation
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
 P REFACE

Engineering mechanics is both a foundation and a framework for most of the branches
of engineering. Many of the topics in such areas as civil, mechanical, aerospace, and
agricultural engineering, and of course engineering mechanics itself, are based upon the
subjects of statics and dynamics. Even in a discipline such as electrical engineering, prac-
titioners, in the course of considering the electrical components of a robotic device or a
manufacturing process, may find themselves first having to deal with the mechanics
involved.
Thus, the engineering mechanics sequence is critical to the engineering curriculum.
Not only is this sequence needed in itself, but courses in engineering mechanics also serve
to solidify the student’s understanding of other important subjects, including applied
mathematics, physics, and graphics. In addition, these courses serve as excellent settings
in which to strengthen problem-solving abilities.

P H I LO S O P H Y
The primary purpose of the study of engineering mechanics is to develop the capacity
to predict the effects of force and motion while carrying out the creative design functions
of engineering. This capacity requires more than a mere knowledge of the physical and
mathematical principles of mechanics; also required is the ability to visualize physical
configurations in terms of real materials, actual constraints, and the practical limitations
which govern the behavior of machines and structures. One of the primary objectives in a
mechanics course is to help the student develop this ability to visualize, which is so vital
to problem formulation. Indeed, the construction of a meaningful mathematical model is
often a more important experience than its solution. Maximum progress is made when
the principles and their limitations are learned together within the context of engineering
application.
There is a frequent tendency in the presentation of mechanics to use problems mainly
as a vehicle to illustrate theory rather than to develop theory for the purpose of solving
problems. When the first view is allowed to predominate, problems tend to become overly
idealized and unrelated to engineering with the result that the exercise becomes dull, aca-
demic, and uninteresting. This approach deprives the student of valuable experience in
formulating problems and thus of discovering the need for and meaning of theory. The
second view provides by far the stronger motive for learning theory and leads to a better
balance between theory and application. The crucial role played by interest and purpose in
providing the strongest possible motive for learning cannot be overemphasized.
Furthermore, as mechanics educators, we should stress the understanding that, at
best, theory can only approximate the real world of mechanics rather than the view that
v
vi P r e face

the real world approximates the theory. This difference in philosophy is indeed basic and
distinguishes the engineering of mechanics from the science of mechanics.
Over the past several decades, several unfortunate tendencies have occurred in engi-
neering education. First, emphasis on the geometric and physical meanings of prerequisite
mathematics appears to have diminished. Second, there has been a significant reduction
and even elimination of instruction in graphics, which in the past enhanced the visual-
ization and representation of mechanics problems. Third, in advancing the mathematical
level of our treatment of mechanics, there has been a tendency to allow the notational
manipulation of vector operations to mask or replace geometric visualization. Mechanics is
inherently a subject which depends on geometric and physical perception, and we should
increase our efforts to develop this ability.
A special note on the use of computers is in order. The experience of formulating prob-
lems, where reason and judgment are developed, is vastly more important for the student
than is the manipulative exercise in carrying out the solution. For this reason, computer
usage must be carefully controlled. At present, constructing free-body diagrams and for-
mulating governing equations are best done with pencil and paper. On the other hand,
there are instances in which the solution to the governing equations can best be carried
out and displayed using the computer. Computer-oriented problems should be genuine in
the sense that there is a condition of design or criticality to be found, rather than “make-
work” problems in which some parameter is varied for no apparent reason other than to
force artificial use of the computer. These thoughts have been kept in mind during the
design of the computer-oriented problems in the Eighth Edition. To conserve adequate
time for problem formulation, it is suggested that the student be assigned only a limited
number of the computer-oriented problems.
As with previous editions, this Eighth Edition of Engineering Mechanics is written
with the foregoing philosophy in mind. It is intended primarily for the first engineering
course in mechanics, generally taught in the second year of study. Engineering Mechanics
is written in a style which is both concise and friendly. The major emphasis is on basic
principles and methods rather than on a multitude of special cases. Strong effort has been
made to show both the cohesiveness of the relatively few fundamental ideas and the great
variety of problems which these few ideas will solve.

P E DA G O G I C A L F E AT U R E S
The basic structure of this textbook consists of an article which rigorously treats the
particular subject matter at hand, followed by one or more Sample Problems, followed by
a group of Problems. There is a Chapter Review at the end of each chapter which summa-
rizes the main points in that chapter, followed by a Review Problem set.

Problems
The 89 Sample Problems appear on specially colored pages by themselves. The solu-
tions to typical statics problems are presented in detail. In addition, explanatory and cau-
tionary notes (Helpful Hints) in blue type are number-keyed to the main presentation.
There are 1060 homework exercises, of which more than 50 percent are new to the
Eighth Edition. The problem sets are divided into Introductory Problems and Represen-
tative Problems. The first section consists of simple, uncomplicated problems designed to
help students gain confidence with the new topic, while most of the problems in the second
section are of average difficulty and length. The problems are generally arranged in order
of increasing difficulty. More difficult exercises appear near the end of the Representative
Problems and are marked with the triangular symbol c. Computer-Oriented Problems,
 P r e f a ce vii

marked with an asterisk, appear throughout the problems and also in a special section at
the conclusion of the Review Problems at the end of each chapter. The answers to all prob-
lems have been provided in a special section near the end of the textbook.
In recognition of the need for emphasis on SI units, there are approximately two prob-
lems in SI units for every one in U.S. customary units. This apportionment between the
two sets of units permits anywhere from a 50–50 emphasis to a 100-percent SI treatment.
A notable feature of the Eighth Edition, as with all previous editions, is the wealth of
interesting and important problems which apply to engineering design. Whether directly
identified as such or not, virtually all of the problems deal with principles and procedures
inherent in the design and analysis of engineering structures and mechanical systems.

Illustrations
In order to bring the greatest possible degree of realism and clarity to the illustra-
tions, this textbook series continues to be produced in full color. It is important to note that
color is used consistently for the identification of certain quantities:
• red for forces and moments
• green for velocity and acceleration arrows
• orange dashes for selected trajectories of moving points
Subdued colors are used for those parts of an illustration which are not central to
the problem at hand. Whenever possible, mechanisms or objects which commonly have a
certain color will be portrayed in that color. All of the fundamental elements of technical
illustration which have been an essential part of this Engineering Mechanics series of
textbooks have been retained. The authors wish to restate the conviction that a high stan-
dard of illustration is critical to any written work in the field of mechanics.

Special Features
We have retained the following hallmark features of previous editions:
• All theory portions are constantly reexamined in order to maximize rigor, clarity,
readability, and level of friendliness.
• Key Concepts areas within the theory presentation are specially marked and high-
lighted.
• The Chapter Reviews are highlighted and feature itemized summaries.
• Approximately 50 percent of the homework problems are new to this Eighth Edition.
All new problems have been independently solved in order to ensure a high degree of
accuracy.
• All Sample Problems are printed on specially colored pages for quick identification.
• Within-the-chapter photographs are provided in order to provide additional connec-
tion to actual situations in which statics has played a major role.

O R G A N I Z AT I O N
In Chapter 1, the fundamental concepts necessary for the study of mechanics are
established.
In Chapter 2, the properties of forces, moments, couples, and resultants are developed
so that the student may proceed directly to the equilibrium of nonconcurrent force sys-
tems in Chapter 3 without unnecessarily belaboring the relatively trivial problem of the
equilibrium of concurrent forces acting on a particle.
viii P r e face

In both Chapters 2 and 3, analysis of two-dimensional problems is presented in Sec-

tion A before three-dimensional problems are treated in Section B. With this arrangement,
the instructor may cover all of Chapter 2 before beginning Chapter 3 on equilibrium, or
the instructor may cover the two chapters in the order 2A, 3A, 2B, 3B. The latter order
treats force systems and equilibrium in two dimensions and then treats these topics in
three dimensions.
Application of equilibrium principles to simple trusses and to frames and machines is
presented in Chapter 4 with primary attention given to two-dimensional systems. A suf-
ficient number of three-dimensional examples are included, however, to enable students to
exercise more general vector tools of analysis.
The concepts and categories of distributed forces are introduced at the beginning of
Chapter 5, with the balance of the chapter divided into two main sections. Section A treats
centroids and mass centers; detailed examples are presented to help students master
early applications of calculus to physical and geometrical problems. Section B includes the
special topics of beams, flexible cables, and fluid forces, which may be omitted without loss
of continuity of basic concepts.
Chapter 6 on friction is divided into Section A on the phenomenon of dry friction and
Section B on selected machine applications. Although Section B may be omitted if time is
limited, this material does provide a valuable experience for the student in dealing with
both concentrated and distributed friction forces.
Chapter 7 presents a consolidated introduction to virtual work with applications lim-
ited to single-degree-of-freedom systems. Special emphasis is placed on the advantage of
the virtual-work and energy method for interconnected systems and stability determina-
tion. Virtual work provides an excellent opportunity to convince the student of the power
of mathematical analysis in mechanics.
Moments and products of inertia of areas are presented in Appendix A. This topic
helps to bridge the subjects of statics and solid mechanics. Appendix C contains a sum-
mary review of selected topics of elementary mathematics as well as several numerical
techniques which the student should be prepared to use in computer-solved problems.
Useful tables of physical constants, centroids, and moments of inertia are contained in
Appendix D.

SUPPLEMENTS
The following items have been prepared to complement this textbook:

Instructor’s Manual
Prepared by the authors and independently checked, fully worked solutions to all
problems in the text are available to faculty by contacting their local Wiley representative.

Instructor Lecture Resources

The following resources are available online at www.wiley.com/college/meriam. There
may be additional resources not listed.
WileyPlus: A complete online learning system to help prepare and present lectures,
assign and manage homework, keep track of student progress, and customize your course
content and delivery. See the description at the back of the book for more information, and
the website for a demonstration. Talk to your Wiley representative for details on setting
up your WileyPlus course.
 P r e f a ce ix

Lecture software specifically designed to aid the lecturer, especially in larger class-
rooms. Written by the author and incorporating figures from the textbooks, this software
is based on the Macromedia Flash platform. Major use of animation, concise review of the
theory, and numerous sample problems make this tool extremely useful for student self-
review of the material.
All figures in the text are available in electronic format for use in creating lecture
presentations.
All Sample Problems are available as electronic files for display and discussion in
the classroom.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special recognition is due Dr. A. L. Hale, formerly of Bell Telephone Laboratories, for
his continuing contribution in the form of invaluable suggestions and accurate checking
of the manuscript. Dr. Hale has rendered similar service for all previous versions of this
entire series of mechanics books, dating back to the 1950s. He reviews all aspects of the
books, including all old and new text and figures. Dr. Hale carries out an independent
solution to each new homework exercise and provides the authors with suggestions and
needed corrections to the solutions which appear in the Instructor’s Manual. Dr. Hale is
well known for being extremely accurate in his work, and his fine knowledge of the English
language is a great asset which aids every user of this textbook.
We would like to thank the faculty members of the Department of Engineering Science
and Mechanics at VPI&SU who regularly offer constructive suggestions. These include
Saad A. Ragab, Norman E. Dowling, Michael W. Hyer, and J. Wallace Grant. Scott L.
Hendricks has been particularly effective and accurate in his extensive review of the
manuscript and preparation of WileyPlus materials.
The following individuals (listed in alphabetical order) provided feedback on recent
editions, reviewed samples of the Eighth Edition, or otherwise contributed to the Eighth
Edition:

Michael Ales, U.S. Merchant Marine Amelito Enriquez, Canada College

Academy
Joseph Arumala, University of Maryland
Eastern Shore
Eric Austin, Clemson University
Stephen Bechtel, Ohio State University
Peter Birkemoe, University of Toronto
Achala Chatterjee, San Bernardino
Valley College
Jim Shih-Jiun Chen, Temple University
Yi-chao Chen, University of Houston
Mary Cooper, Cal Poly San Luis Obispo
Mukaddes Darwish, Texas Tech University
Kurt DeGoede, Elizabethtown College
John DesJardins, Clemson University
Larry DeVries, University of Utah
Craig Downing, Southeast Missouri
State University
William Drake, Missouri State University
Raghu Echempati, Kettering University
Sven Esche, Stevens Institute of
Technology
Wallace Franklin, U.S. Merchant Marine
Academy
Christine Goble, University of Kentucky
Barry Goodno, Georgia Institute of
Technology
Robert Harder, George Fox University
Javier Hasbun, University of West Georgia
Javad Hashemi, Texas Tech University
Robert Hyers, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst
Matthew Ikle, Adams State College
Duane Jardine, University of New Orleans
Mariappan Jawaharlal, California State
University, Pomona
Qing Jiang, University of California,
Riverside
Jennifer Kadlowec, Rowan University
x P r e face

Robert Kern, Milwaukee School of Blayne Roeder, Purdue University

Engineering
John Krohn, Arkansas Tech University
Keith Lindler, United States Naval Academy
Francisco Manzo-Robledo, Washington
State University
Geraldine Milano, New Jersey Institute
of Technology
Saeed Niku, Cal Poly San Luis Obispo
Wilfrid Nixon, University of Iowa
Karim Nohra, University of South Florida
Vassilis Panoskaltsis, Case Western Reserve
University
Chandra Putcha, California State
University, Fullerton
Eileen Rossman, Cal Poly San Luis Obispo
Nestor Sanchez, University of Texas,
San Antonio
Scott Schiff, Clemson University
Joseph Schaefer, Iowa State University
Sergey Smirnov, Texas Tech University
Ertugrul Taciroglu, UCLA
Constantine Tarawneh, University of Texas
John Turner, University of Wyoming
Chris Venters, Virginia Tech
Sarah Vigmostad, University of Iowa
T. W. Wu, University of Kentucky
Mohammed Zikry, North Carolina
State University

The contributions by the staff of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., reflect a high degree of pro-
fessional competence and are duly recognized. These include Executive Editor Linda Ratts
(recipient of the John Wiley Global Education Editor of the Year Award for 2013), Senior
Production Editor Suzie Chapman, Senior Designer Maureen Eide, and Senior Photograph
Editor Lisa Gee. We wish to especially acknowledge the long-term production efforts
of Christine Cervoni of Camelot Editorial Services, LLC, as well as the proofreading of
Helen Walden. The staff members of Aptara, Inc., including production manager Jackie
Henry, are recognized for their composition work. The talented illustrators of Precision
Graphics continue to maintain a high standard of illustration excellence.
Finally, we wish to state the extremely significant contribution of our families for the
patience and support over the many hours of manuscript preparation. Dale Kraige has
managed the preparation of the manuscript for the Eighth Edition and has been a key in-
dividual in checking all stages of the proof. In addition, both Stephanie Kokan and David
Kraige have contributed problem ideas, illustrations, and solutions to a number of the
problems over the past several editions.
We are extremely pleased to participate in extending the time duration of this text-
book series well past the sixty-five-year mark. In the interest of providing you with the
best possible educational materials over future years, we encourage and welcome all com-
ments and suggestions. Please address your comments to kraige@vt.edu.

Blacksburg, Virginia Princeton, West Virginia

 C ONTENTS

CHAPTER 1
I N T R O D U C T I O N T O S TAT I C S 3

1/1 Mechanics 3
1/2 Basic Concepts 4
1/3 Scalars and Vectors 5
1/4 Newton’s Laws 7
1/5 Units 8
1/6 Law of Gravitation 12
1/7 Accuracy, Limits, and Approximations 13
1/8 Problem Solving in Statics 14
1/9 Chapter Review 18

CHAPTER 2
F O R C E S YS T E M S 23

2/1 Introduction 23
2/2 Force 23
SECTION A TWO-DIMENSIONAL FORCE SYSTEMS 26
2/3 Rectangular Components 26
2/4 Moment 39
2/5 Couple 50
2/6 Resultants 58

xi
xii Co nte nts

SECTION B THREE-DIMENSIONAL FORCE SYSTEMS 66

2/7 Rectangular Components 66
2/8 Moment and Couple 75
2/9 Resultants 89
2/10 Chapter Review 100

CHAPTER 3
EQUILIBRIUM 10 9

3/1 Introduction 109

SECTION A EQUILIBRIUM IN TWO DIMENSIONS 110
3/2 System Isolation and the Free-Body Diagram 110
3/3 Equilibrium Conditions 121
SECTION B EQUILIBRIUM IN THREE DIMENSIONS 143
3/4 Equilibrium Conditions 143
3/5 Chapter Review 160

CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURES 169

4/1 Introduction 169

4/2 Plane Trusses 171
4/3 Method of Joints 172
4/4 Method of Sections 184
4/5 Space Trusses 193
4/6 Frames and Machines 200
4/7 Chapter Review 220

CHAPTER 5
DISTRIBUTED FORCES 229

5/1 Introduction 229

SECTION A CENTERS OF MASS AND CENTROIDS 231
5/2 Center of Mass 231
5/3 Centroids of Lines, Areas, and Volumes 234
5/4 Composite Bodies and Figures; Approximations 250
5/5 Theorems of Pappus 261
SECTION B SPECIAL TOPICS 269
5/6 Beams—External Effects 269
5/7 Beams—Internal Effects 276
5/8 Flexible Cables 288
5/9 Fluid Statics 303
5/10 Chapter Review 321
 Co n t e nt s xiii

CHAPTER 6
FRICTION 331

6/1 Introduction 331

SECTION A FRICTIONAL PHENOMENA 332
6/2 Types of Friction 332
6/3 Dry Friction 333
SECTION B APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION IN MACHINES 353
6/4 Wedges 353
6/5 Screws 354
6/6 Journal Bearings 364
6/7 Thrust Bearings; Disk Friction 365
6/8 Flexible Belts 372
6/9 Rolling Resistance 373
6/10 Chapter Review 381

CHAPTER 7
V I R T UA L W O R K 391

7/1 Introduction 391

7/2 Work 391
7/3 Equilibrium 395
7/4 Potential Energy and Stability 411
7/5 Chapter Review 427

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
AREA MOMENTS OF INERTIA 434
A/1 Introduction 434
A/2 Definitions 435
A/3 Composite Areas 449
A/4 Products of Inertia and Rotation of Axes 457

APPENDIX B
MASS MOMENTS OF INERTIA 469

APPENDIX C
SELECTED TOPICS OF MATHEMATICS 470
C/1 Introduction 470
C/2 Plane Geometry 470
C/3 Solid Geometry 471
C/4 Algebra 471
C/5 Analytic Geometry 472
xiv Co ntents

C/6 Trigonometry 472

C/7 Vector Operations 473
C/8 Series 476
C/9 Derivatives 476
C/10 Integrals 477
C/11 Newton’s Method for Solving Intractable Equations 479
C/12 Selected Techniques for Numerical Integration 481

APPENDIX D
USEFUL TABLES 485
Table D/1 Physical Properties 485
Table D/2 Solar System Constants 486
Table D/3 Properties of Plane Figures 487
Table D/4 Properties of Homogeneous Solids 489

INDEX 493

PROBLEM ANSWERS 497

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

VOLUME 1

STATICS

EIGHTH EDITION
 Image Source/Ditto/AGE fotostock

Structures which support large forces must be designed with the principles of mechanics foremost in mind. In this
view of New York, one can see a variety of such structures.
1 CHAPTER OUTLINE
I NTRODUCTION
TO S TATICS

1/1 Mechanics
1/2 Basic Concepts
1/3 Scalars and Vectors
1/4 Newton’s Laws
1/5 Units
1/6 Law of Gravitation
1/7 Accuracy, Limits, and Approximations
1/8 Problem Solving in Statics
1/9 Chapter Review

1/1 M E C H A N I C S
Mechanics is the physical science which deals with the effects of
forces on objects. No other subject plays a greater role in engineering
analysis than mechanics. Although the principles of mechanics are few,
they have wide application in engineering. The principles of mechanics
are central to research and development in the fields of vibrations, sta-
bility and strength of structures and machines, robotics, rocket and
spacecraft design, automatic control, engine performance, fluid flow,
electrical machines and apparatus, and molecular, atomic, and sub-
atomic behavior. A thorough understanding of this subject is an essen-
tial prerequisite for work in these and many other fields.
Mechanics is the oldest of the physical sciences. The early history of
S. Terry/Science Source

this subject is synonymous with the very beginnings of engineering.

The earliest recorded writings in mechanics are those of Archimedes
(287–212 B.C.) on the principle of the lever and the principle of buoy-
ancy. Substantial progress came later with the formulation of the laws
of vector combination of forces by Stevinus (1548–1620), who also
formulated most of the principles of statics. The first investigation of a
dynamics problem is credited to Galileo (1564–1642) for his experiments Sir Isaac Newton
with falling stones. The accurate formulation of the laws of motion, as
well as the law of gravitation, was made by Newton (1642–1727), who
3
4 Ch a pte r 1 Intr oduc t i on t o St at i c s

also conceived the idea of the infinitesimal in mathematical analysis. Sub-

stantial contributions to the development of mechanics were also made
by da Vinci, Varignon, Euler, D’Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, and others.
In this book we will be concerned with both the development of the
principles of mechanics and their application. The principles of mechan-
ics as a science are rigorously expressed by mathematics, and thus
mathematics plays an important role in the application of these princi-
ples to the solution of practical problems.
The subject of mechanics is logically divided into two parts: statics,
which concerns the equilibrium of bodies under action of forces, and
dynamics, which concerns the motion of bodies. Engineering Mechan-
ics is divided into these two parts, Vol. 1 Statics and Vol. 2 Dynamics.

1 /2 B A S I C C O N C E P T S
The following concepts and definitions are basic to the study of me-
chanics, and they should be understood at the outset.
Space is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions
are described by linear and angular measurements relative to a coordi-
nate system. For three-dimensional problems, three independent coordi-
nates are needed. For two-dimensional problems, only two coordinates
are required.
Time is the measure of the succession of events and is a basic quan-
tity in dynamics. Time is not directly involved in the analysis of statics
problems.
Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body, which is its resistance to
a change of velocity. Mass can also be thought of as the quantity of mat-
ter in a body. The mass of a body affects the gravitational attraction
force between it and other bodies. This force appears in many applica-
tions in statics.
Force is the action of one body on another. A force tends to move a
body in the direction of its action. The action of a force is characterized
by its magnitude, by the direction of its action, and by its point of ap-
plication. Thus force is a vector quantity, and its properties are dis-
cussed in detail in Chapter 2.
A particle is a body of negligible dimensions. In the mathematical
sense, a particle is a body whose dimensions are considered to be near
zero so that we may analyze it as a mass concentrated at a point. We
often choose a particle as a differential element of a body. We may treat
a body as a particle when its dimensions are irrelevant to the descrip-
tion of its position or the action of forces applied to it.
Rigid body. A body is considered rigid when the change in distance
between any two of its points is negligible for the purpose at hand. For
instance, the calculation of the tension in the cable which supports the
boom of a mobile crane under load is essentially unaffected by the small
internal deformations in the structural members of the boom. For the
purpose, then, of determining the external forces which act on the boom,
we may treat it as a rigid body. Statics deals primarily with the calcula-
tion of external forces which act on rigid bodies in equilibrium. Determi-
nation of the internal deformations belongs to the study of the mechanics
of deformable bodies, which normally follows statics in the curriculum.
 A rt i c l e 1 / 3 S c a l a rs a n d Ve ct or s 5

1/3 S C A L A R S AND V E C TO R S
We use two kinds of quantities in mechanics—scalars and vectors.
Scalar quantities are those with which only a magnitude is associated.
Examples of scalar quantities are time, volume, density, speed, energy,
and mass. Vector quantities, on the other hand, possess direction as well
as magnitude, and must obey the parallelogram law of addition as de-
scribed later in this article. Examples of vector quantities are displace-
ment, velocity, acceleration, force, moment, and momentum. Speed is a
scalar. It is the magnitude of velocity, which is a vector. Thus velocity is
specified by a direction as well as a speed.
Vectors representing physical quantities can be classified as free,
sliding, or fixed.
A free vector is one whose action is not confined to or associated
with a unique line in space. For example, if a body moves without rota-
tion, then the movement or displacement of any point in the body may
be taken as a vector. This vector describes equally well the direction and
magnitude of the displacement of every point in the body. Thus, we may
represent the displacement of such a body by a free vector.
A sliding vector has a unique line of action in space but not a unique
point of application. For example, when an external force acts on a rigid
body, the force can be applied at any point along its line of action without
changing its effect on the body as a whole,* and thus it is a sliding vector.
A fixed vector is one for which a unique point of application is speci-
fied. The action of a force on a deformable or nonrigid body must be speci-
fied by a fixed vector at the point of application of the force. In this
instance the forces and deformations within the body depend on the point
of application of the force, as well as on its magnitude and line of action.

Conventions for Equations and Diagrams

A vector quantity V is represented by a line segment, Fig. 1/1, hav- V
ing the direction of the vector and having an arrowhead to indicate the
θ
sense. The length of the directed line segment represents to some conve-
–V
nient scale the magnitude Z V Z of the vector, which is printed with light-
face italic type V. For example, we may choose a scale such that an
arrow one inch long represents a force of twenty pounds. Figure 1/1
In scalar equations, and frequently on diagrams where only the mag-
nitude of a vector is labeled, the symbol will appear in lightface italic
type. Boldface type is used for vector quantities whenever the directional
aspect of the vector is a part of its mathematical representation. When
writing vector equations, always be certain to preserve the mathematical
distinction between vectors and scalars. In handwritten work, use a dis-
tinguishing mark for eachn
vector quantity, such as an underline, V, or an
arrow over the symbol, V, to take the place of boldface type in print.

Working with Vectors

The direction of the vector V may be measured by an angle ␪ from
some known reference direction as shown in Fig. 1/1. The negative of V

*This is the principle of transmissibility, which is discussed in Art. 2/2.

6 Ch a pte r 1 Intr oduc t i on t o St at i c s

V2 V
V2 V
V2

V1 V1 V1
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1/2

is a vector 2V having the same magnitude as V but directed in the

sense opposite to V, as shown in Fig. 1/1.
Vectors must obey the parallelogram law of combination. This law
states that two vectors V1 and V2, treated as free vectors, Fig. 1/2a, may
be replaced by their equivalent vector V, which is the diagonal of the
parallelogram formed by V1 and V2 as its two sides, as shown in Fig. 1/2b.
This combination is called the vector sum and is represented by the
vector equation

V 5 V1 1 V2

where the plus sign, when used with the vector quantities (in boldface
type), means vector and not scalar addition. The scalar sum of the mag-
nitudes of the two vectors is written in the usual way as V1 1 V2. The
geometry of the parallelogram shows that V ? V1 1 V2.
The two vectors V1 and V2, again treated as free vectors, may also be
added head-to-tail by the triangle law, as shown in Fig. 1/2c, to obtain the
identical vector sum V. We see from the diagram that the order of addi-
tion of the vectors does not affect their sum, so that V1 1 V2 5 V2 1 V1.
The difference V1 2 V2 between the two vectors is easily obtained
by adding 2V2 to V1 as shown in Fig. 1/3, where either the triangle or
V1 V1 parallelogram procedure may be used. The difference V9 between the
–V2 two vectors is expressed by the vector equation
V′ –V2
V′
V9 5 V1 2 V2

Figure 1/3 where the minus sign denotes vector subtraction.

Any two or more vectors whose sum equals a certain vector V are
said to be the components of that vector. Thus, the vectors V1 and V2 in
Fig. 1/4a are the components of V in the directions 1 and 2, respectively.
It is usually most convenient to deal with vector components which are
mutually perpendicular; these are called rectangular components. The

y′
2 y
V V V
Vy′
V2 Vy
θ
1 x
V1 Vx
Vx′ x′
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1/4
 A rt i c l e 1 / 4 N e w t o n ’ s L a w s 7

vectors Vx and Vy in Fig. 1/4b are the x- and y-components, respectively, of

V. Likewise, in Fig. 1/4c, Vx9 and Vy9 are the x9- and y9-components of V.
When expressed in rectangular components, the direction of the vector
with respect to, say, the x-axis is clearly specified by the angle ␪, where
Vy
␪ 5 tan21
Vx
A vector V may be expressed mathematically by multiplying its
magnitude V by a vector n whose magnitude is one and whose direction
coincides with that of V. The vector n is called a unit vector. Thus,

V 5 Vn

In this way both the magnitude and direction of the vector are conve- z
niently contained in one mathematical expression. In many problems,
particularly three-dimensional ones, it is convenient to express the rect- k
angular components of V, Fig. 1/5, in terms of unit vectors i, j, and k,
which are vectors in the x-, y-, and z-directions, respectively, with unit V
Vzk
magnitudes. Because the vector V is the vector sum of the components in
the x-, y-, and z-directions, we can express V as follows: θy j y
θz

V 5 Vxi 1 Vy j 1 Vzk Vy j
θx
We now make use of the direction cosines l, m, and n of V, which are de-
Vx i
fined by
i
x
l 5 cos ␪x m 5 cos ␪y n 5 cos ␪z
Figure 1/5
Thus, we may write the magnitudes of the components of V as

Vx 5 lV Vy 5 mV Vz 5 nV

where, from the Pythagorean theorem,

V 2 5 Vx 2 1 Vy 2 1 Vz 2

Note that this relation implies that l2 1 m2 1 n2 5 1.

1/4 N E W TO N ’ S L AW S
Sir Isaac Newton was the first to state correctly the basic laws gov-
erning the motion of a particle and to demonstrate their validity.*
Slightly reworded with modern terminology, these laws are:
Law I. A particle remains at rest or continues to move with uniform
velocity (in a straight line with a constant speed) if there is no unbal-
anced force acting on it.

*Newton’s original formulations may be found in the translation of his Principia (1687)
revised by F. Cajori, University of California Press, 1934.
Another random document with
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 6 large apples
3 eggs
6 table-spoons powdered sugar
1 pint milk
Pare and core the apples. Fill the centre of each with sugar and
bake, being careful that they do not break. Or they can be stewed
whole.
Make a custard (see p. 15) of the yolks, milk and half the sugar.
Pour it over the apples, which should be arranged in a dish. Bake
slowly until the custard is firm. Whip the whites till frothy. Add the rest
of the sugar gradually, and beat well together. Spread this over the
custard, and put in a moderate oven. Remove directly the meringue
is browned.

*Bread and Rum Pudding

2 wine glasses rum
4 eggs
6 ozs. powdered sugar
6 ozs. bread crumbs
6 ozs. currants
¹⁄₂ lb. candied peel
4 ozs. butter
3 table-spoons milk
Melt the butter, mix it with the sugar, bread crumbs and yolks. Stir
well together. Add the currants, milk, chopped peel and one glass of
rum. Beat the whites to a stiff froth, and stir them in. Put in a buttered
mould. Steam three hours. When cooked, pour another glass of rum
over the pudding, and serve.

*Cherry Pudding
4 eggs
1 pint milk
 2 table-spoons of flour
Cherries
Sugar
Stone enough cherries to fill a basin, which must be well buttered.
Add sufficient sugar to sweeten well. Make a smooth batter of the
well-beaten eggs, flour and milk. Pour it over the cherries, filling the
basin. Cover with a cloth, and boil one and a half hours. Serve with a
fruit sauce.

Christmas Plum Pudding—I

1¹⁄₂ lb. suet

1 lb. flour
¹⁄₂ lb. bread crumbs
2 lbs. raisins
1 lb. sultanas
¹⁄₂ lb. currants
¹⁄₂ lb. mixed candied peel
¹⁄₂ lb. sugar
1 salt-spoon salt
Grated rind and juice of three lemons
¹⁄₂ nutmeg, grated
4 blanched and pounded bitter almonds
1 tea-spoon mixed spice
1 ” ground cinnamon
¹⁄₂ ” ” ginger
1 pint brandy or sherry
5 eggs beaten up with ¹⁄₂ pint milk
Orange juice, if liked
Chop the suet very fine. Mix the sugar and spices. Add the suet,
well-prepared fruit, eggs and brandy. Let the mixture stand until the
following day, stirring well at intervals. Put the mixture into well-
buttered basins, filling them to within two inches of the top. Cover
with buttered paper, and over this tie a well-floured cloth.
Boil for eight hours.

Christmas Plum Pudding—II

For each Pudding
¹⁄₄ lb. raisins
¹⁄₄ lb. sultanas
¹⁄₄ lb. currants
¹⁄₄ lb. orange peel
¹⁄₄ lb. lemon peel
¹⁄₄ lb. almonds (chopped)
¹⁄₄ lb. chopped preserved ginger
¹⁄₄ lb. sugar
5 ozs. chopped suet
3 heaped table-spoons flour
5 eggs
Spices, brandy or whisky to taste
Salt
Boil twelve hours.

*Dutch Apple Cake

1 pint flour
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon carbonate of soda
1 tea-spoon cream of tartar
¹⁄₄ cup butter
1 egg
1 scant cup milk
 4 sour apples
3 table-spoons powdered sugar
Mix and sift the dry materials together. Rub in the butter. Beat the
egg. Mix it with the milk. Add to the flour and stir well in. Spread the
dough half an inch thick in a shallow tin. Pare the apples and core
them. Cut them into eighths. Put these in rows, pressing the thin
edge down into the dough. Sprinkle the sugar over the apples. Bake
in a hot oven twenty to thirty minutes. Serve with lemon sauce (see
p. 85).

Fig Pudding

¹⁄₄ lb. butter

¹⁄₄ lb. figs
¹⁄₄ lb. bread crumbs
2 eggs
Chop the figs and stew them in the butter for quarter of an hour.
Beat the eggs well. Mix them with the bread crumbs. Add the figs
and butter. Steam on a buttered mould three hours.

Friar’s Omelet
Apples
3 eggs
1 cup sugar
Juice of half a lemon
Bread crumbs
Steam several sour apples. Mash them and then drain them until
quite dry. Take one pint of this pulp, and when cool add to it the three
well-beaten yolks, the sugar, lemon juice, and the whites beaten to a
stiff froth. Brown some very fine bread crumbs in a little butter.
Sprinkle the bottom and sides of a well-buttered pudding dish with
them. Pour in the mixture. Cover with bread crumbs. Bake twenty
minutes. Serve with brown sugar and cream.
 *Gooseberry Pudding
3 cups gooseberries
³⁄₄ lb. butter
³⁄₄ lb. powdered sugar
8 eggs
4 sponge-fingers
Stew the gooseberries in water until tender. Do not let them break.
Take them out and drain. Then put them through a fine sieve.
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar and beat again. Stir in
the gooseberry pulp, the well-beaten eggs and the sponge-fingers
finely crushed. Mix well and bake in a pudding dish for thirty minutes.

Ginger Pudding

¹⁄₂ lb. flour

6 ozs. suet
1 table-spoon brown sugar
2 table-spoons golden syrup
1 tea-spoon baking powder
2 eggs
A little milk
Sift the baking powder with the flour. Beat the eggs until creamy.
Mix all well together. Steam two and a half hours.

*Italian Mousse
12 yolks
4 wine glasses Madeira or light white wine
6 ozs. powdered sugar
A pinch of powdered cinnamon
A little lemon juice
 Beat well together. Pour into an enamelled sauce-pan and stand it
in a larger vessel containing hot water. Beat continually with a whisk
until the mixture froths and rises. Serve immediately in glasses.

*Little Citron Puddings

¹⁄₂ pint of cream

1 table-spoon sifted flour
2 ozs. powdered sugar
Nutmeg
3 yolks
Mix the cream, flour, sugar and a very little nutmeg together until
quite smooth. Add the well-beaten yolks. Butter five small tea-cups
or moulds and line with very thin pieces of citron. Pour in the mixture,
but do not fill quite full. Bake in a fairly quick oven.
Turn out the puddings and serve at once.

Marmalade Pudding
2 eggs
Their weight in flour, butter and powdered sugar
1 table-spoon marmalade
1 tea-spoon baking-powder
Sift the flour and baking-powder together. Beat the butter to a
cream. Add the sugar and beat again. Add the flour, marmalade and
well-beaten yolks. Beat the whites to a stiff froth and add them last.
Pour into a buttered basin and steam for an hour and a half. Turn out
and spread with a little marmalade. Serve with a sweet sauce.

Mousse à la Mangara

¹⁄₄ lb. powdered sugar

6 eggs
 Wine glass of kirsch
Beat the sugar and eggs together until creamy and light. Add the
kirsch and stand in a sauce-pan of hot water. Set over a slow fire
and stir continually until the mixture thickens. It must not boil. Take
off the fire and add the whites beaten to a stiff froth. Serve at once.

Palace Pudding

¹⁄₄ lb. butter

¹⁄₄ lb. castor sugar
3 eggs
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon vanilla
¹⁄₄ lb. flour
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar and well-beaten eggs.
Beat thoroughly. Add the flour. When well mixed add the vanilla.
Butter a mould. Sprinkle it with powdered sugar. Steam one hour.
Before turning out, let the pudding stand for a minute or two.

*Pine-Apple and Rice Mould

¹⁄₂ lb. rice

1 pint milk
3 eggs
¹⁄₂ lb. pine-apple
Syrup
¹⁄₄ lb. tinned apricots
2 table-spoons powdered sugar
1 table-spoon kirsch
Cook the rice in the milk in a double boiler until it is very tender
and the milk is all absorbed. Cut the pine-apple in small pieces and
let it simmer for several minutes in a little syrup (see p. 151).
 Beat three whole eggs well together. Add them to the rice and then
the pine-apple. When well mixed pour into a buttered mould. Bake
for about half-an-hour.
Mash the apricots. Add the sugar. When melted pass through a
sieve. Add the kirsch, pour over the pudding.

Plum Pudding

¹⁄₄ lb. butter

¹⁄₂ lb. powdered sugar
1 gill cream
1 gill rum
¹⁄₂ lb. chopped suet
1 cup chopped raisins
1 cup currants
¹⁄₄ lb. chopped citron
6 eggs
1 tea-spoon ground spices
Bread-crumbs
Beat the butter and sugar to a cream. Add the rum and cream.
Beat well. Add the suet and well-floured fruit. Beat the eggs together
till very light. Add then the spices and sufficient fine bread-crumbs to
make a stiff batter. Pour into a buttered mould. Boil five hours.

*Strawberry Shortcake

¹⁄₂ lb. flour

3 ozs. butter
1 table-spoon sugar
2 tea-spoons baking-powder
Milk
Strawberries, sugar and butter
 Sift the flour, sugar and baking-powder together twice. Rub in the
butter. Add sufficient milk to make a dough (about three-quarters of a
cup), mixing lightly with a knife. Put on a floured board and roll out
lightly. Divide in two. Bake in two well-buttered round tins (about
eight inches in diameter) in a hot oven for twelve minutes. When
baked, split open and spread with plenty of butter and a thick layer of
crushed and well-sweetened strawberries. Serve at once very hot.
The strawberries should be prepared about half an hour before
they are needed.
 Sauces
PAGE
Banana Sauce 80
Chocolate Sauce 80
Custard Sauce 81
Foam Sauce 81
Fruit Sauce 82
Golden Sauce 82
Golden Syrup or Molasses Sauce 83
Hard Sauce 83
Hard Sauce with Fruit 84
Jelly Sauce 84
Lemon Sauce 85
Melted Butter 85
Sabaillon 86
Whipped Cream Sauce 86
Wine Sauce—I. 87
” ” II. 87
 General Directions
All hot pudding sauces should be served as soon as made.
Butter may be creamed in a warmed basin but should on no
account be melted.
Sauces made with yolks of eggs are best made in a bain marie;
i.e. a saucepan placed in a larger pan containing hot water.

Banana Sauce
1 cup water
4 table-spoons powdered sugar
4 bananas
1 dessert-spoon maraschino or
1 wine-glass of wine
Put the water and sugar in a sauce-pan and stir until the sugar is
dissolved. Add four bananas which have been mashed with a silver
fork. Boil for two minutes. Put through a sieve, and add the wine or
maraschino.

Chocolate Sauce

¹⁄₂ cup water

¹⁄₂ cup powdered sugar
3 ozs. chocolate
Vanilla
¹⁄₂ cup scalded cream
Boil the water and sugar together for five minutes. Stir in the
melted chocolate. Add a little vanilla. Stir in the cream immediately
before serving. If the chocolate mixture cannot be served at once,
stand it in a pan of hot water until it is needed.
 Custard Sauce

¹⁄₂ pint milk (or cream)

2 table-spoons powdered sugar
Yolks of 2 eggs
Vanilla
Boil the milk and sugar together. Beat the yolks thoroughly, and
pour the milk over them. Strain and return to the saucepan, stirring
until it thickens. Do not let it boil. Add a little vanilla.

Foam Sauce

¹⁄₄ lb. butter

1 cup castor sugar
¹⁄₄ cup boiling water
White of 1 egg
1 tea-spoon vanilla
2 table-spoons wine, fruit juice or syrup
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar, vanilla and wine. Just
before it is served stir in the boiling water. Then add the well-beaten
white of an egg, and beat until the sauce is foamy.

Fruit Sauce
1 cup juice of fresh or stewed fruit
1 tea-spoon arrowroot
¹⁄₂ cup powdered sugar
Let the juice boil, add gradually the arrowroot (which must be
smoothly mixed with a very little water), and boil for five minutes.
Strain.
If jam is used, half a cup will be sufficient. It should first be well
beaten and then passed through a sieve. Half a cup of water should
be added to it, and less sugar will be required.

Golden Sauce
4 ozs. butter
¹⁄₂ cup powdered sugar
Yolks of 2 eggs
1 table-spoon boiling water
Juice of ¹⁄₂ a lemon
Wine-glass of wine or brandy
Beat sugar and butter together until creamy. Put the bowl in hot
water and stir until liquid. Add the well-beaten yolks and hot water,
and stir until the mixture thickens. Add lemon juice and wine. Beat
well together.

Golden Syrup or Molasses Sauce

1 cup syrup or molasses
Juice of a lemon
1 table-spoon vinegar
1 table-spoon salt butter
Boil altogether for ten minutes. This is a good sauce to serve with
plain boiled rice or batter pudding.

Hard Sauce
2 ozs. butter
2 ozs. castor sugar
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon vanilla
1 table-spoon brandy
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar gradually. Beat well.
Then add the brandy, a very little at a time. Pile the sauce lightly on a
dish and keep it on ice until required. This sauce is excellent with
plum puddings.

Hard Sauce with Fruit

2 ozs. butter
2 ozs. powdered sugar
¹⁄₂ lb. crushed strawberries
Whites of 2 eggs
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar gradually, beating hard
all the time. Add the strawberries, which have first been crushed.
Beat again thoroughly. Add one unbeaten white of egg. Beat well
and then add the other white. Beat again thoroughly and stand on
ice.

Jelly Sauce

¹⁄₂ cup of red currant or blackberry jelly

The juice of 1 lemon
Grated rind of ¹⁄₂ a lemon
1 heaping table-spoon powdered sugar
2 glasses white wine
Beat the jelly till it is quite a light colour. Add the lemon juice and
rind to the jelly. Bring almost to the boil. Stir continually. Take off the
fire and add the sugar and wine, beating hard. The dish containing
this sauce should be covered and must be kept in a basin full of very
hot water until served. Give it a good whisk before serving.

Lemon Sauce
Grated rind and juice of a lemon
1 cup powdered sugar
 3 tea-spoons cornflour
1 pint hot water
Boil the water and sugar together for five minutes. Mix the
cornflour in a cup with a little water until it is perfectly smooth, and
then add it gradually to the syrup, stirring quickly all the time. Let it all
boil again for ten minutes. Add the grated rind and juice of the
lemon. Strain.

Melted Butter
2 table-spoons butter
2 tea-spoons flour
1¹⁄₂ cups of hot water (or water and milk)
1 cup brown or powdered sugar
Flavouring
Melt the butter in a saucepan, being careful not to brown it. Add
the flour and mix until quite smooth. Then add the hot water (or milk
and water) gradually, stirring well all the time, and when it boils add
the sugar. Stir continually for five minutes. Remove from the fire and
add a small half tea-spoonful of vanilla or a little nutmeg if milk has
been used, but two tea-spoonfuls of fresh lemon juice, if it has been
made with water.

Sabaillon
The yolks of 4 eggs
1¹⁄₂ wine-glasses madeira or sherry
4 table-spoons castor sugar
A little cinnamon
This can be made in two ways.
I. Put eggs, wine and sugar into a saucepan on a good fire. Beat
continually until the mixture thickens. It must not boil.
OR,
 II. Beat eggs and sugar very thoroughly together for five minutes.
Then add the wine. Put into an earthenware pot and stand this in a
large saucepan of very hot water. Beat over the fire until the mixture
thickens.

Whipped Cream Sauce

¹⁄₂ pint of cream

¹⁄₂ cup of castor sugar
White of 1 egg
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon vanilla, or a little brandy
Beat the cream until stiff. Add the sugar and vanilla. Beat the white
of egg until frothy. Add to the cream and beat all together.

Wine Sauce—I

¹⁄₂ pint melted butter

1 tea-spoon lemon juice
1 wine-glass sherry or madeira
Make the melted butter (see p. 85) with water. Sweeten it with
brown sugar and flavour it with lemon juice and a very little grated
peel. Add the wine at the last and do not let it boil again.

Wine Sauce—II
1 cup white wine
Yolks of 4 eggs
1 tea-spoon lemon juice
The rind of ¹⁄₄ of a lemon
Heat the wine, sugar, lemon juice and peel. Beat the yolks
thoroughly in a large basin. Directly the wine comes to the boil, pour
it over the yolks. Beat with an egg-whisk until very frothy.
 Jellies
PAGE
Calf’s Foot Jelly 91
Gelatine Jelly 91
Claret Jelly 92
Cranberry Jelly 92
Gelée Fouettée 93
Lemon Froth 93
Maraschino Jelly 94
Orange Baskets 94
Orange Jelly 94
Prune Jelly 95
Rhubarb Jelly 95

General Instructions
It has been found difficult in the receipts which follow, owing to the
variation of the quantity of juice in lemons, etc., to give the exact
quantity of gelatine required. A safe rule in making jellies is to use 2
ozs. of gelatine to every one and three-quarter quarts of liquid. In
summer 2 ozs. of gelatine will be needed to each quart and a half.
(This must include all liquid flavourings and be very carefully
measured.)
The best gelatine is now so pure, that it is practically unnecessary
to go to the trouble of making jelly from calf’s feet, a receipt for which
has, however, been given.
 More elaborate jellies are made by the addition of fruit. To do this,
pour jelly into a mould to the depth of half an inch. When set,
arrange on it a layer of perfectly fresh ripe fruit—strawberries,
cherries, grapes, pine-apple, peaches, oranges, etc.—adding
another layer of jelly, and when that is set, more fruit, and so on, until
the mould is full. During the process the mould should be kept on
ice, so that the jelly will set quickly.
Before putting jelly into a mould, dip it in very cold water, and
invert for a moment. Pour in the jelly while still wet.
Use a silver or wooden spoon for stirring, and do not stir jelly while
it is cooling.
To colour jelly pink, add a few drops of cochineal.
To loosen the jelly when ready to serve, dip the mould quickly into
hot water. Dry the mould before turning out.

Calf’s Foot Jelly

4 calf’s feet
4 quarts water
1 pint wine or water
1 lb. crushed lump sugar
4 whites of eggs
2 lemons
¹⁄₂ stick cinnamon
1 tea-spoon grated nutmeg
Clean the calf’s feet thoroughly. Boil them in the water until it is
reduced to half the original quantity. This will take about eight hours.
Skim occasionally. Pour into a large basin. Set aside for twelve
hours. Remove the fat very carefully. Put back into a large pan,
being careful to keep back the dregs. Add the sugar whisked up with
the whites, the juice of the lemons, the grated rind of one, and the
spice. Let it boil for ten minutes. Skim. Add the wine and boil up
again for two minutes. Strain through a jelly bag two or three times,
and keep in a cold place.
 Gelatine Jelly

A little over ¹⁄₂ oz. isinglass

1 gill cold water
¹⁄₂ pint boiling water
3 ozs. sugar
1 lemon
1 white and the shell of 1 egg
1 gill brandy
Soak the isinglass in the cold water for an hour. Put it into the
boiling water. Add the sugar, the finely-pared rind of the lemon, the
white and crushed shell of an egg. Boil one minute. Pour in a table-
spoon cold water. Set aside ten minutes. Strain through a jelly bag.
Add one gill brandy or sherry when cool. Pour into a wetted mould.

Cranberry Jelly
Stew some cranberries in plenty of water until they are soft. Rub
them through a sieve. Put the pulp into an enamelled saucepan.
When it boils add sugar in the proportion of one pound to every pint
of pulp. Stir continually for a few minutes and pour into a mould.

*Claret Jelly
1 bottle claret
1 lemon
1 gill red currant jelly
¹⁄₂ lb. loaf sugar
A little over 1 oz. isinglass
1 gill brandy
Soak the gelatine in a very little water. Add it to the claret with the
juice and rind of the lemon, jelly, the crushed loaf sugar and brandy.
Boil altogether for five minutes. Put once through a jelly bag. Dip a
mould with a hollow centre into cold water. Pour in the jelly. Serve
with whipped cream in the centre of the mould. Instead of claret and
red currant jelly, a white wine and quince jelly can be used.

*Gelée Fouettée

¹⁄₂ pint champagne

¹⁄₂ pint water
2 lemons
6 ozs. lump sugar
A little over 1 oz. gelatine
Make a syrup of the water and sugar. Add the soaked gelatine,
juice of two lemons and the finely-pared peel of one lemon. Boil
three minutes. Strain through a jelly bag. When cold, but still liquid,
add the champagne and beat on ice until very frothy. Put into a
mould or serve in glasses.

*Lemon Froth
1 oz. gelatine
¹⁄₂ pint boiling water
¹⁄₂ pint cold water
3 lemons
6 ozs. lump sugar
Whites of 6 eggs
Dissolve the gelatine and sugar in the boiling water with the finely-
pared lemon peel. Add the cold water and the juice of the lemons.
Skim with a silver spoon. Strain into a large basin. When beginning
to set, add the whites beaten to a stiff froth. Beat well together and
pile up in a glass dish. Serve with sweetened whipped cream.

Maraschino Jelly