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Terahertz Biomedical
and Healthcare
Technologies
Materials to Devices
Edited by
AMIT BANERJEE, PHD
Scientist
Microelectronic Technologies & Devices
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
National University of Singapore
Singapore

BASABI CHAKRABORTY, PHD

Professor and Head
Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning Laboratory
Department of Software and Information Science
Iwate Prefectural University
Japan
HIROSHI INOKAWA, PHD
Professor
Doctor of Engineering
Research Institute of Electronics
Shizuoka University
Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan
JITENDRA NATH ROY, PHD
Professor and Dean (Science)
Department of Physics
Kazi Nazrul University
Asansol, West Bengal, India
Elsevier
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Contributors

Amit Banerjee, PhD Chinmay Chakraborty, PhD

Scientist
Microelectronic Technologies & Devices
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
National University of Singapore
Singapore
Sourav Banerjee, PhD
Assistant Professor
Kalyani Government Engineering College
Kalyani, West Bengal, India
Suranjana Banerjee, PhD, MTech, BTech, BSc
Electronics
Dum Dum Motijheel College
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Indian Institute of Engineering
Science & Technology
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Doctor
Birla Institute of Technology
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Deoghar, Jharkhand, India
Sulagna Chatterjee, MSc, MTech, PhD (Tech)
Adamas University
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Debashis Das, MTech
Student Member
Kalyani Government Engineering College
Kalyani, West Bengal, India
Subal Kar, MTech, PhD (Tech)
Fulbright Scholar, Former Professor and Head
Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics
University of Calcutta
Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Tanmoy Basu, PhD Bright Keswani, PhD

Research Fellow Professor
Centre for Advanced 2D Materials Department of Computer Applications
National University of Singapore Suresh Gyan Vihar University
Singapore Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Centre for Ion Beam Applications
Poonam Keswani, PhD
Department of Physics
Assistant Professor
National University of Singapore
Akashdeep PG College
Singapore
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Nurnihar Begum, PhD
Ilya Krasnikov, PhD
Research Scholar
Department of Physics
Department of Engineering & Technological Studies
Amur State University
University of Kalyani
Blagoveshchensk, Russia
Kalyani, West Bengal, India
Hannover Centre for Optical Technologies
Basabi Chakraborty, PhD Hannover, Germany
Professor and Head
Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning Laboratory
Department of Software and Information Science
Iwate Prefectural University
Japan

v
vi CONTRIBUTORS

Yogeenth Kumaresan, PhD Megha Rathi, Sr., PhD

School of Materials Science and Engineering Doctor
Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology Department of Computer Science & IT, Jaypee
Gwangju, Republic of Korea Institute of Information Technology
Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ashis Kumar Mandal
Department of Software and Information Science P. Soni Reddy, PhD
Iwate Prefectural University Research Scholar
Morioka, Japan Department of Engineering & Technological Studies
University of Kalyani
Ambarish G. Mohapatra, PhD Kalyani, West Bengal, India
Senior Assistant Professor and Head
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Partha Pratim Sarkar, PhD
Engineering Professor
Silicon Institute of Technology Department of Engineering & Technological Studies
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India University of Kalyani
Kalyani, West Bengal, India
Rahul Mondal, PhD
Research Scholar Sushanta Sarkar, PhD
Department of Engineering & Technological Studies Assistant Professor
University of Kalyani Department of Engineering & Technological Studies
Kalyani, West Bengal, India University of Kalyani
Kalyani, West Bengal, India
M. Mukherjee, MSc, MTech, PhD (Tech), PDF
Adamas University Rikta Sen
Kolkata, West Bengal, India Department of Software and Information Science
Iwate Prefectural University
Nilesh Mukherjee, PhD Morioka, Japan
Research Scholar
Department of Engineering & Technological Studies Aleksei Seteikin, PhD
University of Kalyani Associate Professor
Kalyani, West Bengal, India Department of Physics
Amur State University
Yutaka Oyama, PhD Blagoveshchensk, Russia
Tohoku University Department of Fundamental and Applied Photonics
Sendai, Japan Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University
Kaliningrad, Russia
Praveen Kumar Poola, PhD
Electronics and Communication Engineering Saumitra Vajandar, PhD
K L H Deemed to be University Centre for Ion Beam Applications
Off-campus Hyderabad Department of Physics
Hyderabad, Telangana, India National University of Singapore
Singapore
Srinivasa Rao Ragam, PhD
Advance Materials and Device Metrology Lokesh Vijay, MBBS
CSIR-National Physical Laboratory Consultant Surgery
New Delhi, India Delhi Multi Specialty Hospital
Delhi, India
 CONTRIBUTORS vii

Prity Vijay, PhD Pu Zhao, PhD

Data Scientist Lehigh University
Zessta Software Private Limited Pennsylvania, PA, United States
Hydrabad, Telangana, India Thorlabs
Shanghai, China
About the Editors
Dr. Amit Banerjee
Scientist, Microelectronic Technologies & Devices,
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
National University of Singapore,
Singapore
Email: amitbanerjee.nus@gmail.com; eleami@nus.
edu.sg
Short Biography: Amit Banerjee joined the Advanced
Device Research Division, Research Institute of Elec-
tronics, National University Corporation, Japan, as a
Scientific Researcher in 2016 and was also part of the
Innovative Photonics Evolution Research Center at
Hamamatsu, Japan. He later joined the Microelectronic
Technologies & Devices, Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering of the prestigious National
University of Singapore, as Scientist in 2017. Currently,
Amit is a member of 30þ international advisory boards,
technical program committees in various countries,
acted as panel editor, reviewer for reputed journals and
scientific book volumes, member of Japan Society of
Applied Physics, Indian Physical Society; External
Adviser, Bioelectronics and Biomedical Technologies,
Ocuro Science and Technology (Biomed-startup);
Adviser and Lead Contributor: Semiconductor Devices
and Process Technologies, EDGE196, Entrepreneur
Development Global Ecosystem; Adviser, Entrepreneurs
Face, Singapore, Global Venture Capital and Entrepre-
neurs Network, Singapore; Technical Adviser to ULVAC
Technologies; among various others. Amit has coau-
thored several scientific papers, edited books, presented
in several international conferences as plenary and
keynote speakers, received awards including young
physicist award and honorary life-membership from
Indian Physical Society, award by the Metrology Society
of India, Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers, award
by Department of Atomic Energy, his work on nano-
diamonds was also awarded and featured as a key sci-
entific article contributing to excellence in engineering,
scientific, and industrial research, by Advances in Engi-
neering, USA; recently, their work related to on-chip
integrable terahertz detectors was awarded by Quality
in Research, Indonesia, along with Professor Hiroshi
Inokawa, RIE, Japan. Alongside the pursuit of research
and administrative ambitions, Amit is keenly engaged
in consulting futuristic technologies for business firms,
educational ventures, and universities. Amit received
PhD degree in Semiconductor Technology from Energy
Research Unit, Indian Association for the Cultivation of
Science (Government of India), and extensively worked
on design and development of high vacuum plasma
CVD reactors, which are used in industrial manu-
facturing of solar cells, coatings, and TFTs. He also
developed low-cost high vacuum MW-PECVD units and
conceived the process for cost-effective commercial
grade antireflection coating synthesis for solar cells by
nanocrystalline diamonds. His current work is on Ter-
ahertz Technology, including THz sensors and sources,
design, and fabrication, aiming at biomedical imaging
applications. His recent work on antenna-coupled
microbolometer arrays is compatible with the state-of-
the-art medium-scale semiconductor device fabrication
processes and technologically competitive with com-
mercial viability as on-chip integrable detector arrays for
terahertz imaging.
ix
x ABOUT THE EDITORS
Dr. Basabi Chakraborty
Professor and Head, Pattern Recognition and Machine
Learning Laboratory
Faculty of Software and Information Science, Iwate
Prefectural University, Japan
Email: basabi@iwate-pu.ac.jp
Short Biography: Basabi Chakraborty received B. Tech,
M. Tech, and PhD degrees in RadioPhysics and Elec-
tronics from Calcutta University, India, and worked in
Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta, India, until 1990.
From 1991 to 1993, she worked as a part-time
researcher in Advanced Intelligent Communication
Systems Laboratory in Sendai, Japan. She received
another PhD in Information Science from Tohoku
University, Japan, in 1996. From 1996 to 1998, she
worked as a postdoctoral research fellow in Research
Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku Univer-
sity, Japan. In 1998, she joined as a faculty in Software
and Information Science Department of Iwate Prefec-
tural University, Iwate, Japan. Currently, she is serving as
Professor and Head of Pattern Recognition and Machine
Learning Laboratory in the same department. Her main
research interests are in the area of Pattern Recognition,
Machine Learning, Soft Computing Techniques, Bio-
metrics, Data Mining, and Social Media Data Mining.
She is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE), member of ACM, Japanese
Neural Network Society, Japanese Society of Artificial
Intelligence, and executive committee member of ISAJ
(Indian Scientists Association in Japan). She served as
the chair of IEEE JC WIE (Women in Engineering) dur-
ing 2010e2011. She also served as the founder chair of
IEEE WIE Sendai section during 2017e2018. Currently,
she is executive committee member of IEEE R10 WIE,
IEEE JC WIE, and Sendai WIE.
Dr. Hiroshi Inokawa
Professor
Research Institute of Electronics,
Shizuoka University
Hamamatsu, Japan
Email: inokawa.hiroshi@shizuoka.ac.jp
Short Biography: Hiroshi Inokawa received BS, MS,
and PhD degrees in electrical engineering from Kyoto
University, Japan, in 1980, 1982, and 1985, respec-
tively. In 1985, he joined the Atsugi Electrical Com-
munications Laboratories, Nippon Telegraph and
Telephone Corporation (NTT), Kanagawa, Japan. Since
then, he has been engaged in the research and devel-
opment of scaled-down CMOS devices and silicon
single-electron devices. During the course of his
research, he invented the basic structure of FinFET in
1989 and single-electron multiple-valued logic in 2001
and received IEEE International Symposium on
Multiple-Valued Logic Outstanding Contributed Paper
Awards in 2004 and 2006, Director’s Award of NTT
Basic Research Laboratories in 2004, 28th JSAP Award
for the Best Original Paper in 2006, etc. In 2006, he
became a professor of the Research Institute of Elec-
tronics, Shizuoka University, Hamamatsu, Japan,
where he has been studying nanodevices for advanced
circuits and systems. His recent work on SOI MOSFET
single-photon detector was introduced by IEEE Pho-
tonics Journal in 2012 as a Breakthrough in Photonics.
Professor Inokawa is a member of IEEE, the Japan
Society of Applied Physics (JSAP), the Institute of
Electronics, Information and Communication Engi-
neers of Japan, and the Institute of Electrical Engineers
of Japan (IEEJ). He has served as a JSAP board member
of representative in 2001e03, an editor of JJAP in
2007e13, the chair of the IEEJ survey committee of

silicon nanosystem integration technology in
2009e11, an advisory committee member of NICT
Japan Trust International Research Cooperation
Program in 2006e09, a researcher of National Institute
of Science and Technology Policy in 2002-present, etc.
Dr. Jitendra Nath Roy
Professor and Dean (Science)
Department of Physics,
Kazi Nazrul University, C H Kalla,
Asansol, West Bengal, India
Email: jnroys@yahoo.co.in
ABOUT THE EDITORS xi
Short Biography: Jitendra Nath Roy received MSc and
PhD degree in Physics from Vidyasagar University,
India. He had joint research program at Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Light Wave
Communications Research Group, Xanthi, Greece.
Professor Roy received International Sardar Patel
Award from Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Foundation for
significant contribution in physical science. Dr. Roy has
20 years of experience in teaching research and
administration. Presently, Dr. Roy is working as a
Professor and Dean (science) in Department of Physics
at Kazi Nazrul University, Asansol, WB, India. He has
already published more than 123 research papers in
peer-reviewed journals and conference proceedings. Dr.
Roy received research grant from AICTE, Government
of India, under FRS Scheme for research in “Designing
of an all-optical conversion scheme from binary to its
Modified Trinary Number.” Dr. Roy is member of
many International Advisory Committees, Technical
Program Committees in various countries, acted as
Panel Editor, Reviewer for reputed journals. Professor
Roy has produced nine PhD students in different topics
of applied optics and photonics, linear and nonlinear
optical material, and laser. His current research interest
is in Terahertz Optical Asymmetric Demultiplexer-
based switch in Computing, Communication, and
Control.
 SECTION I TERAHERTZ DETECTORS AND SOURCES: DESIGN
AND FABRICATION ASPECTS
CHAPTER 1
THz Solid-State Source Based on
IMPATT Devices
SURANJANA BANERJEE, PHD, MTECH, BTECH, BSC
INTRODUCTION
The terahertz (THz) region of the electromagnetic spec-
trum lies between the traditional millimeter wave and
optical bands in the frequency range of 0.1e10 THz
and wavelength range of 3e0.03 mm. It is also popularly
called “THz gap” lying between microwave and infrared
frequency band as shown in Fig. 1.1. THz science and
technology are attracting the attention of researchers in
recent times mainly due to the emergence of time-
domain spectroscopy using pulse laser of extremely
narrow width as sources. The researchers are now able
to carry out time-resolved “far-infrared” studies and
explore spectroscopy and imaging applications in the
THz frequency regime.
THz technology can be used in information science,
biology, medicine, astronomy, and environmental
science. THz sources have numerous applications in
surveillance, bioterrorist attack, and pathogen detection
where THz wave is used to detect airborne anthrax
particles. Some of THz semiconductor sources are
GaAs1
xNx-based Gunn-like diodes, quantum well
(QW), negative effective mass (NEM) oscillators, and
quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). THz current oscillation
in doped nþnnþ GaAs1
xNx diodes driven by DC electric
field has been theoretically studied by Feng and Cao [1].
Self-oscillation is associated with the negative differential
velocity effect in the highly nonparabolic conduction
band of this unique material system. They observed
that impurity and phonon scattering mechanisms are
responsible for current self-oscillation in QW NEM
pþppþ diodes. The NEM pþppþ diode may be used as
an electrically tunable THz source. The first THz QC laser
with photon energy less than the semiconductor optical
phonon energy was demonstrated at 4.4 THz. The opti-
mization of device parameters of resonant-phonon
THz QCLs can be done by using Monte Carlo method.
Terahertz Biomedical and Healthcare Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818556-8.00001-X
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
A lot of research interest has generated for the
research and development of THz components, sources,
and detectors due to their various applications in
astronomy, spectroscopy, bioimaging, biosensing, qual-
ity inspection in industrial products, and medical and
pharmaceutical research areas. Bioimaging using tera
ray shows better resolution of carcinoma cells in human
body as compared with that using X-ray (Fig. 1.2).
In recent years, the development of THz solid-state
source with appreciable power is attracting the attention
of researchers due to their important applications in
short range terrestrial and airborne communication
and space-based communication. Some of the THz
sources reported in the literature are electron beam,
optically pumped far-infrared gas lasers, semiconductor
QCLs, resonant tunneling diode, TUNNETT diode, and
Gunn diode.
Recently, cascaded frequency multipliers have been
reported which can generate 10e2 mW power at
1.9e2.7 GHz for application as local oscillators in an
astronomical receiver. However, some semiconductor
devices such as QCLs, high electron mobility transistors,
and heterojunction bipolar transistors have emerged as
potential sources to generate THz signals. These solid-
state sources can be tuned to appropriate THz frequency
at 300 K. But the power generated by these sources at
THz is not high enough to use them in the transmitter
section of the system. The generation of THz signal
with appreciable power is indeed a challenging area of
research. The researchers are therefore exploring to
search for an alternative solid-state source at THz fre-
quency band which should be compact, cost-effective,
efficient, and powerful. In this respect, the development
of impact avalanche transit time (IMPATT) devices
based on wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductor like
GaN is worthwhile to note.
1
2 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects

FIG. 1.1 Terahertz region.

FIG. 1.2 (A) X-ray view, (B) tera view.

POTENTIAL THZ SOLID-STATE SOURCE
USING IMPATT DIODES
Various solid-state sources are available for generation
of RF power at microwave and millimeter wave fre-
quency bands. Among these sources, IMPATT and
mixed tunneling transit time (MITATT) devices have
already emerged as high-power, high efficiency solid-
state sources both at lower microwave (3e30 GHz)
and higher mm-wave and sub-mm-wave
(30e300 GHz) frequency bands. Most of the research
activities for mm-wave systems using IMPATT sources
are concentrated on window frequencies, i.e., 35, 94,
140, and 220 GHz, where atmospheric attenuation is
relatively low.
IMPATT devices based on Si are reported to provide
high power at different mm-wave window frequencies
[2,3]. Although these devices have been realized at
lower microwave and higher mm-wave frequency
bands, no significant progress has yet been reported to
practically realize this source for operation at THz
frequencies. In recent years, the potentiality of IMPATT
devices based on WBG semiconducting materials such
as SiC, GaN, and type-IIb diamond as high-power
sources has been reported at THz frequencies [4e10].
This chapter will provide a comprehensive review on
the physical phenomena responsible for generation of
THz wave from IMPATT devices and the design and
development of these devices as compact, low-cost,
efficient, and powerful THz sources.
The Basic Concepts of IMPATT Operation
IMPATT devices are basically reverse biased p-n junc-
tion diodes operated at avalanche breakdown voltage.
Embedded in a resonant cavity, they exhibit oscillation
at microwave and millimeter wave frequencies to
generate power. These devices excel metal semicon-
ductor field-effect transistors (MESFETs) and Gunn
diodes in terms of output power, DC to RF conversion
 CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices
efficiency at higher mm-wave frequencies. These de-
vices are highly attractive and reliable sources for
mm-wave power generation due to their wide fre-
quency coverage, high-power output and high conver-
sion efficiency coupled with tuning capability, low
cost, and simple circuit arrangement. They find wide
applications in satellite communication systems,
tracking radars and missile guidance for both civilian
and defense applications.
In 1954, Shockley [11] showed that the transit time
(TT) delay of an electron bunch in a forward biased p-n
junction diode is responsible to produce negative
resistance at microwave frequencies. The origin of
negative resistance in IMPATT device is ideally a phase
lag of 180 between the input RF voltage and external
current. Under avalanche breakdown condition, the
phenomena of impact ionization and avalanche multi-
plication in the depletion layer of the device give rise

to an avalanche phase delay of 90 . The carriers
injected from the avalanche layer require a finite TT
to cross the drift layer and arrive at the terminal which
introduces another delay called TT delay. When the
avalanche delay added to TT delay is equal to half-
cycle time, the diode resistance becomes negative at
the corresponding frequency. W. T. Read in 1958
[12] showed that the combined effects of avalanche
and TT delay in a reverse biased pþ-n i nþ diode under
avalanche breakdown produces an appropriate phase
delay of 180 between input voltage and external cur-
rent to produce negative resistance at microwave
frequencies. Johnson et al. [13] in 1965 first observed
microwave oscillation from a simple pþnnþ device. T.
Misawa [14] showed from small-signal analysis the
existence of negative resistance of an avalanche diode
of arbitrary doping profile.
Commercially available millimeter wave IMPATTs
are mostly based on Si due to matured processing tech-
nology of Si. Although IMPATTs made of GaAs are also
practically realized, the available reports indicate that
their RF performance as regard high-power delivery
with high conversion efficiency is limited above
50 GHz. IMPATTs based on InP and 4H-SiC have
been designed and fabricated. WBG semiconductors
like 4H-SiC, GaN, and type-IIB diamond show great
promise as base semiconductors for fabrication of
IMPATTs, MITATTs, and TUNNETTs at higher milli-
meter wave up to THz frequency bands [4e8,15,16].
Further IMPATTs based on heterojunctions of Gr.
IV-IV and Gr. III-V semiconductors are reported to be
useful sources to deliver sufficient power with low noise
level at sub-mm-wave frequencies above 100 GHz.
3
Significant progress in output power and efficiency
has been achieved with IMPATT diodes and oscillators
at frequencies from 30 to 300 GHz over the past
decades. Silicon IMPATTs have emerged as premier
solid-state sources of RF power in both continuous
wave (CW) and pulsed modes of operation at mm-
wave frequency bands. Flat profile single drift and
double-drift silicon IMPATTs operating in the CW
mode have produced output powers of 2.25 W at
40 GHz, 600 mW at 94 GHz, 110 mW at 140 GHz,
50 mW at 220 GHz, and 1.2 mW at 301 GHz. Similarly,
pulsed output powers of 23 W at 35 GHz, 42 W at
96 GHz, 3 W at 140 GHz, and 520 mW at 220 GHz
have been reported [17,18] from silicon IMPATT
devices. Above 50 GHz, the RF performance of Si
IMPATTs excels that of GaAs IMPATTs. Some efforts
have been made to improve the performance of GaAs
IMPATTs at mm-wave V-band (60 GHz) and W-band
(94 GHz) frequencies taking the advantages of
improved device design and process technology.
Apart from Si and GaAs IMPATTs, indium phos-
phide IMPATTs have been realized providing good RF
performance at X- and V-bands. J. J. Berenz et al. in
1978 [19] reported the fabrication of single drift pþnnþ
structure of InP IMPATTs by ion-implantation tech-
nique and showed that the devices provide a CW power
of 1.6 W with 11.1% efficiency at 9.78 GHz. Vassilevsky
et al. and Yuan et al. [8,20] reported fabrication of
single drift region (SDR) IMPATTs based on 4H-SiC
with flat and high-low doping profile at X- and Ku-
bands, respectively. A maximum output power of
300 mW and breakdown voltage of 290 V was reported
from these devices at a bias current density of
0.95  107 Am
2. The high breakdown field and elec-
tron saturation velocity of SiC is ideally suited to fabri-
cate high-power IMPATTs from this semiconductor. The
power-frequency product (pf2) of IMPATT diode is pro-
portional to (EmVsn)2. The breakdown field or critical
field of SiC is about 10 times higher than that of Si or
GaAs and the saturation velocity is about 2 times
higher. Thus, the power-frequency product (in the elec-
tronic limit) of SiC IMPATTs is expected to be 400 times
higher than Si or GaAs IMPATTs.
Practical IMPATT diodes are intermediate between
Read and Misawa diodes in the sense that the avalanche
zone is well defined, neither too thin nor too wide. The
avalanche charge pulse is injected from a well-defined

avalanche zone into the drift zone approximately 90
behind the RF voltage and the injected charge travels
with a saturated drift velocity in the drift region. The
SDR IMPATT diode having pþnnþ structure and
4 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects
double-drift region (DDR) IMPATT diode having
pþpnnþ structure are mostly used as practical structures
of the device.
Some Landmarks in the Development of
IMPATTs
The first ever practical structure of IMPATTs realized
experimentally is SDR pþ-n-nþ/nþ-p-pþ structure with
a SDR for electrons or holes and an avalanche region
of narrow width located at one end of the depletion
layer near the metallurgical junction. Schematic dia-
grams of the structure, doping profile, and electric field
profile at breakdown of pþnnþ SDR IMPATT diode are
shown in Fig. 1.3AeC, respectively. The field profile
shown in Fig. 1.3C indicates that the device is just
punched through at operating temperature and the
avalanche zone width is a fraction of the depletion
layer width. Flat profile SDR IMPATT diodes using
Si/GaAs/InP/4H-SiC as base semiconductors have
been experimentally realized. A punched through
structure of IMPATT diode avoids positive resistance
due to undepleted epitaxy. It may be noted in this
context that SDR pþnnþ structure of Si IMPATTs is bet-
ter than its complementary nþppþ structure so far as
high power delivery from the device is concerned.
FIG. 1.3 (A) Single drift region (SDR) IMPATT diode
structure, (B) doping profile and (C) field at breakdown
showing the avalanche and drift regions.
A Double-Drift Region (DDR) structure (pþ-p-n-nþ)
of IMPATTs with two drift regions, one for electrons
and another for holes on either side of a central
avalanche region, was first proposed by Scharfetter
et al. [21] in 1970. In this type of structure, both elec-
trons and holes take part equally to deliver microwave
power while drifting in opposite directions through
two drift regions on either side of the central avalanche
region. It is quite evident that two drift regions in the
case of DDR IMPATT diodes should provide higher
output power, higher efficiency, and higher impedance
per unit area, compared with SDR IMPATT diode in
which microwave power is contributed by the drift of
only one type of carrier, either electron or hole. DDR
structure of IMPATT diode performs better than its
SDR counterpart not only with respect to RF power
output but also with respect to DC to RF conversion
efficiency. DDR IMPATT diode is capable of delivering
both high-power and high-efficiency at mm and
sub-mm-wave frequency bands. The schematic dia-
grams of the structure, doping profile, and field profile
of DDR nþ-n-p-pþ IMPATT diode are shown in
Fig. 1.4AeC, respectively. A high field avalanche region
located centrally near the metallurgical junction and
two low relatively low field drift regions on either side
of the avalanche zone constitute the active region of a
DDR IMPATT diode. In the central avalanche zone, car-
riers are generated by impact ionization due to suffi-
ciently high field in the avalanche layer.
The equivalent circuit of IMPATT device may be
considered to consist of a negative resistance RD in
series with a reactance XD, where RD is usually small
compared with XD. The width of the active region
(W) DDR structure is larger than that of SDR structure
of IMPATT diode resulting in a smaller capacitance


C ¼ ˛AW and hence a larger capacitive reactance per


unit area Xc ¼ jwc
1 of the device. The power-
frequency product of an IMPATT diode is a constant
at higher millimeter wave frequencies. The impedance
and the breakdown voltage of DDR IMPATTs are both
almost double that of SDR IMPATTs. The area of the
DDR device can be increased to maintain the same
value of capacitive reactance as that of comparable
SDR device, in order to derive maximum output power
from DDR diode. Simultaneously, the increased area
reduces the series resistance associated with nþ and
pþ contact regions. Also the degradation of efficiency
due to the effect of minority carrier storage is not
significant in a DDR diode because the avalanche
zone is centrally located.
 CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices
FIG. 1.4 (A) Double-drift region (DDR) IMPATT diode
structure, (B) doping profile, and (C) Field at breakdown
showing the avalanche and drift regions.
According to Scharfetter-Gummel formula, the DC
to RF power conversion efficiency of a DDR IMPATT
diode is given by
1 VD
h¼ (1.1)
p VD
1þ
VA
where VA and VD are the voltage drops across the
avalanche and drift zones of DDR diode. The ratio of
drift region voltage drop (VD) to avalanche zone voltage
drop is higher in DDR diode as compared with that in
SDR diode which leads to higher conversion efficiency
of DDR IMPATT diode.
The magnitude of peak electric field at the p-n junc-
tion of DDR diode is less than that of SDR diode under
identical operating conditions. Further, the depletion
region of a DDR diode is wider than that of an SDR
diode. The effect of tunneling of charge carriers on the
high-frequency properties of DDR device is less pro-
nounced since the depletion layer width is wider in
DDR diode. Scharfetter et al. [21] first demonstrated
mm-wave power generation from experimental flat
5
profile DDR Si IMPATT diode. Seidel et al. in 1971
[22] reported that an ion-implanted flat profile DDR
Si IMPATT device delivers high CW output power of
1 W at 50 GHz with 14.2% conversion efficiency. A
CW power of 0.53 W with 10.3% conversion efficiency
at the same frequency was reported by the same worker
[22] from corresponding Si flat profile SDR diode. Later
several researchers confirmed the superiority of DDR
diodes over their SDR counterparts at both microwave
and mm-wave frequencies.
HETEROJUNCTION IMPATT DIODE
The conduction band discontinuity properties of abrupt
heterojunctions formed between two semiconductors of
different bandgaps, incorporated in IMPATT structure,
lead to improved RF performance of the device at higher
mm-wave frequency bands. The important feature of
HJ-IMPATT is the sharpness of the peak electric field at
the junction. The use of a heterojunction in place of
the conventional p-n junction in an IMPATT structure
leads to its superior DC characteristics, better RF proper-
ties, and less phase noise [23e25]. For given doping
levels, and assuming no interface charge, the maximum
field at the interface is found to be larger in a heterojunc-
tion based on GaAs/Al0.3GaAs0.7 than that in a standard
GaAs p-n homojunction [26,27]. The avalanche
noise characteristics of InP/GaInAs (Ga0.47 in0.53 As)
and InP/GaInAsP (Ga0.33 In0.67 As0.7 P0.3) DDR hetero-
junction IMPATTs are reported to be better than their
homojunction counterparts [28,29]. But HJ-IMPATTs
require a high applied voltage to initiate breakdown
due to low reverse leakage current. Further heterojunc-
tion IMPATTs exhibit sharper breakdown than homo-
junction device. The sharp avalanche breakdown
observed in the HJ-IMPATT devices is due to narrow
region of leakage current generation and reduced diffu-
sion current. Mishra et al. [25] studied the RF properties
of heterojunction IMPATTs and predicted that these
devices excel homojunction IMPATTs as regard high
power, low noise, and high efficiency. In spite of the
improved performance of HJ-IMPATTs over standard
IMPATTs, few experimental results have yet been
reported in the literature.
IMPATTS BASED ON MATERIALS OTHER
THAN SILICON
In early 1970s, silicon was extensively used as a base
material for fabrication of IMPATT diodes. Luy et al.
in 1987 [30] experimentally realized MBE grown DDR
Si IMPATT devices and reported an output power of
600 mW at 94 GHz. Wollitzer et al. in 1996 [2] also
6 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects
reported that DDR Si IMPATT device can deliver
300 mW power at 140 GHz. However, at mm-wave fre-
quencies higher than 300 GHz, the performance of sili-
con DDR IMPATTs degrades sharply.
Several researchers carried out theoretical and
experimental research on IMPATTS based on GaAs at
lower microwave frequency. Huang [31] studied a
modified structure of GaAs IMPATTs and showed
that there is a trade-off between efficiency and noise
performance of the device. Goldwasser and Rosztoczy
[32] in 1974 realized a low-high-low structure of GaAs
IMPATT diode and showed that the device is capable of
providing higher efficiency. Bozler et al. [33] in 1976
fabricated a low-high-low GaAs IMPATT diode by
ion-implantation method and showed that DC to RF
conversion efficiency of the device is considerably
improved. In the same year, several researchers
reported the suitability of GaAs IMPATT diodes for
operation at lower mm-wave frequencies. Thus, GaAs
emerged as an alternative base material of IMPATTs.
Later in 1989, Eisele [34] reported 270 mW RF power
output with 5.7% conversion efficiency from GaAs
IMPATT oscillator at 94 GHz. H. Eisele [35] in 1990
showed that the noise figure of GaAs SDR IMPATT
diode is lower than Si SDR diode operating at
W-band frequencies. Eisele and Haddad [36] reported
in 1992 that GaAs IMPATTs are capable of delivering
15 mW power with 1.5% conversion efficiency at
135.3 GHz. Kearney et al. [37] proposed a low-noise
GaAs IMPATT diode as an alternative to Gunn diode
for microwave power generation. They reported that
proper design of the device may lead to a conversion
efficiency greater than 20% with lower FM noise. In
1994, Curow [38] proposed a GaAs-based low noise
IMPATT structure operating at D-band. The results
showed that an output power up to 400 mW can be
achieved around 150 GHz operations. Tschernitz
et al. [39] in 1994 reported that Read-type GaAs
IMPATT device delivers 75 mW power at 120 GHz
and 8 mW power at D-band around 144 GHz. Tscher-
nitz and Freyer [40] in 1995 investigated the high-
frequency performance of GaAs double-Read IMPATT
diodes at 140 GHz.
InP was later used as the base material for fabrication
of IMPATT diode. Berenz et al. [19] in 1978 fabricated
SDR InP IMPATT diode with flat doping profile for
the first time by using ion-implantation method. They
obtained an output power of 1.1 W at 9.78 GHz with
11.5% efficiency from the experimental device. Since
then several theoretical reports were published showing
the distinct advantages of InP IMPATTs over Si IMPATTs
particularly at mm-wave frequency bands. Banerjee
et al. [41] reported comparative studies on the high-
frequency performance of DDR IMPATT diodes based
on InP and GaAs. They showed that InP IMPATTs excel
their silicon counterparts at higher mm-wave fre-
quencies and their GaAs counterparts at lower mm-
wave frequencies. Simulation studies reported in
Refs. [42e44] also revealed that InP IMPATTs are prom-
ising candidates for power generation at higher
mm-wave and THz frequency bands.
POTENTIALITY OF IMPATT DIODES BASED
ON WIDE BANDGAP SEMICONDUCTORS AS
THZ SOURCES
The design and simulation studies on THz IMPATTs
based on some WBG semiconductors such as 4H-SiC,
WZ-GaN, and type-IIb diamond are reported in
Refs. [4e7]. Some reports on the fabrication and RF
characterization of 4H-SiC IMPATTs are available at
lower microwave X-band [8,45] frequency, but not at
higher mm-wave and THz frequency bands. Although
the material properties of both WZ-GaN and type-IIb
diamond are highly suitable to realize high-power
IMPATTs at these frequency bands, experimental reports
on the same are not yet available in the literature so far
as the author’s knowledge is concerned. This may be
due to lack of accurate design data and availability of
high-quality GaN wafer. The recent development
of the epitaxial growth technique of type-IIb diamond
and its favorable opto-electronic, mechanical, and ther-
mal properties has aroused a lot of research interest to
use this material for fabrication of high-power, high-
frequency semiconductor devices. Trew et al. in 1991
[9,10] reported the good prospect of diamond-based
MESFET, IMPATT diode, and bipolar junction transistor
as efficient sources for microwave power generation.
However, at mm-wave and THz frequencies, WZ-GaN
and type-IIb diamond-based IMPATTs would emerge
as high-power sources.
AVALANCHE RESPONSE ANALYSIS FOR
THZ OPERATION ON IMPATT DIODE
The prospect of IMPATT device made of different semi-
conductors such as GaAs, Si, InP, 4H-SiC, and Wz-GaN
for THz operation depends mainly on two factors:
(i) avalanche response time (ART) and (ii) tunneling.
These two factors determine the upper cut-off frequency
for IMPATT action. In this section, an analytical method
based on ART of IMPATTs based on different semicon-
ductors including the WBG ones will be presented to
predict the cut-off frequency of operation. A compari-
son of the ART and TT of charge carriers in IMPATTs
based on different materials leads to finding out the
 CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices
limiting or cut-off frequency for IMPATT operation.
This method gives a firsthand physical insight regarding
the potentiality of IMPATTs as THz sources. The
avalanche response analysis is a useful tool to predict
the operation of IMPATT diodes at THz frequency.
The avalanche response analysis when compared
with the TT of carriers in the drift layer at a particular
frequency provides the limiting frequency for IMPATT
operation based on different semiconductors at that
frequency. The material parameters which strongly
influence the DC and RF properties of IMPATTs are
field-dependent ionization rates (an, ap) and saturated
drift velocities (vsn, vsp) of charge carriers. The impact
ionization rates of electrons and holes in a semicon-
ductor determine the response time for the growth of
avalanche current in an IMPATT diode based on the
particular semiconductor. IMPATTs based on a partic-
ular material will cease to oscillate and deliver power
when the operating frequency is more than the upper
cut-off frequency in which case the ART of charge car-
riers is longer than their TT. The ART depends on the
carrier ionization rates and TT depends on the saturated
drift velocity of charge carriers and the operating fre-
quency. Thus, both ART and TT depend very much on
the base semiconductor of IMPATT diode. The upper
cut-off frequency beyond which IMPATT oscillation
ceases can be estimated by calculating ART and TT
from the following analysis.
The ARTs initiated by electrons, sAn, and holes, sAp,
are expressed as
2 3
Z Z
xA2 x
1 6
sAn ¼ exp4
ðan
ap Þdx0 5dx
ðvsn þ vsp Þ
xA1
xA1
2 3
Z xA2
6 7
sAp ¼ sAn exp4 ðan
ap Þdx5

xA1
When avalanche process is initiated by a mixture of
electrons and holes, then the corresponding response
time sA is given by
8 2 39
1
>
< Z xA >
=
6 2
7 shortest sA as compared with DDR devices based on
sA ¼ sAn ð1
kÞ þ k$exp4
ðan
ap Þdx5 ; (1.4)
>
:
xA1 >
; 4H-Sic, InP, Si, and GaAs. Fig. 1.6 shows further that
where the parameter k ¼ Jps/Js and (1
k) ¼ Jns/Js.
In Eq. (1.4), Jns and Jps are the reverse saturation cur-
rent components of thermally generated electrons and
holes, respectively, and Js ¼ Jps þ Jns is the total reverse
saturation current. The ARTs can be calculated using
Eqs. (1.2)e(1.4) by taking the realistic material param-
eters from Ref. [46e49].
7
Some Results Based on ART Analysis of DDR
IMPATTs
ARTs (sA) of DDR IMPATTs based on different semicon-
ductors are calculated by using Eq. (1.4).The spatial var-
iations of ionization rates of electrons (an(x)) and holes
(ap(x)) in the depletion layer of DDR IMPATTs based
on different semiconductors are first obtained from
the DC simulation results. Eqs. (1.2) and (1.3) are
then solved numerically to determine ART (sA) initiated
by electrons and holes, respectively. The TTs (sT) of
carriers to cross the drift layers of DDR IMPATT devices
based on different semiconductors depend on the oper-
ating frequency and can be estimated using the simple
relation obtained from Ref. [50].
Figs. 1.5 and 1.6 show the variations of sA and sT
with optimum frequency for DDR IMPATT diodes
made of conventional (Si, GaAs) and WBG (4H-SiC,
WZ-GaN, InP), semiconductors respectively. Within
the operating frequency range, ART is less than TT in
DDR IMPATT diodes and this can be determined for
different base semiconducting materials from Figs. 1.5
and 1.6. ART (sA) depends on two important material
parameters viz. saturated drift velocity and ionization
rate of electrons and holes (vsn, vsp and an, ap) in the
base semiconductor of IMPATT device. Thus, sA is a
function of base material.
It is observed from Fig. 1.5 that ART(sA) in DDR
GaAs IMPATTs is longer than that in DDR Si device
by factors of 1.47 and 2.15 at frequencies of 94 and
220 GHz, respectively. The cut-off frequencies of
double-drift IMPATTs based on Si and GaAs are esti-
7 mated as 500 and 220 GHz, respectively, by deter-
(1.2)
mining the frequency above which ART exceeds TT
from Fig. 1.5.
It is observed from Fig. 1.6 that the ARTs, sA of both
(1.3) Wz-GaN and 4H-SiC DDR IMPATTs, are orders of
magnitude shorter than of DDR InP devices. For
example, at 94 GHz, sA of Wz-GaN and 4H-SiC DDR
IMPATTs are 9.18  10
4 and 6.26  10
3 times of
sA of InP DDR IMPATTs, respectively. At 1.0 THz, the
above factors are 2.82  10
4 and 8.58  10
3, respec-
tively. DDR IMPATT diode based on GaN has the
GaN DDR IMPATT device can operate up to a
frequency of 5.0 THz at since its ART is of the order
of 10
16 s and its TT is approximately 5 orders of
magnitude longer. The results indicate that Si- and
GaAs-based DDR devices can deliver significant RF
power at 0.22 and 0.50 THz, respectively, while those
based on 4H-SiC and InP can deliver power at much
higher frequency of 1 THz.
8 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects

AVALANCHE RESPONSE TIME, τ A AND

10–10
τ T of Gα As
based DDRs

τ T of Si
10–11 τ A of Gα As based DDRs

TRANSIT TIME,τ T (Sec.)

based DDRs

10–12 τ A of Si
based DDRs

10–13
1010 1011 1012
OPTIMUM FREQUENCY, fp (GHZ)
FIG. 1.5 Plots of avalanche response time and transit time against operating optimum frequency of double-
drift region (DDR) IMPATTs made of Si and GaAs.

FIG. 1.6 Plots of avalanche response time and transit time against operating optimum frequency of double-
drift region (DDR) IMPATTs based on GaN, InP, and 4H-SiC.

ART Analysis to Determine the Optimum
Operating Frequencies of Si- and Diamond-
Based DDR IMPATT Devices
Eq. (1.4) is used to calculate ART (sA) of both Si- and
diamond-based DDR devices at different operating opti-
mum frequencies. The electron and hole ionization rates
(an, ap) depend strongly on electric field (E) and hence
on the spatial coordinate (x) in the active layer of the de-
vice. Thus, an (x) and ap (x) in Eq. (1.4) can be obtained
once the electric field profile in the active region of the
device is simulated. The field profile is obtained through
simultaneous numerical solution of fundamental device
equations subject to appropriate boundary conditions at
depletion layer edges. The carrier TTs in the drift layers of
DDR devices at different operating frequencies are calcu-
lated using the simplified formula reported in Ref. [50].
Fig. 1.7 shows the plots of sA and sT for diamond and
Si DDR IMPATTs versus optimum frequency. Above a
 CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices
FIG. 1.7 Plots of avalanche transit time and transit time versus optimum frequency of diamond- and Si-based
IMPATTs.
certain high frequency, the carrier transit time (sT)
becomes shorter than the ART (sA) due to which the
RF performance of the device becomes limited [7,44].
It is quite evident from Eq. (1.4) that sT depends on
the terms an (x) and ap (x). Thus, the ART, sA at a fixed
operating frequency is very much dependent on the
base semiconductor material. Fig. 1.7 shows that sA of
Si DDR device at 94 GHz is 5.99  102 times higher
than that of diamond DDR device, whereas at
0.5 THz, sA of Si DDR is 2.21  103 times higher than
sA of diamond DDR. The results clearly indicate that
compared with Si DDR IMPATTs, diamond-based
IMPATTs can be operated for power generation at
higher frequency of 1.5 THz. Above 1 THz, ART (sA)
of diamond IMPATTs is in the range of femtosecond
(1.0e0.1  10
15 s), about 4 orders shorter than that
of Si devices. ART analysis carried out for Si DDR
devices shows that their RF performance is avalanche
response limited above 0.5 THz frequency.
AN OVERVIEW OF DESIGN, SIMULATION,
AND ANALYSIS OF IMPATTS
A generalized double-iterative field maximum
computer method free from any simplifying assump-
tion was proposed by Roy et al. [51] in 1979 to study
the DC properties of IMPATTs of any arbitrary doping
profile. This method provides electric field profile,
9
current density profile, avalanche region width, voltage
drops across the avalanche and drift zones, breakdown
voltage, and efficiency of DC to RF conversion. Small-
signal analysis and simulation of IMPATTs was later
reported by Roy et al. [52]. This analysis takes into
account the effect of mobile space charge and realistic
field-dependent ionization rates and drift velocities of
charge carriers. The small-signal admittance characteris-
tics, negative resistivity, and reactivity profiles of the
device were obtained from the small-signal simulation
based on Gummel-Blue approach. Banerjee et al. in
1991 [53] studied the small-signal properties and RF
performance of simple flat and complex low-high-low
doping profiles of DDR Si IMPATTs at V-band by car-
rying out small-signal simulation. The design results
were used to fabricate the devices by silicon molecular
beam epitaxy. A close agreement between theoretical
and experimental results showed the accuracy of the
method.
The effect of temperature on the small-signal admit-
tance characteristics of IMPATT diode was studied by
Y. Takayama [54] in 1975. Hirachi et al. [55] fabricated
Si IMPATT device for operation at mm-wave frequency
and showed that the DC to RF conversion efficiency of
the device can be improved if the ohmic contact of the
device is made with the help of ion-implanted tech-
nique. The effect of carrier diffusion on the static and
microwave performance of IMPATT diode was studied
10 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects
theoretically by M. S. Gupta [56]. The effect of
tunneling on the high-frequency performance of
IMPATT diode was studied by Chive et al. [57]. Some
reports are available on the experimental realization
of IMPATT devices. K. B. Winterbon [58] fabricated
IMPATT device by ion-implantation technique and
reported the range of ion beam energy used in the pro-
cess. The high-frequency limitation of silicon IMPATT
diodes was studied by Doumitria et al. [59]. Wan et al.
[60] in 1975 reported a multilayer epitaxial growth
process for fabrication of silicon IMPATT diode at
mm-wave frequencies.
Design of Structural and Doping Parameters
The operating frequency of DDR IMPATT diode
depends on the transit time (sT) of charge carriers to
cross the depletion layer of the device. The structural
and doping parameters of the device depend on the
design frequency ( fd). The following simple design for-
mula [50] is used to obtain the depletion layer widths
of n and p regions of the device:
Wn;p ¼ 0:37vsn;sp =fd (1.5)
where vsn,sp are the saturation velocities of electrons and
holes, respectively. The background doping concentra-
tions of n- and p-depletion regions (ND, NA) are initially
chosen according to the design frequency. The doping
concentration of nþ- and pþ-layers are normally taken
to be same, i.e., Nnþ ¼ Npþ ¼ 1026 m
3. These parame-
ters are used as input data for DC simulation. The elec-
tric field profile in the depletion layer and the respective
punch through factor can be obtained. The doping pa-
rameters and the doping profile are suitably adjusted
so that the electric field just punches through the deple-
tion layer of the device at a particular design frequency,
fd, and a particular bias current density (J0). Small-signal
simulation is carried out to obtain the admittance
characteristics of the device. Various useful information
on the RF properties of IMPATT oscillator such as
optimum frequency (fp), avalanche resonance fre-
quency, Q-factor, and bandwidth can be extracted
from the admittance plots.
The optimum frequency fp is that frequency at
which the negative conductance of IMPATTs reaches
a peak under oscillating condition. This frequency
can be obtained from the admittance (conductance-
susceptance) plots of the device. The design should
take care of bringing the value of fp closer to the design
frequency, fd. This can be done by adjusting the bias
current within the operating range. The bias current
density is then fixed for a particular design frequency.
The simulation is done by taking realistic doping
profile of DDR IMPATTs using appropriate doping
functions in different regions of the device. The design
parameters of the device made of different semicon-
ductors, obtained from the aforementioned method,
are given in Table 1.1. Various material parameters
such as field-dependent ionization rates (an, ap), drift
velocities (vn, vp) of charge carriers, bandgap (Eg),
intrinsic carrier concentration (ni), effective density
of states of conduction and valence bands (Nc, Nv),
diffusion coefficients (Dn, Dp), mobilities (mn, mp),
and diffusion lengths (Ln, Lp) of the semiconductors
can be obtained from Refs. [48,61e63]. The junction
diameter of IMPATT device at a particular frequency
(Dj) can be obtained from a rigorous thermal analysis
considering appropriate heat sink arrangement. The
report [64,65] shows that the value of Dj is 35 mm
for CW operation of Si DDR IMPATTs at 94 GHz.
Some reports on the DC properties of IMPATT
diode
The important DC parameters of the device can be
obtained from modeling and simulation program
described in Refs. [51]. These parameters are (i) peak
electric field at the metallurgical junction (xP),
(ii) breakdown voltage (VB), (iii) voltage across the
avalanche layer (VA), (iv) efficiency of DC to micro-
wave conversion (h), (v) width of avalanche zone
(xA), and (vi) fractional value of avalanche zone width
with respect to total width of active layer (xA/W).
Table 1.2 shows the aforementioned DC parameters.
The variations of xP, VB, and h with operating fre-
quency are shown in Figs. 1.8e1.10 for DDR IMPATTs
based on Si, GaAs, InP, Wz-, and 4H-SiC. The simu-
lated DC parameters of the device made of different
materials can be compared by using Table 1.2 and
Figs. 1.8e1.10 at different operating frequencies. It is
observed that the peak field (xP) at the p-n junction
of DDR IMPATTs increases with increasing frequency
(Table 1.2). Table 1.2 shows that with increasing fre-
quency, the reverse voltage at breakdown (VB), width
of avalanche layer (xA), and voltage drop across the
avalanche zone (VA) of the device decrease. It is also
observed from the table that with increasing fre-
quency, the DC to RF conversion efficiency (h) of
DDR IMPATTs based on different semiconductors de-
creases. The DC properties of IMPATTs depend very
much on the material properties and therefore vary
with the change of base material of IMPATTs. At a
particular operating frequency, the peak electric field
(xP) in 4H-SiC DDRs is found to highest as compared
with DDRs based on other materials. The peak electric
field, xP, in GaN DDR IMPATTs is of the same order as
that in 4H-SiC DDRs, but its magnitude in DDR
TABLE 1.1
Design Parameters of Double-Drift Region IMPATTs at mm-Wave and THz Frequencies.
fd J0 (3108 Wn Wp ND NA Nnþ Npþ
Semiconductor (GHz) AmL2) (mm) (mm) (31023 mL3) (31023 mL3) (31025 mL3) (31025 mL3) Dj (mm)
Wz-GaN 94 1.050 1.5800 1.5800 0.590 0.600 5.000 2.700 35.00
140 2.250 1.0500 1.0500 0.690 0.710 5.000 2.700 25.00
220 4.275 0.7350 0.7350 1.050 1.100 5.000 2.700 20.00
300 8.700 0.5350 0.5350 1.550 1.600 5.000 2.700 15.00
500 18.375 0.3300 0.3300 2.860 2.900 5.000 2.700 10.00
1000 45.000 0.1850 0.1850 6.840 7.200 5.000 2.700 5.00
1500 55.500 0.1300 0.1300 9.800 10.50 5.000 2.700 2.50

CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices

2000 72.000 0.1020 0.1020 13.500 14.500 5.000 2.700 1.20
5000 88.500 0.0520 0.0520 35.500 36.500 5.000 2.700 0.70
InP 94 4.500 0.3200 0.3200 1.900 1.900 5.000 2.700 35.00
140 7.700 0.2100 0.2100 3.400 3.400 5.000 2.700 25.00
220 12.000 0.1300 0.1300 5.200 5.200 5.000 2.700 20.00
300 20.000 0.1000 0.1010 7.200 7.200 5.000 2.700 15.00
500 47.000 0.0650 0.0650 13.500 13.500 5.000 2.700 10.00
1000 60.000 0.0285 0.0285 28.000 28.000 5.000 2.700 5.00
Type-IIb diamond 94 4.000 0.7800 0.7200 0.460 0.530 5.000 2.700 35.00
(C) 140 7.500 0.5300 0.5300 0.810 0.870 5.000 2.700 25.00
220 13.000 0.3200 0.3200 1.350 1.490 5.000 2.700 20.00
300 17.000 0.2200 0.2200 2.050 2.220 5.000 2.700 15.00
500 25.000 0.1200 0.1200 3.750 4.100 5.000 2.700 10.00
1000 39.000 0.0520 0.0520 9.500 10.000 5.000 2.700 5.00
1500 48.000 0.0300 0.0300 36.000 37.000 5.000 2.700 2.50
4H-SiC 94 2.100 0.5800 0.5800 2.800 2.900 5.000 2.700 35.00
140 4.300 0.4000 0.4000 4.900 5.000 5.000 2.700 25.00
220 9.300 0.3000 0.3000 6.900 7.000 5.000 2.700 20.00
300 16.600 0.2500 0.2500 9.500 10.500 5.000 2.700 15.00
500 60.000 0.1600 0.1600 14.500 16.500 5.000 2.700 10.00
1000 210.000 0.0900 0.0900 37.000 43.000 5.000 2.700 5.00
Si 94 3.400 0.4000 0.3800 1.200 1.250 5.000 2.700 35.00
140 5.800 0.2800 0.2450 1.800 2.100 5.000 2.700 25.00
220 14.500 0.1800 0.1600 3.950 4.590 5.000 2.700 20.00
300 24.500 0.1320 0.1120 6.000 7.300 5.000 2.700 15.00
500 55.000 0.0720 0.0720 15.000 16.200 5.000 2.700 10.00

11
12 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects

TABLE 1.2
DC Parameters.
Base Serial J0 xp xA/W
Material Number (3108 AmL2) (3107 V mL1) VB (V) VA (V) h (%) xA (nm) (%)
GaAs 1 2.20 5.6067 28.87 17.06 13.02 376.0 40.00
2 5.60 6.0442 22.67 15.57 9.97 332.0 55.33
3 11.50 7.3067 15.78 11.41 8.82 208.0 54.74
4 24.50 9.1317 11.61 9.49 5.77 146.0 66.36
Si 1 3.40 6.0115 24.27 16.21 10.58 352.0 46.32
2 5.80 6.6617 18.98 13.52 9.16 268.0 53.07
3 13.0 8.1990 13.74 10.29 7.99 170.0 53.10
4 17.2 9.3490 11.29 9.07 6.25 134.0 59.82
5 52.0 12.1760 9.06 7.75 4.59 90.0 67.16
InP 1 1.40 7.3904 28.82 14.42 15.90 230.0 33.72
2 2.90 7.9279 19.78 10.44 15.02 156.0 33.91
3 5.00 8.5904 13.30 7.48 13.93 104.0 37.01
4 7.80 8.9205 10.71 6.29 13.13 84.0 41.79
5 19.0 9.7447 7.08 4.56 11.35 56.0 46.67
6 40.5 10.6450 4.43 3.34 7.82 38.0 67.85
4H-SiC 1 4.00 35.9060 226.08 111.09 16.19 382.0 33.81
2 9.00 38.9163 158.19 79.82 15.77 252.0 32.31
3 21.0 40.6251 121.47 69.46 14.62 212.0 36.55
4 51.0 42.6311 107.72 60.73 13.89 178.0 37.08
5 135.0 45.2179 86.32 53.26 12.19 152.0 50.67
6 460.0 51.7022 51.54 36.35 9.38 92.0 61.33
Wz-GaN 1 0.05 15.9820 251.61 123.12 16.25 904.0 28.43
2 0.30 16.2877 215.59 106.21 16.15 758.0 35.09
3 1.00 17.0345 155.13 81.57 15.49 560.0 39.16
4 1.50 17.8712 118.13 62.21 15.07 408.0 38.49
5 3.00 19.2765 76.34 41.42 14.56 252.0 39.38
6 10.8 21.4739 41.76 24.28 13.32 134.0 40.61
7 16.0 22.4766 31.43 19.31 12.27 102.0 45.95
8 23.5 23.3778 25.21 16.13 11.46 82.0 48.81
9 30.0 26.3812 11.92 9.72 5.88 44.0 67.69

IMPATTs based on InP, Si, and GaAs is one order lower
in DDRs based on WBG semiconductors such as GaN
and SiC. The magnitude of electric field, xP, at the
metallurgical junction of DDR InP IMPATT device is
highest and that of DDR GaAs device is lowest. In
this context, it is worthwhile to note that the magni-
tude of peak field xP increases with the increasing fre-
quency (Table 1.2). It is observed that xP in 4H-SiC
DDR IMPATTs increases from 3.59  108 at 94 GHz
to 5.17  108 Vm
1 at 1.0 THz.
It is observed from Table 1.2 that the reverse voltage
at breakdown (VB) is highest in DDR GaN devices
among all other DDR devices. The breakdown voltages
of DDRs based on WBG semiconductors like 4H-SiC
and Wz-GaN are found (Table 1.2, Figs. 1.8 and 1.10)
to be larger than those based on conventional
semiconductors like Si, GaAs, and InP. Between Si and
InP DDR IMPATTs operating at the same frequency,
the reverse breakdown occurs at higher voltage (VB) in
InP DDR devices (Table 1.2, Figs. 1.8 and 1.10).
The difference of breakdown voltage (VB) and
avalanche zone voltage (VA) of DDR device is the
voltage drop across its drift zone, i.e., VD ¼ VBeVA.
According to Scharfetter-Gummel semiquantitative for-
mula [66], the DC to RF conversion efficiency of
IMPATT device is given by h ¼ (2m/p)  (VD/VB) where
the voltage modulation factor, m, is taken to be 0.5.
Therefore, h ¼ (1/p)  (VD/VB). This means that higher
the ratio (VD/VB), higher is the efficiency of DC to RF
conversion. Figs. 1.8 and 1.10 show that with increasing
frequency, the conversion efficiency decreases for all
DDR devices due to the decrease of the ratio, VD/VB.
 CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices 13

35
EFFICIENCY
GaAs

PEAK ELECTRIC FIELD, ξγ (x107Vm–1)

BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
DDRs
30 PEAK ELECTRIC FIELD
EFFICIENCY
Si
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
DDRs
25

BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE, VB (V)

PEAK ELECTRIC FIELD

20

15
EFFICIENCY, η (%)
10

0
1010 1011 1012
OPTIMUM FREQUENCY, fP (GHz)
FIG. 1.8 Plots of h, VB, and xP of double-drift region (DDR) Si and GaAs IMPATTs versus optimum frequency.

FIG. 1.9 Plots of peak junction field xP of double-drift region (DDR) IMPATTs based on InP, 4H-SiC, and Wz-
GaN against optimum frequency.

Fig. 1.10 shows that at 94 GHz, the efficiency versus fre- efficiency is highest in InP DDR IMPATTs followed by
quency curves of double-drift IMPATTs based on 4H- Si and GaAs DDR devices (Figs. 1.8 and 1.10).
SiC and Wz-GaN intersect each other. This means that The RF performance of Si and GaAs DDR devices
4H-SiC and GaN DDR devices will have same efficiency with respect to their efficiency (h) can be compared
at 94 GHz frequency. However, at 1 THz, 4H-SiC DDR at different frequencies in the range of 94e500 GHz
IMPATTs will have much lower efficiency than GaN from Fig. 1.8. It is observed that the efficiency of Si
DDR devices. The DC to microwave conversion DDRs is higher than GaAs DDRs within the frequency
14 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects
FIG. 1.10 Plots of VB and h versus optimum frequency for double-drift region (DDR) IMPATT devices based
on InP, 4H-SiC, and Wz-GaN.
range of 150e220 GHz. At 140 GHz, the efficiencies of
Si and GaAs DDRs are nearly the same. It is observed
from Fig. 1.10 that DDRs based on WBG semiconduc-
tors like Wz-GaN and 4H-SiC should provide higher
efficiency than those made of conventional semicon-
ductors like Si and GaAs (Fig. 1.8 and Table 1.2). The
aforementioned results clearly indicate that GaN
DDR devices excel all other DDRs with respect to
achieving high efficiency in the THz frequency band.
It is interesting to note that the rate of decrease of
efficiency with increasing frequency (dh/df ) is lower
in GaN DDRs than that in 4H-SiC and InP DDRs up
to a maximum frequency of 1 THz. Thus, GaN DDRs
have an edge over other DDRs as regard high-power
delivery and high conversion efficiency in the THz
frequency band.
Table 1.2 shows that the ratio of avalanche zone
width to total drift layer width (xA/W) increases for
each base material of DDR IMPATTs as one moves
from serial number 1 to higher serial number which
corresponds to increasing frequency (Table 1.3). This
indicates that the avalanche zone widens with
increasing frequency. Thus, the voltage across the
avalanche zone (VA) increases and consequently the
voltage across the drift zone (VD) decreases with
increasing frequency. The ratio VD/VB decreases and
correspondingly the conversion efficiency (h) decreases
with increasing frequency. The ratio xA/W of GaAS DDR
IMPATTs increases from 40.0% to 66.36% as frequency
increases from 60 to 220 GHz and the DC to RF conver-
sion efficiency h decreases to a low value of 5.77% in
GaAs DDR IMPATTs at 220 GHz. Similarly, in case of
Si DDR IMPATTs, xA/W increases from 53.10% to
67.16% and h decreases from 7.99% to 4.55% as the
frequency increases from 220 to 500 GHz (Table 1.2).
It is further observed that xA/W of DDRs based on
InP, 4H-SiC, and Wz-GaN increases from 41.79% to
67.85%, 37.08% to 61.33%, and 38.49% to 40.61%,
respectively, as frequency increases from 300 GHz to
1 THz. It is interesting to note that in the range of fre-
quency 0.3e1 THz, xA/W of GaN DDRs remains almost
constant without appreciable increase in contrast with
that of 4H-SiC and InP DDRs (vide serial numbers
4, 5, 6 of Tables 1.2 and 1.3). But xA/W of GaN devices
increases appreciably above 1 THz. With the increase of
frequency from 1e5 THz, xA/W of GaN DDR IMPATTs
increases sharply from 40.61% to 67.69% (column 9,
serial numbers 6e9 of Tables 1.2 and 1.3). This increase
of xA/W causes increase of VA/VB and decrease of VD/VB,
leading to sharp decrease of conversion efficiency from
13.32% to 5.88% (column 7, serial numbers 6e9,
Tables 1.2 and 1.3). Similarly the conversion efficiency
of 4H-SiC DDR device decreases from 13.13% to 7.82%
and that of InP DDRs decreases from 13.89% to 9.38%
with increase of frequency from 0.3 to 1 THz. All the
aforementioned DC results indicate that GaN DDR
IMPATTs can emerge as useful sources of power genera-
tion in the THz frequency regime.
 CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices 15

TABLE 1.3
High-Frequency Parameters.
Base Serial fp Gp Bp Qp ¼ ZR PRF Dj
Material Number (GHz) (3107 SmL2) (3107 SmL2) e(Bp/Gp) (310L9 UmL2) (mW) (mm)
GaAs 1 60
2.9548 3.5293 1.19
13.9461 1828.47 55.0
2 94
5.8886 7.8662 1.34
6.0988 909.89 35.0
3 140
10.4730 19.4641 1.86
2.1438 400.04 25.0
4 220
17.1452 56.7970 3.31
0.4871 226.89 20.0
Si 1 94
4.0002 6.5654 1.64
6.7679 708.43 35.0
2 140
8.0772 15.4697 1.92
2.6524 446.35 25.0
3 219
18.0334 38.7885 2.15
0.9855 334.23 20.0
4 302
26.2239 80.1598 3.05
0.3686 184.59 15.0
5 500
67.5571 222.3756 3.29
0.1251 136.10 10.0
InP 1 94
8.2457 6.8436 0.83
7.1811 2059.17 35.0
2 140
26.6945 13.7556 0.52
2.9599 1602.12 25.0
3 220
49.3589 47.2443 0.96
1.0573 857.17 20.0
4 300
78.9689 72.7609 0.92
0.6849 500.22 15.0
5 501
278.1512 213.6971 0.77
0.2268 342.21 10.0
6 1000
598.7561 703.7719 1.17
0.0701 72.10 5.0
4H-SiC 1 95
1.9711 0.5574 0.28
46.9756 30,290.98 35.0
2 140
4.2152 1.3511 0.32
21.5132 16,180.81 25.0
3 220
9.1919 3.7236 0.41
9.3454 13,315.09 20.0
4 300
20.4917 8.3277 0.41
4.1883 13,130.85 15.0
5 500
51.1584 14.3506 0.28
1.8121 9355.78 10.0
6 1000
121.6192 46.1491 0.38
0.7187 1982.31 5.0
Wz-GaN 1 95
0.1638 1.7788 10.86
5.1361 3117.78 35.0
2 140
0.3953 3.7869 9.58
2.7262 2818.41 25.0
3 220
1.1101 9.1187 8.21
1.3155 2622.73 20.0
4 300
2.3439 16.9007 7.21
0.8051 1806.27 15.0
5 500
8.1282 46.6598 5.74
0.3632 1162.62 10.0
6 1000
47.1109 180.2237 3.82
0.1358 504.16 5.0
7 1500
126.7654 408.2341 3.22
0.0693 192.09 2.5
8 2000
211.6412 730.3715 3.45
0.0366 47.54 1.2
9 5000
445.7865 1045.0674 2.34
0.0345 7.62 0.7

High-frequency properties of IMPATT diode
High-frequency parameters can be obtained from
small-signal simulation of DDR IMPATTs made of con-
ventional and WBG semiconducting materials. Table 1.3
shows these parameters, i.e., optimum frequency ( fp),
peak negative conductance (Gp), positive susceptance
(Bp), quality factor or Q-factor (Qp), negative resistance
(ZR), and RF power output (PRF) of the devices.
Fig. 1.11 shows the small-signal admittance, i.e.,
conductance versus susceptance (G-B) plots for GaAs
and Si DDR IMPATTs. These plots show that the
optimum frequencies for GaAs devices are 94, 140,
220, and 300 GHz, while those for Si devices are 94,
140, 220, 300, and 500 GHz. The admittance plots
shown in Fig. 1.11 clearly indicate that Si DDR IMPATTs
can be used up to 0.5 THz in contrast to GaAs IMPATTs.
Figs. 1.12 and 1.13 show the admittance curves of InP
and 4H-SiC DDR IMPATTs, respectively. The optimum
frequencies obtained from these plots are 94, 140, 220,
300, 500, and 1000 GHz for both InP and 4-H SiC
devices.
The Q-factor (Qp ¼
Bp/Gp) is an indicator of con-
version efficiency and growth rate of oscillation in
IMPATT devices. This factor should be close to and
slightly less than 1 (Qp z 1) to obtain stable oscillation
and higher efficiency from IMPATT devices. Table 1.3
shows that the Q-factor of InP DDR IMPATTs is the
lowest close to unity (Table 1.3) followed by 4H-SiC
DDR device and others. Table 1.3 also shows
Q-factors of DDR IMPATTs based on different materials
at mm-wave and THz frequencies. The optimum fre-
quencies obtained from the admittance plots of DDR
16 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects

FIG. 1.11 Admittance characteristics (G-B) plots of double-drift region (DDR) IMPATTs made of GaAs and
Si.

FIG. 1.12 G-B plots for double-drift region (DDR) IMPATTs based on InP and 4H-SiC (optimum frequencies
are shown).
 CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices
FIG. 1.13 Admittance (G-B) plots of double-drift region (DDR) IMPATT devices made of InP and 4H-SiC
(optimum frequencies in THz band as marked).
IMPATTs based on medium and WBG semiconductors
play the decisive role to select the proper base material
of IMPATTs and design the same for THz operation. Fig.
1.14 shows the admittance plots of DDR IMPATTs
based on GaN at the optimum frequencies of 94, 140,
220 and 300 GHz which are incidentally the window
frequencies in the millimeter wave region. Fig. 1.15
shows similar plots at the optimum frequencies of
500, 1000, 1500, 2000 and 3000 GHz ie, 0.5, 1, 1.5,
2.0 and 3.0 THz.
Device negative resistance (ZR) is an important
parameter to estimate the RF power output from the
device. Table 1.3 shows the simulated values of ZR,
obtained from the real part of device impedance. It
decreases with increasing frequency for different base
materials of DDR IMPATTs under consideration. It is
observed from Table 1.3 that 4H-SiC DDR IMPATTs
exhibit highest negative resistance (ZR) among all other
DDR devices for the frequency range of 94 GHz to
1 THz. The highest negative resistance of 4H-SiC DDR
IMPATTs implies that these devices deliver highest RF
power at the optimum frequency as compared with
DDR devices based on other materials.
Fig. 1.16 shows the variations of RF power output
(PRF) with optimum frequency for all types of DDR
IMPATTs. It is observed that PRF decreases nonlinearly
with increasing frequency in all cases. Table 1.3 gives
17
the output power from IMPATTs based on different
semiconductors at different optimum frequencies. It is
observed from both Fig. 1.16 and Table 1.3 that Si
DDR IMPATTs deliver higher output power than GaAs
IMPATTs at 140 and 220 GHz window frequencies.
The cut-off frequencies above which their it may be
noted that the RF performances of Si and GaAs DDRs
are limited above 500 and 220 GHz, respectively. These
cut-off frequencies are obtained from avalanche
response analysis. The simulated output powers from
different DDR devices are shown in Table 1.3 and
Fig. 1.16. As regard power delivery at 94, 140, and
220 GHz window frequencies, InP DDRs should be
preferred to Si and GaAs DDRs. Moreover, InP IMPATTs
are capable of delivering power up to 1 THz frequency.
The avalanche response limits the operating frequencies
of both Si and GaAs DDR IMPATTs below 1 THz. It is
worthwhile to observe from Fig. 1.16 as well as Table 1.3
that DDR IMPATTs based on WBG semiconductors like
4H-SiC and Wz-GaN are excellent candidates for THz
operation. The reported results indicate that these
devices are capable of delivering high power with high
conversion efficiency at THz frequencies. It may be
concluded from the aforementioned results that
IMPATT devices based on Wz-GaN are without any
competition above 1 THz as regard delivering high
power with high conversion efficiency.
18 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects

FIG. 1.14 Admittance (G-B) plots for double-drift region (DDR) devices based on Wz-GaN (optimum
frequencies are marked).

FIG. 1.15 Conductance-susceptance (G-B) plots for double-drift region (DDR) devices made of Wz-GaN
operating at THz frequency bands (optimum frequencies are marked).
 CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices
FIG. 1.16 Power-frequency curves for different double-drift region (DDR) devices (available experimental
data shown in the inset).
RF power output (PRF) of DDR IMPATT devices
based on different semiconductors are obtained at
different operating frequencies from the breakdown
voltage (VB), RF voltage modulation (mx), negative
conductance at the optimum frequency (Gp), and diam-
eter of circular mesa-etched device (Dj). With increasing
frequency, all dimensions of the device decrease and so
also the parameter (Dj). It is observed from a rigorous
steady-state thermal analysis of the device reported in
Ref. [64,65] that Dj should decrease from 55 mm at
60 GHz to 0.7 mm at 500 GHz to restrict the rise of junc-
tion temperature above 500 K. The values of junction
diameter of DDR IMPATTs, based on five different semi-
conductors and operating at various mm-wave and THz
frequency bands, are given in Table 1.3.
Comparison of simulated RF properties of
IMPATTs with experimental data
Fig. 1.16 shows the simulated power-frequency plots of
DDR IMPATTs based on conventional (Si, GaAs, InP)
and WBG semiconductors (4H-SiC, Wz-GaN). The avail-
able experimental results are also shown in the figure (as
small rectangular areas for SI DDRs and dots for GaAs
and InP DDRs) for the sake of comparison. The experi-
mental reports show that DDR SI IMPATT device delivers
19
output power of 600 and 300 mW at 94 and 140 GHz
which agree very well with the simulation results
(Fig. 1.16). Available experimental results show that
GaAs DDR device delivers 1.24 W at 60 GHz, 0.27 W at
95 GHz, and 0.10 W at 144 GHz [34,40,67] which are
also in close agreement with the simulation results,
shown as circular dots on the theoretical curve
(Fig. 1.16). In case of DDR InP DDR IMPATTs experi-
mental report, marked as dots on Fig. 1.16, shows that
these devices provide 55 mW power at 84.8 GHz [68]
which again agree well with the simulated value. It
may be noted that while the simulated results for GaAs
DDR IMPATTs are in close agreement with the experi-
mental results at 60 GHz but above this frequency a little
departure from the experimental value is observed.
Similar feature is observed for DDR InP IMPATT devices
at W-band. The possible reasons for obtaining lower
power from the experimental devices are (i) immature
device fabrication process technology and (ii) nonavail-
ability of accurate device design. The experimental re-
ports of fabrication and characterization of 4H-SiC and
Wz-GaN DDR IMPATT devices at higher mm-wave and
THz frequency band are not available in the literature
and therefore simulated results on the RF power output
could not be compared with the experimental data.
20 SECTION I Terahertz Detectors and Sources: Design and Fabrication Aspects
MM-WAVE AND THZ IMPATTS BASED ON
SOME WIDE BANDGAP SEMICONDUCTORS
Apart from experimental reports on fabrication and
characterization of Si SDR and DDR IMPATTs, some
reports of fabrication of IMPATTS made of GaAs, InP,
and 4H-SiC are available in the literature. The favorable
material properties of WBG semiconductors like
Wurtzite-GaN (Wz-GaN) and type-IIb diamond can
be utilized to use these materials as base semiconduc-
tors of DDR IMPATT devices for obtaining high power
at THz frequencies. In this section, the potentiality of
DDR IMPATTs based on WBG semiconductors will be
explored as high power-high efficiency sources at THz
frequency bands. The simulation study based on
avalanche response approach reveals that the upper
cut-off frequency of diamond IMPATTs is 1.50 THz,
while the same for Si IMPATTs is much smaller, i.e.,
0.50 THz. The reported simulation results show that
DDR IMPATTs based on type-IIb diamond excel those
based on Si as regard high power and high efficiency
at THz frequency regime.
The high-frequency performance of DDR devices
based on GaAs, InP, and Si are also compared with
those of based on Wz-GaN. The results show that the
performance of Wz-GaN DDR IMPATTs is significantly
better than that of GaAs, InP, and Si DDR IMPATTs at
both mm-wave and THz frequencies.
DDR IMPATTs Based on Diamond
Diamond, being a WBG semiconductor, has a lot of
promise for THz IMPATTs. The n, p-layer widths (Wn,
Wp) and donor, acceptor impurity density of n, p, and
n þ p þlayers (ND, NA, and Nnþ, Npþ) are designed
from TT consideration [50] to obtain optimum RF
performance of DDR IMPATTs based on diamond and
silicon at different mm-wave and THz frequencies.
The values of Wn, Wp, ND, and NA for diamond and Si
IMPATTs are given in Table 1.4 for where the serial
numbers correspond to different design frequencies,
fd, as indicated in Table 1.3.
The doping concentrations of nþ- and pþ-layers
(Nnþ and Npþ) are usually taken to be 5  1025 m
3.
The diameters of mesa-etched circular junction, Dj,
and corresponding junction areas of the device are
obtained at different frequencies for both diamond
and Si DDRs from thermal analysis so that the junction
temperature is limited below 500 K [64,65]. The calcu-
lated values of Dj are given in Table 1.4. It is observed
that the junction diameters (Dj) of DDR diamond
IMPATTs are 35 and 2.5 mm at 94 GHz and 1.5 THz,
respectively.
DC parameters of diamond and silicon DDR
IMPATTs: a comparative study
The DC parameters of diamond and silicon DDR devices
can be extracted from the large-signal parameters by
computing their average values over the time period of
a full oscillation cycle. Table 1.5 shows the DC parame-
ters such as (i) peak electric field (xP), (ii) breakdown
voltage (VB), (iii) avalanche voltage (VA), (iv) ratio of
drift zone voltage to breakdown voltage (VD/VB) where
VD ¼ VB
VA, (v) avalanche layer width (xA) where
xA ¼ jxA1j þ xA2, and (vi) ratio of avalanche layer width
to total drift layer width (xA/W; where W ¼ Wn þ Wp).
The variations of xP, VB, and VA with operating frequency
are shown in Fig. 1.17 for both diamond and Si
IMPATTs. Using Fig. 1.17 and Table 1.5, the DC proper-
ties of DDR diamond and Si devices can be compared at
different design frequencies. Table 1.5 shows that with
increasing frequency, the peak electric field (xP) increases,
while the breakdown voltage (VB), avalanche zone
voltage (VA), and avalanche layer width (xA) of the device
decrease. The magnitude of junction field (xp) at a fixed
design frequency is higher in DDR diamond devices
than in DDR Si devices. It may be noted that with the in-
crease of frequency from 94 GHz to 1.5 THz, the junc-
tion field in DDR diamond IMPATTs increase from
9.10  107 to 1.46  108 V m
1 and that in DDR Si
IMPATTs increase from 6.04  107e1.23  108 V m
1.
The peak field at the junction of DDR diamond devices
(xP) is lower, while the breakdown voltage is higher as
compared with those in DDR Si devices at the design fre-
quency of 0.5 THz. At a particular frequency, the lower
peak field at the junction of DDR diamond device is
due to its larger depletion layer width (W ¼ Wn þ Wp)
as compared with DDR Si device. The voltage across
the drift layer (VD ¼ VB
VA) of diamond IMPATTs at
different frequencies is calculated from the difference of
breakdown voltage (VB) and avalanche zone voltage
(VA). It is observed from Table 1.5 that with increasing
frequency, DDR diamond IMPATTs have higher VD/VB
ratio than DDR Si IMPATTs. For example, this ratio is
0. 4771 and 0.3346 at 94 GHz and 0.4897 and 0.1615
at 0.5 THz for DDR diamond and Si devices, respectively.
The rate of decrease of VD/VB ratio at THz frequency is
slightly sharper in DDR Si IMPATTs than in DDR dia-
mond IMPATTs. The conversion efficiency is propor-
tional to VD/VB ratio [66] and therefore the efficiency
of DDR Si devices decreases a bit sharply as compared
with that of diamond devices.
With increasing frequency, the xA/W ratio of DDR dia-
mond IMPATTs remains almost constant, while that of
DDR Si IMPATTs increases appreciably. Increase of xA/
TABLE 1.4

CHAPTER 1 THz Solid-State Source Based on IMPATT Devices

Design Parameters.
Serial fd Wn Wp ND NA Nnþ Npþ
Semiconductor Number (GHz) (mm) (mm) (31023 mL3) (31023 mL3) (31025 mL3) (31025 mL3) Dj (mm)
Diamond 1 94 0.780 0.720 0.460 0.530 5.000 2.700 35.0
2 140 0.530 0.530 0.810 0.870 5.000 2.700 25.0
3 220 0.320 0.320 1.350 1.490 5.000 2.700 20.0
4 300 0.220 0.220 2.050 2.220 5.000 2.700 15.0
5 500 0.120 0.120 3.750 4.100 5.000 2.700 10.0
6 1000 0.052 0.052 9.500 10.00 5.000 2.700 5.0
7 1500 0.030 0.030 36.00 37.00 5.000 2.700 2.5
Si 1 94 0.400 0.380 1.200 1.250 5.000 2.700 35.0
2 140 0.280 0.245 1.800 2.100 5.000 2.700 25.0
3 220 0.180 0.160 3.950 4.590 5.000 2.700 20.0
4 300 0.132 0.112 6.000 7.300 5.000 2.700 15.0
5 500 0.072 0.072 15.00 16.20 5.000 2.700 10.0

21
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 Mais suivons le récit. Hercule périt par ses propres passions. Les
démons intérieurs se montrent. D’autres maux, sans mesure, collés
à nous comme la brûlante tunique ; les cris d’Hercule emplissent le
monde. Qu’est cela, sinon le crime aimé et détesté, la fraternité et la
haine ensemble, la puissance de police et d’industrie se détruisant
elle-même ? C’est à quoi nos travaux d’Hercule nous ont conduits, et
c’est la guerre à l’état de pureté, vertu contre vertu, et le meilleur,
ouvrier du pire. Conflit de soi avec soi. Ici est l’hydre dont les têtes
revivent, à peine coupées. Ici périt la force disciplinée, par la force
disciplinée, et sans fin. Par quoi ? Par l’opinion seulement. La seule
opinion a tué dix millions d’hommes en ces temps-ci.
Une autre vie se montre, puissante sans aucune puissance. Un
autre athlète, par le jugement seul. La puissance de César attend le
consentement et le culte ; mais le consentement et le culte lui sont
refusés. Un autre salut préoccupe l’homme divin ; il ne regarde qu’en
lui-même, au désir, à l’amour, à l’ambition, à l’avarice, pour les
subordonner. Nullement satisfait de l’ordre politique, qui donne
apparence de raison à toutes ces choses, mais annonçant au
contraire que si on leur donne quelque peu du consentement
intérieurs on leur donne tout. Plus profondément, discernant que les
forces au service de l’esprit déshonorent l’esprit ; que l’esprit vaincra,
mais seul, et désarmé ; que tout le bien extérieur possible viendra de
ce refus et de cette retraite de l’esprit en lui-même, et de cette
purification au sens propre du mot. Enfin la puissance est déchue de
son droit divin. Si l’instrument du supplice, adoré dans le temple
nouveau, signifie quelque chose, il signifie, à n’en pas douter, que la
puissance n’est plus un attribut de Dieu. L’on saisit ici la vertu de ces
grandes images, sur lesquelles le discours n’a pas de prise. Que de
sophismes théologiques en vue de rassembler l’esprit et la force, et
de composer une même prière pour l’un et pour l’autre ! Mais le
Signe reste ; il attend nos pensées.
 XXXV
IDOLATRIE

Quelquefois l’on s’arrête pour observer un convoi de fourmis qui

traverse une allée, cherchant le soleil, et portant aux mâchoires des
momies blanches qui sont leurs larves. Ou bien, soulevant une
pierre, on découvre les galeries et les chambres, et la panique du
peuple doré. Stendhal lui-même, sur ce spectacle, raisonne
théologiquement. « Il y a apparence, dira quelqu’un, que les fourmis
nous perçoivent comme nous percevons le cyclone ou le
tremblement de terre. Si les fourmis pensaient, il y aurait sans doute
deux partis, dont l’un voudrait concevoir l’extraordinaire d’après
l’ordinaire, au lieu que l’autre soupçonnerait la présence et l’action
d’une force intelligente, immensément supérieure aux fourmis. Il y
aurait quelque Voltaire pour se moquer des théologiens, qui seraient
pourtant plus près du vrai que les autres. »
« Mais non, dirait un autre, tout à fait loin du vrai, au contraire.
Car, raisonnant toujours d’après leur commune expérience, les
fourmis théologiennes supposeraient quelque projet dans les talons
de chaussure, ce qui approcherait du vrai à peine une fois sur mille.
Elles n’arriveraient jamais à concevoir l’organisation, les projets,
l’industrie, les travaux des hommes, au regard desquels elles ne
comptent pas plus que la poussière des chemins. Qu’est-ce qu’une
fourmilière pour le facteur, pour le laboureur, pour le maçon, pour le
soldat ? »
« Il se peut, dirait un autre, que notre humaine existence
dépende des actions d’un être bien plus puissant que nous et doué
comme nous d’intelligence ; mais il se peut aussi que l’intelligence
d’un tel être n’ait point d’égards pour nous et même nous ignore tout
à fait. Si la voie lactée n’est, au regard des travaux d’un immense
biologiste, qu’une partie de liquide, invisible même à son
microscope, et si un milliard de nos années ne compte pas plus pour
lui qu’une minute pour nous, peut-être ce dieu puissant presse-t-il
maintenant notre voie lactée entre les deux verres de son
instrument ; peut-être le commencement de la pression a fait tourner
ces mondes ; notre civilisation a trouvé sa place sous son pouce ;
mais une pression un peu plus forte finira tout. Cet être a une
puissance démesurée contre nous, mais il ne peut rien pour nous ;
et, quoique l’on puisse le supposer très savant, très ingénieux, et
très bon, cela ne nous avance point, et tout se passera pour nous
comme s’il était une aveugle et délirante brute. Car le plus doux des
fakirs écrase encore des centaines de pucerons, et des milliers de
pucerons de pucerons quand il se met en prière. Et cet homme
pacifique mène ici une guerre sans pitié parce qu’il est trop fort au
regard de ces bestioles. »
« Puissance, dirait un autre, n’est point bonté ; mais au contraire
il semble que toute puissance soit guerre, et sans mauvaise volonté,
comme ces enfants que l’on dit brutaux et qui ont seulement du
poids et de bons muscles. Nos théologiens ont tracé finalement un
assez beau portrait de dieu, d’après les saints et les justes ; mais
peut-être ont-ils tout gâté en y mêlant la puissance, ne pouvant se
délivrer de cette idée que la perfection est grande et lourde. Il n’y a
pourtant point plus de perfection dans une grande machine que dans
une petite ; et je ne vois rien de divin dans ce double du double ; il
n’y a rien à adorer par là. Peut-être dira-t-on à nos enfants que la
divine perfection est ce qu’il y a de plus faible au monde, et qu’il n’y
a rien de plus démuni que Dieu. Nos mythes y sont venus ; car,
selon le naïf sentiment, on n’adore rien plus qu’une mère et un tout
petit enfant. Et pourquoi m’étonnerais-je de ce pouce gigantesque ?
Il n’en faut pas tant pour tuer un homme, et Pascal l’a dit. Mais le
ridicule d’adorer la force n’est pas encore assez senti. Voulant
honorer le courage, aussitôt nous honorons la victoire, et nos prêtres
remercient le dieu fort qui a permis que nous fussions dix contre un.
Pourquoi ne pas adorer aussi une pierre qui tombe, ou un poids qui
fait pencher la balance ? Quand ces fourmis adoreraient l’homme,
elles seraient toujours fourmis en cela, et idolâtres, exerçant la force
et subissant la force, et terminant toujours leur pensée à leur
cuirasse ; autant dire sans pensée, comme je les vois. »
 XXXVI
DE LA FOI

Il faut croire d’abord. Il faut croire avant toute preuve, car il n’y a
point de preuve pour qui ne croit rien. Auguste Comte méditait
souvent sur ce passage de l’Imitation : « L’intelligence doit suivre la
foi, et non pas la précéder ; encore moins la rompre. » Si je ne crois
point qu’il dépend de moi de penser bien ou mal, je me laisse penser
à la dérive ; mes opinions flânent en moi comme sur un pont les
passants. Ce n’est pas ainsi que se forment les Idées ; il faut vouloir,
il faut choisir, il faut maintenir. Quel intérêt puis-je trouver dans une
preuve, si je ne crois pas ferme qu’elle sera bonne encore demain ?
Quel intérêt, si je ne crois pas ferme que la preuve qui est bonne
pour moi est bonne pour tous ? Or cela je ne puis pas le prouver,
parce que toute preuve le présuppose. De quel ton Socrate
expliquerait-il la géométrie au petit esclave, s’il n’était assuré de
trouver en cette forme humaine la même Raison qu’il a sauvée en
lui-même ?
Il ne manque pas d’esprits sans foi. Ce sont des esprits faibles,
qui cherchent appui au dehors ; mais il n’y a point d’appui au dehors.
La Nature est trop riche pour nous ; elle dépassera toujours nos
idées. Penser sans hypothèses préalables, raisonnablement
formées, et fermement tenues, c’est combattre sans armes. Cette
misanthropie profonde, qui vise l’homme en son centre, dessèche
celui qui la reçoit, et les autres autour de lui. On ne peut croire en soi
si l’on ne croit en l’Homme ; penser pour soi-même, c’est déjà
instruire. Si vous manquez à l’esprit, l’esprit vous fuira.
Qu’est-ce qu’un auteur ? Du noir sur du blanc, si vous n’osez pas
croire. Platon lui-même se vide de pensée devant ces esprits
chagrins qui font des objections au troisième mot. Jurez d’abord et
par provision que Platon dit vrai ; sous cette condition vous pourrez
le comprendre. Mais sans cette condition vous perdez votre temps à
le lire. Ce serait trop commode si Platon versait ses idées en vous
comme l’eau en cruche. Noir sur blanc, je vous dis. Vit-on jamais un
homme déchiffrer une inscription en prenant comme idée directrice
que cette inscription n’a point de sens ?
Les anciens n’avaient pas tiré au clair cette condition première,
qui est la Foi. Les plus courageux pensaient esthétiquement ; il leur
semblait plus beau de penser. « Beau risque », disait Socrate. Aussi
c’est le sceptique qui termine cette scène de l’histoire, le sceptique
qui veut qu’on lui prouve qu’il y a une preuve de la preuve. Et le Dieu
de Pascal, qui est caché, et qui veut qu’on croie sans la moindre
preuve, est l’héroïque négation de cette négation. Métaphore
violente, qui remet l’homme sur pied, et la Volonté en sa place. Ce
grand moment domine la pensée moderne, et, en ce parti
désespéré, la vraie Espérance se montre, et nos pensées
s’ordonnent à partir du serment initial. Ainsi, devant le regard Positif,
toute religion finit par être vraie.
 XXXVII
LES VERTUS THÉOLOGALES

Quand on voit qu’un homme qui entreprend quelque chose doute

déjà de réussir avant d’avoir essayé, on dit qu’il n’a pas la Foi. Cette
manière de dire est consacrée par l’usage. Une immense idée, que
les anciens soupçonnaient à peine, s’est dégagée des langes
théologiques, et marche maintenant sur la terre, sans aucun soutien
extérieur. Mais il faut développer ce riche héritage.
Quand un homme doute au sujet de ses propres entreprises, soit
qu’il organise la paix, soit qu’il veuille réformer la justice, soit qu’il
prépare sa propre fortune, il craint toujours trois choses ensemble,
les autres hommes, la nécessité extérieure et lui-même. Or il est
évidemment fou d’entreprendre si l’on ne se fie d’abord à soi. Vouloir
sans croire que l’on saura vouloir, sans se faire à soi-même un
grand serment, ce n’est point vouloir. Qui se prévoit lui-même faible
et inconstant, il l’est déjà. On ne peut ici s’en rapporter à
l’expérience, parce qu’une volonté ferme ou chancelante change
l’expérience. Il n’est pas sûr que les chemins s’ouvriront si vous avez
la foi, mais il est sûr que tous les chemins seront fermés si vous
n’avez pas d’abord la foi. C’est se battre en vaincu ; c’est sauter le
fossé avec l’idée qu’on tombera dedans. Si chacun doute d’abord de
son propre vouloir, il n’en faut pas plus, guerre suivra guerre. Ainsi la
première vertu est Foi.
 La Foi ne peut aller sans l’Espérance. Quand les grimpeurs
observèrent de loin les premières pentes de l’Everest, tout était
obstacle. C’est en avançant qu’ils trouvèrent des passages. C’est
pourquoi décider d’avance et de loin que les choses feront obstacle
au vouloir, ce n’est pas vouloir. Essayer avec l’idée que la route est
barrée, ce n’est pas essayer. Aussi voit-on que les Inventeurs et
Réformateurs tournent autour de la montagne, et s’avancent par
chaque vallée aussi loin qu’ils le peuvent, et trouvent finalement
passage ; car dans la variété des choses, qui est indifférente, qui
n’est ni pour nous ni contre nous, il se trouve toujours occasion et
place pour le pied. Et, selon le sens commun des mots, cette vertu
devant les choses est bien l’Espérance.
Les hommes sont toujours dans le jeu. Que peut-on au monde
sans la foi et l’espérance des autres ? Mais souvent les hommes
sont presque tout et même tout ; la paix et la justice dépendent des
hommes seulement. C’est pourquoi la Misanthropie tue l’espérance
et même la foi. Si les hommes sont ignorants et paresseux sans
remède, que puis-je tenter ? Tenterai-je seulement d’instruire un
homme si je le crois stupide et frivole ? Il y a donc un genre
d’Espérance qui concerne les hommes et dont le vrai nom est
Charité. Et cette puissante idée, élaborée ainsi que les deux autres
par la Révolution Chrétienne, n’est pas encore entrée avec tout son
sens dans le langage populaire, qui s’en tient ici aux effets
extérieurs. Le faible et abstrait devoir d’aimer ses semblables n’est
pas encore rentré dans la sphère des devoirs envers soi-même. Ce
sentiment est laissé à l’estomac. Mais, par la force de la commune
pensée, conservée par le commun langage, le mot Charité se
maintient dans le domaine des choses qu’il faut vouloir, et y
développera tout son sens. Alors la pensée commune apprendra
aux philosophes étonnés que la Foi, l’Espérance et la Charité sont
des vertus.
 XXXVIII
JEANNE D’ARC

Les Dieux d’Homère me gâtent l’Iliade. Car ces hommes naïfs et

si bien dessinés seraient entièrement beaux à voir, s’ils n’étaient
conduits par les dieux invisibles. Leurs passions mêmes sont
réglées au conseil des dieux ; leurs actions sont perpétuellement
déviées. S’il faut éveiller ou endormir le courage, la colère, la
défiance, un songe est bientôt envoyé. Un bon archer lance sa
flèche comme il faut ; mais une déesse protectrice détourne la
pointe ; ou bien l’ennemi est emporté dans un nuage. Deux idées
dominent ces hommes et ce poème. Une destinée invincible, qui
conduit aussi les dieux et qui règle aussi les courages ; et, avec cela,
une intervention continuelle des dieux, qui contrarient et retardent le
destin, sans pourtant arrêter l’événement principal, qui vient comme
un nuage orageux. Ainsi est déjà dessinée cette théologie
accablante pour l’esprit, d’après laquelle l’homme s’agite et Dieu le
mène. Idée que je retrouve encore dans les ingénus disciples de
Kart Marx, d’après lesquels le devenir des choses humaines se
déroule selon un parfait mécanisme qui nous fait agir, vouloir,
craindre et espérer, le tout bien vainement, selon l’époque et le
moment. Théologie sans dieu.
Nos légendes sont meilleures que notre philosophie. Jeanne
d’Arc change les choses par bonne volonté, par liberté, sous l’idée
d’un devoir impérieux. Ses dieux l’inspirent, mais ne l’aident point ;
ce sont des idées seulement. Aucun dieu invisible ne marche à côté
de la cavalière ; aucune flèche n’est détournée. Tout va par ressorts
humains, persuasion, contagion, confiance. Péguy, dans son
épopée, fait naître d’abord l’Espérance, ouvrière de tout ; mais ce
bon poète veut encore un dieu dans les nuages ; c’est pourquoi il ne
pouvait faire qu’une espèce d’Iliade à l’ancienne mode, bonne pour
les bibliothèques. Dans le fait Jeanne est seule ; l’idée est seule.
Partout seule. Ses hommes la suivent sans la comprendre. On ne
devrait point lire autrement cette épopée ; on ne peut s’y tromper. Il y
a le bûcher de la fin, qui éclaire assez le commencement. On finit
par considérer comme magie noire et diabolique ce miracle de
volonté, ce dangereux miracle. Il n’y aurait donc qu’à vouloir pour
changer tant de choses ? Prodigieux exemple pour tout l’avenir
humain ; et tous les hommes de toute espèce de puissance devaient
en être scandalisés. Car un vrai miracle, selon l’ordre traditionnel,
descend du ciel sur les hommes ; au lieu que ce nouveau miracle
était seulement dans le cœur. On peut bien dire que ni les rois, ni les
évêques ni les vrais héros ne s’y trompèrent. Hélas, aucun Dieu ne
lui donna seulement du courage contre les flammes, à cette pauvre
fille. « J’aimerais mieux être décapitée cent fois… » Où sont les
dieux d’Homère ?
Cette belle histoire, quand on l’aura tout à fait purifiée, sera la
nouvelle Iliade. Et voici l’Évangile nouveau. « La paix sera si les
hommes la font ; la justice sera si les hommes la font. Nul destin, ni
favorable, ni contraire. Les choses ne veulent rien du tout. Nul Dieu
dans les nuages. Le héros seul sur sa petite planète, seul avec les
dieux de son cœur, Foi, Espérance et Charité. »
 XXXIX
CATHOLICISME

C’est bien le Catholicisme qu’il faut réaliser. A quoi les prêtres

n’ont pas réussi, parce qu’ils en sont toujours à vouloir rallier les
esprits sur des croyances fantastiques, et toujours par l’autorité,
faute de démonstrations. Cette méthode arriérée n’a point
précisément produit une masse de doux rêveurs, mais plutôt une
masse de catholiques réellement incrédules, sans doctrine aucune,
et revenus en vérité à une sorte de sauvagerie. L’humeur montre
alors ses aigres fruits ; toute fureur fait preuve et vérité en ces
esprits sans refuge.
Dans la doctrine Universelle ou Catholique, comme on voudra
dire, je vois deux ordres, ordre de science et ordre de foi. Ordre de
science qui étend son règne sur tous. Les uns y viennent par la
recherche expérimentale, dont la mathématique ne doit jamais être
séparée ; les autres par la pratique industrielle qui fait toucher de la
main l’ordre naturel ; tous plus ou moins par le spectacle de cet
accord qui s’établit spontanément dans la doctrine, par le spectacle
aussi d’expériences, comme éclipse annoncée, télégraphie sans fil,
et autres merveilles. Même parmi ceux qui ne savent pas bien, il n’y
en a point qui puissent se refuser à cette commune croyance. Au
reste, comme nul ne sait tout, l’autorité revient ici, mais avec cette
différence que ceux qui ont autorité font profession de ne rien
décider jamais que d’après la commune raison. Donc plus on
examine ce corps de doctrine, mieux on le comprend. Cet accord
universel, fondé d’abord sur la confiance, et toujours confirmé par
l’esprit d’examen, est le grand fait des temps modernes.
La Foi n’est pas pour cela sans objet. Il me semble qu’elle est
détournée maintenant de ce qui est. Ce qui est, est d’abord objet de
croyance, chacun prenant ses premières connaissances par ouï
dire. Mais la science seule découvre ce qui est. Dès que l’on veut
savoir par soi-même comment est fait ce monde, comment sont faits
les animaux et l’homme, il faut y aller voir, et emporter sa boussole,
ses lunettes et sa règle à calculer. Constater, mesurer, prévoir,
calculer, essayer, tel est le sommaire de toute recherche. Mais la Foi
sans preuve, où est-elle ? Elle n’a point changé ; elle s’est purifiée et
comme dégagée des croyances, qui sont tout à fait autre chose. La
Foi d’un socialiste ne va nullement à affirmer ce qui est d’après une
inspiration mystique, mais elle se rassemble toute à affirmer ce qui
sera par volonté. La foi d’un pacifiste, de même. Et ce qui est n’est
pas preuve. Ce qui est c’est la guerre et ses suites ; et ce qui sera
par le jeu des forces mécaniques, et par le jeu des passions qui n’en
sont que les images, n’est pas bien difficile à prévoir ; toujours
injustice et guerre. Maintenant, que cet ordre soit modifiable par la
Sagesse et la Bonne Volonté, voilà ce qui n’est point prouvé, et c’est
pourtant ce que tout homme veut croire. Regardez bien ici ; ne vous
laissez pas étourdir par les discours abstraits. Il n’est point d’homme
qui ne croie qu’il dépend de lui de bien penser, d’être juste, de
dominer l’humeur, la colère, la peur ; ou bien c’est un fou. Fou à
proprement parler celui qui considère sa propre nature d’homme
comme une mécanique montée, se disant à lui-même : « Je pense
ce que je pense, je fais ce que je fais, et je n’y peux rien. » Fou celui
qui n’ose pas vouloir. Mais qui ose se changer lui-même un peu, et
surmonter le premier mouvement comme la première apparence, il
change un peu tout l’ordre humain. Le doute, faites-y attention,
prouverait l’autre thèse ; car si l’on attend pour vouloir, aussitôt
l’ordre mécanique se réalise et jette aux yeux la preuve
d’expérience, la mauvaise preuve : « Qu’y pouvait-on ? Et qu’y peut-
on ? » Nier ce genre de preuve, qui prouve seulement que l’on n’a
pas voulu essayer, c’est justement l’objet de la Foi ; et le doute est
déjà une faute ; c’est peut-être toute la faute. Cette lumière perce
déjà de place en place à travers le nuage théologique.
 XL
L’UNIVERSEL

Un peu de catholicisme ne nuit pas. Un lecteur inconnu reprend

cette étrange pensée dans mes propos, voulant comprendre que je
cherche après tant d’autres un peu de poésie dans la religion, afin
de réchauffer l’esprit positif, un peu abstrait et froid. Ce n’est point
faux radicalement, mais ce serait une manière extérieure encore de
rattacher le passé au présent. Mon lecteur, et tous ceux qui veulent
méditer utilement là-dessus, feront bien de repasser, selon les idées
de Comte, l’ensemble de l’histoire humaine, mais en surmontant
cette conception, elle-même métaphysique, qu’il y a des idées
d’imagination sans aucune vérité, et dont le cœur ne peut se passer.
Peut-être Comte a-t-il encore cédé à un préjugé puissant, quoique
purement négatif, quand il a voulu loger le sentiment dans le derrière
de la tête. Sentiment est pressentiment de raison ; raison est
sentiment développé. Le cœur n’a rien perdu. Les dieux sont nos
métaphores, et nos métaphores sont nos pensées. Un ami précieux
et assez bourru a bien voulu me dire, il y a peut-être dix ans, que
j’étais, plutôt que toute autre chose, une espèce de poète. Il se peut.
Lisant Chateaubriand ces temps-ci, j’étais forcé de me reconnaître
comme un fils indigne de cet homme-là. Mais si je ne fais pas
sonner mes phrases comme le bûcheron sa hache, ainsi qu’il fait, je
vise à débrouiller mieux que lui cet amour triste qui le portait toujours
en arrière. Le temps a passé depuis lui, et ce n’est point le
Catholicisme qui a développé la vérité du Catholicisme. Comprendre
c’est toujours dépasser ; le temps nous y aide, mais il faut aider
aussi le temps.
Il faut penser sur des exemples, sans quoi cet immense sujet
engloutira nos faibles voiles. L’Église a réalisé le catéchisme pour
tous et la société internationale des esprits. Cette audacieuse
entreprise dépassait de loin ce que Socrate et Marc-Aurèle
pouvaient espérer. Le moindre esclave, le fils d’un serf ou d’un
bohémien errant avait les mêmes droits que d’autres à lire et à
entendre dans le Livre Universel. L’Esprit éternel était finalement
juge de tous les rois et de toutes les puissances. La maison
commune s’élevait au-dessus des échoppes artisanes, et la
puissance n’y était reçue fraternellement que sous la condition d’être
juste. Les valeurs s’ordonnaient comme il était convenable ; l’ordre
humain se montrait. Mais les forces reprirent cette province nouvelle.
Je me souviens qu’au petit collège de curés où j’ai commencé mes
études, il y avait une inégalité choquante entre les riches et les
pauvres. C’est au lycée seulement, et chez les incrédules, que j’ai
retrouvé l’égalité catholique. Le trésor ne s’est pas perdu ; il a
changé de mains.
Et le catéchisme non plus ne s’est pas perdu ; il s’est conservé et
enrichi de toute science et de toute doctrine. L’idée de l’esprit
universel a trouvé son corps, sa force et ses preuves ; toute
démonstration est une preuve de l’esprit universel ; tout fait est une
preuve de l’esprit universel, car aucune perception ne vaut que par
l’universel assentiment ; les rêves et les visions, les dieux eux-
mêmes sont des perceptions individuelles, mêlées de nos humeurs,
non accordées encore aux perceptions de nos frères les hommes.
C’est selon un admirable pressentiment que les temples, lieux des
prodiges, effacèrent les prodiges et firent l’union des esprits par leur
masse solide et ordonnée, où les perspectives, les symétries et les
ressemblances ramenaient les différentes vues à un seul objet. D’où
l’on vint à épeler la grande forêt de l’expérience réelle, chacun de sa
place témoignant pour tous. Mais où cette Science maintenant ? Où
cette Fraternité ? Où cette Paix promise ? Hors du temple.
L’Évangile, en cette dernière guerre, fut bravé par les prêtres ; et le
grand pasteur ne sut rien faire de cette puissance qu’il veut avoir sur
les esprits rebelles. Le Te Deum fut chanté dans la maison
commune. Insulte à l’Église Universelle, insulte à la communion des
hommes, dans le temple même. Mais, hors du temple, malédiction
sur tous les violents, absolution sur tous ceux qui ont payé de leur
vie. Par qui ? Par l’Église muette, formée aux arts et aux sciences.
D’où il ne faut point dire que l’autre Église est morte. Frappez sur
son tombeau, il est vide.
 XLI
CHRISTIANISME ET SOCIALISME

« Chrétien sans savoir qu’il l’est, voilà le Socialiste. » Je ne sais.

Je pense à tant de conciliateurs qui appliquaient une pauvre
méthode trop connue : « Retenons ce qui nous unit ; oublions ce qui
nous divise. » Pour mon compte, je n’ai jamais vu aucun bien ni
aucun progrès sortir de la conciliation ; c’est plutôt la commune
sottise que la commune sagesse qui se trouve rassemblée par ce
moyen. J’attends quelque chose de mieux des oppositions, surtout
fortement posées. C’est pourquoi je repousse ce mélange sans
saveur, où Socialisme et Christianisme perdent chacun leur vertu
propre.
Ce qui est commun aux deux, et à toutes les doctrines pratiques,
c’est le Bien, faible abstrait qui ne résout rien. Le Socialisme me
paraît essentiellement politique, en ce qu’il espère beaucoup de
l’organisation. La Coopérative est une expérience où le socialiste
reprend des forces, ayant pu constater et constatant chaque jour
que la seule participation à ce raisonnable système donne à chacun
un peu plus de tempérance, d’ordre et de sagesse politique. En
partant de là je dirais même que l’esprit Socialiste cherche toujours à
modifier l’ordre humain en le prenant par le bas, ou par le dessous.
Par exemple n’attendons point que l’ouvrier ait le goût de l’étude
pour lui donner des loisirs ; n’attendons point que l’instruction et la
culture de tous réalisent un ordre politique meilleur ; mais faisons
agir les intérêts ; changeons d’après cela l’ordre politique ;
l’instruction et la culture de tous en résulteront. Il faut d’abord
modifier les conditions du travail, qui portent tout le reste. Idée
puissante, qu’il faut se garder d’affaiblir.
L’Idée Chrétienne y est tout à fait contraire. L’organisation
politique est selon le chrétien toujours médiocre, souvent mauvaise,
parce que l’esprit en chacun marche tête en bas. Il faut
premièrement redresser l’individu, afin qu’il juge bas ce qui est bas
et vénérable ce qui est vénérable. Quand la notion des Valeurs sera
rétablie, quand le jugement individuel regardera à ce qui est
précieux dans l’homme, alors la loi de police, toujours extérieure et
méprisable, sera passable, et c’est tout ce qu’elle peut être. Chacun
doit donc prendre pour fin son propre salut, se garder de vanité, de
colère et de convoitise ; ainsi, mettant l’ordre en lui-même, il
travaillera à changer l’ordre politique autant qu’il peut ; et la lettre ici
n’importe guère ; toute constitution est bonne par l’esprit, mauvaise
par la lettre. Tel est le mouvement évangélique, au regard de quoi
tout Socialisme est un Pharisaïsme sauvé.
Deux vues sur la guerre. Le Socialiste dit : « Organisez la
production selon la justice, et il n’y aura plus de guerres. »
L’évangéliste dit : « Que chacun soit pacifique en esprit et vérité, et il
n’y aura plus de guerres. » Et il est assez clair que le Socialisme
porte la guerre en lui-même par les passions, comme on le reconnaît
dans le moindre discours. Il est assez clair aussi que l’Évangélisme
ne peut rien contre la guerre, faute d’organisation. L’opposition étant
ainsi rétablie, on peut espérer quelque idée réelle qui la surmontera.
L’Idée Catholique, considérée par rapport à l’Idée Chrétienne, était
un essai d’organisation selon l’esprit. En quoi belle et efficace, en
quoi insuffisante, c’est ce qu’il faudrait savoir et dire.
 XLII
LE POUVOIR SPIRITUEL

La rencontre de Napoléon et du pape Pie VII est un grand

moment, non point tant par les événements qui en résultèrent que
par la signification légendaire de ces fortes images, où l’on voit les
deux Puissances affrontées. Chateaubriand dit en ses Mémoires
que le pape ne joua point tout le jeu. Il suit en idée les
conséquences d’une excommunication où l’empereur aurait été
expressément nommé. D’autres, en petit nombre, dans ce nouveau
déchaînement des forces que nous avons vu, ont attendu aussi les
foudres pontificales, seules capables peut-être d’imposer une Trêve
de Dieu. On sait que le fanatisme catholique est souvent joint au
fanatisme guerrier dans les mêmes hommes, tout au moins chez
nous. Parmi ces hommes-là, combien s’en serait-il trouvé qui
eussent humilié leur devoir de citoyen devant leur devoir de
catholique ? Ils y sont tenus pourtant, et cela signifie pour nous que
l’Humanité est au-dessus des patries. Mais cette grande idée a
changé de camp ; elle n’est plus formée par les catholiques ; elle
n’est plus reçue dans leurs temples ; elle est errante, pauvre,
persécutée, comme les Apôtres autrefois. Crise redoutable ;
interrègne spirituel. Quelque Chateaubriand de nos jours voudrait-il
dire que le Pape, cette fois encore, n’a pas joué le jeu ? Et
conclurons-nous, nous autres, qu’un pouvoir qui ne se montre point
tout abdique ?
 J’ai agité plus d’une fois cette question en moi-même. Je n’y
pouvais échapper quand je voyais les ministres catholiques plus
ardents au massacre, plus enivrés de force que les militaires eux-
mêmes. Et quand je lisais les instructions pontificales, toutes
inflexibles sur les principes, je me disais que ces prêtres se
trouvaient tous interdits et excommuniés par leurs sentiments
mêmes ; mais nul n’en savait rien.
Sans considérer ce qui serait arrivé si on l’avait su, et qui aurait
été sans doute de peu de conséquence, j’ai voulu réfléchir sur les
conditions du Pouvoir Spirituel, qu’on le prenne en un pape, où peut-
être il n’est plus qu’en image, ou bien dans quelque positiviste, dans
quelque socialiste, dans quelque pacifiste, où ce pouvoir s’est peut-
être réfugié. Ce pouvoir, par sa nature, juge seulement et ne
condamne point ; le jugement dernier est laissé à Dieu ou à la
conscience. La faute contre l’esprit est presque toujours cachée. Nul
homme n’affirme la force nue, si ce n’est quelque criminel
audacieux, en ses coups de main délibérés et préparés. Mais est-ce
affirmation ? Nous voyons bien ses actions ; que savons-nous de sa
pensée ? Le pouvoir catholique, d’après une forte tradition, le suivra
jusqu’à l’échafaud, guettant quelque réveil de l’âme, ouvrant encore
l’église, c’est-à-dire la communion humaine, à cet homme retranché.
Par sa loi intérieure, donc, le Pouvoir Spirituel devait de ses foudres
majeures frapper seulement les péchés d’esprit explicites, comme
sacrilège et hérésie. Jeu funeste dans le fond, et qui devait ruiner
l’institution tout entière, puisque l’esprit est par lui-même sacrilège et
hérésie.
Que peut alors l’esprit juge, quand le crime de guerre est revêtu
en chacun des plus beaux motifs ? Quand le combattant invoque le
droit de l’innocent injustement attaqué, le progrès humain, la
civilisation, et prend solennellement la Paix même comme fin de la
guerre ? Le Pouvoir Spirituel, quel qu’il soit, ne peut supposer ici
quelque profonde hypocrisie ; cette supposition est par elle-même
injuste. Mais il doit se borner à rappeler, par toutes les raisons tirées
de la nature humaine, l’incertitude des jugements, la puissance des
illusions, surtout collectives, l’aveuglement propre aux passions, le