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 i

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
 About the Author
Prof. Nagoor Kani is a multifaceted personality with an efficient technical expertise and
management skills. He obtained his BE in EEE from Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai,
and MS (Electronics and Control) through Distance Learning program of BITS, Pilani.

He started his career as a self-employed industrialist (1986–1989) and then moved to teaching in
1989. He has worked as lecturer in Dr MGR Engineering College (1989–1990) and as an Assistant
Professor in Sathyabama Engineering College (1990–1997). He started his own coaching centre for
BE students, named as Institute of Electrical Engineering and was renamed as RBA Tutorials in 2005.
He started his own companies in 1997 and his currently running companies are RBA Engineering
(manufacturing of lab equipment and microprocessor trainer kits), RBA Innovations (involved in
developing projects for engineering students and industries), RBA Tutorials (conducting coaching
classes for engineering and GATE students) and RBA Publications (publishing of engineering
books). His optimistic and innovative ideas brought up RBA GROUP successfully.

He is an eminent writer and till now he has authored thirteen engineering books which are popular
among engineering students. He is known by name through his books in all engineering colleges
in South India and in some colleges in North India.
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

A. Nagoor Kani
Founder, RBA Educational Group
Chennai

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

CHENNAI
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iv

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Circuit Analysis

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 v

Dedicated to

Wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi (B.Sc., M.L.)

Elder Son, N. Bharath Raj
Younger Son, N. Vikram Raj
vi
 vii

CONTENT
PREFACE.............................................................................................. xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................ xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVATIONS................................................. xix
CHAPTER 1 - BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND NETWORK TOPOLOGY......... 1.1

1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks....................................................................... 1. 1

1.1.1 Basic Phenomena........................................................................................... 1. 1
1.1.2 Ideal Elements ................................................................................................ 1. 1
1.1.3 Electric Circuits .............................................................................................. 1. 1
1.1.4 Units ................................................................................................................ 1. 4
1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms.......................................................................... 1. 5
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values.............................. 1. 7
1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis............................................. 1. 8
1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory...................................................................... 1. 8
1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks ................................................................ 1. 9
1.2.1 Basic Elements of Circuits............................................................................. 1. 9
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path................................................................. 1. 10
1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections................................................. 1. 12
1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit....................................................................... 1. 15
1.2.5 Sign Conventions ............................................................................................ 1. 16
1.2.6 Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 17
1.2.7 Ideal and Practical Sources............................................................................ 1. 17
1.2.8 DC Source Transformation............................................................................. 1. 18
1.2.9 Power and Energy............................................................................................ 1. 19
1.3 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws........................................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law........................................................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)........................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)........................................................................ 1. 20
1.4 Resistive Elements........................................................................................................ 1. 21
1.4.1 Resistance........................................................................................................ 1. 21
1.4.2 Resistance Connected to DC Source ............................................................. 1. 22
viii

1.4.3 Resistance in Series........................................................................................ 1. 22

1.4.4 Resistance in Parallel...................................................................................... 1. 23
1.4.5 Analysis of Resistors in Series-Parallel Circuits........................................... 1. 23
1.4.6 Single Loop Circuit.......................................................................................... 1. 26
1.4.7 Single Node Pair Circuit.................................................................................. 1. 26
1.4.8 Solved Problems.............................................................................................. 1. 27
1.5 Mesh Current Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits....................................... 1. 36
1.5.1 Mesh Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources........................ 1. 36
1.5.2 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both Voltage
and Current Sources........................................................................................ 1. 62
1.5.3 Supermesh Analysis........................................................................................ 1. 62
1.5.4 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Mesh Analysis of Reactive Circuits)............................................................. 1. 68
1.5.5 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 75
1.6 Node Voltage Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits....................................... 1. 86
1.6.1 Node Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources........................ 1. 87
1.6.2 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both
Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 105
1.6.3 Supernode Analysis......................................................................................... 1.106
1.6.4 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Node Analysis of Reactive Circuits).............................................................. 1. 120
1.6.5 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 124
1.7 Network Terminology................................................................................................... 1. 131
1.7.1 Graph of a Network ......................................................................................... 1. 131
1.7.2 Trees, Link, Twig and Cotree.......................................................................... 1. 132
1.7.3 Network Variables .......................................................................................... 1. 134
1.7.4 Solution of Network Variables........................................................................ 1. 134
1.7.5 Link Currents (Independent Current Variables)............................................ 1. 135
1.7.6 Twig Voltages (Independent Voltage Variables)........................................... 1. 135
1.8 Incidence and Reduced Incidence Matrices............................................................... 1. 135
1.8.1 Network Analysis using Incidence Matrix..................................................... 1. 138
 ix

1.9 Cut-Sets........................................................................................................................ 1. 143

1.9.1 Fundamental Cut-Sets ................................................................................... 1. 143
1.9.2 Cut-Set Matrix and Cut-Set Schedule............................................................ 1. 148
1.9.3 Node Analysis Using Cut-Sets....................................................................... 1. 151
1.10 Tie-Set.......................................................................................................................... 1. 164
1.10.1 Tie-Set Matrix and Tie-Set Schedule............................................................. 1. 165
1.10.2 Mesh Analysis Using Tie-Sets....................................................................... 1. 168
1.11 Duality.......................................................................................................................... 1. 180
1.11.1 Dual Graphs.................................................................................................... 1. 181
1.11.2 Duality of Network.......................................................................................... 1. 184
1.12 Summary of Important Concepts................................................................................ 1. 194
1.13 Short-answer Questions.............................................................................................. 1. 200
1.14 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 1. 213

CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK THEOREMS FOR DC AND AC CIRCUITS

2.1 Network Reduction....................................................................................................... 2. 1
2.1.1 Resistances in Series and Parallel.................................................................. 2. 1
2.1.2 Voltage Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 3
2.1.3 Current Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 6
2.1.4 Inductances in Series and Parallel................................................................. 2. 8
2.1.5 Capacitances in Series and Parallel............................................................... 2. 11
2.1.6 Impedances in Series and Parallel ................................................................. 2. 14
2.1.7 Reactances in Series and Parallel .................................................................. 2. 16
2.1.8 Conductances in Series and Parallel ............................................................. 2. 17
2.1.9 Admittances in Series and Parallel ................................................................ 2. 19
2.1.10 Susceptances in Series and Parallel .............................................................. 2. 22
2.1.11 Generalised Concept of Reducing Series/Parallel-connected Parameters... 2. 22
2.2 Voltage and Current Division ...................................................................................... 2. 25
2.2.1 Voltage Division in Series-connected Resistances ....................................... 2. 25
2.2.2 Voltage Division in Series-connected Impedances ....................................... 2. 26
2.2.3 Current Division in Parallel-connected Resistances ..................................... 2. 26
2.2.4 Current Division in Parallel-connected Impedances..................................... 2. 27
2.3 Source Transformation ................................................................................................ 2. 28
2.4 Star-Delta Conversion.................................................................................................. 2. 29
x

2.4.1 Resistances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 29

2.4.2 Impedances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 31
2.5 Solved Problems in Network Reduction .................................................................... 2. 32
2.6 Network Theorems....................................................................................................... 2. 49
2.6.1 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems................................................................ 2. 49
2.6.2 Superposition Theorem .................................................................................. 2. 76
2.6.3 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .............................................................. 2. 99
2.6.4 Reciprocity Theorem ....................................................................................... 2. 126
2.6.5 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Mesh Basis Circuit.................................... 2. 126
2.6.6 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Node Basis Circuit .................................... 2. 127
2.6.7 Millman’s Theorem.......................................................................................... 2. 137
2.7 Summary of Important Concepts................................................................................ 2. 141
2.8 Short-answer Questions .............................................................................................. 2. 144
2.9 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 2. 159

CHAPTER 3 - AC CIRCUITS, RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS

3.1 AC Circuits.................................................................................................................... 3. 1
3.2 Sinusoidal Voltage........................................................................................................ 3. 1
3.2.1 Average Value................................................................................................... 3. 2
3.2.2 RMS Value........................................................................................................ 3. 2
3.2.3 Form Factor and Peak Factor........................................................................... 3. 3
3.3 Sinusoidal Current........................................................................................................ 3. 3
3.4 Inductance..................................................................................................................... 3. 4
3.5 Capacitance................................................................................................................... 3. 4
3.6 Voltage-Current Relation of R, L and C in Various Domains..................................... 3. 5
3.6.1 Voltage-Current Relation of Resistance.......................................................... 3. 5
3.6.2 Voltage-Current Relation of Inductance......................................................... 3. 6
3.6.3 Voltage-Current Relation of Capacitance....................................................... 3. 7
3.7 Sinusoidal Voltage and Current in Frequency Domain.............................................. 3. 8
3.8 Power, Energy and Power Factor................................................................................. 3. 8
3.9 Impedance..................................................................................................................... 3. 11
3.10 Solved Problems in AC Circuits.................................................................................. 3. 12
3.11 Resonance .................................................................................................................... 3. 16
3.12 Series Resonance ......................................................................................................... 3. 16
3.12.1 Resonance Frequency of Series RLC Circuit ................................................. 3. 16
 xi

3.12.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in

Series RLC Circuit ........................................................................................... 3. 17
3.12.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Series Circuit ........................................... 3. 18
3.12.4 Bandwidth of Series RLC Circuit ................................................................... 3. 21
3.12.5 Selectivity of Series RLC Circuit .................................................................... 3. 25
3.12.6 Variation of Voltage across L and C with Frequency..................................... 3. 26
3.12.7 Solved Problems in Series Resonance ........................................................... 3. 27
3.13 Parallel Resonance ...................................................................................................... 3. 32
3.13.1 Resonant Frequency of Parallel RLC Circuits ............................................... 3. 33
3.13.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in
Parallel RLC Circuit ......................................................................................... 3. 41
3.13.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Parallel Circuit .......................................... 3. 42
3.13.4 Bandwidth of RLC Parallel Circuit ................................................................. 3. 45
3.13.5 Selectivity of Prallel RLC Circuit .................................................................... 3. 51
3.13.6 Variation of Current through L and C with Frequency.................................. 3. 52
3.13.7 Solved Problems in Parallel Resonance.......................................................... 3. 53
3.14 Coupled Circuits ........................................................................................................... 3. 61
3.15 Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance ..................................................................... 3. 62
3.15.1 Self-Inductance ................................................................................................ 3. 62
3.15.2 Mutual Inductance ........................................................................................... 3. 62
3.15.3 Coefficient of Coupling .................................................................................... 3. 64
3.16 Analysis of Coupled Coils ............................................................................................ 3. 65
3.16.1 Dot Rule ........................................................................................................... 3. 66
3.16.2 Expression for Self-and Mutual Induced EMFs in Various Domains .......... 3. 69
3.16.3 Writing Mesh Equations for Coupled Coils .................................................... 3. 70
3.16.4 Electrical Equivalent of Magnetic Coupling
(Electrical Equivalent of a Transformer or Linear Transformer) ................... 3. 71
3.16.5 Writing Mesh Equations in Circuits with Electrical Connection
and Magnetic Coupling ................................................................................... 3. 74
3.16.6 Analysis of Multiwinding Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors) ................. 3. 75
3.17 Series and Parallel Connections of Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors) .................. 3. 76
3.17.1 Series Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils ................................................... 3. 76
xii

3.17.2 Series Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils .............................................. 3. 77

3.17.3 Parallel Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils ................................................. 3. 78
3.17.4 Parallel Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils ............................................ 3. 80
3.18 Tuned Coupled Circuits ................................................................................................ 3. 82
3.18.1 Single Tuned Coupled Circuits....................................................................... 3. 82
3.18.2 Double Tuned Coupled Circuits ...................................................................... 3. 87
3.19 Solved Problems in Coupled Circuits .......................................................................... 3. 90
3.20 Summary of Important Concepts. ................................................................................ 3. 116
3.21 Short-answer Questions ............................................................................................... 3. 123
3.22 Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 3. 134

CHAPTER 4 - TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

4.1 Transient Response....................................................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.1 Natural and Forced Response .......................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.2 First and Second Order Circuits ...................................................................... 4. 2
4.2 Transient Analysis Using Laplace Transform............................................................. 4. 3
4.2.1 Some Standard Voltage Functions................................................................... 4. 3
4.2.2 s-Domain Representation of R, L, C Parameters............................................. 4. 5
4.2.3 Solving Initial and Final Conditions Using Laplace Transform.................... 4. 9
4.3 Transient Response of RL Circuit................................................................................ 4. 10
4.3.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RL Circuit.............................................. 4. 10
4.3.2 Step Response of RL Circuit
(Response of RL Circuit Excited by DC Supply)............................................. 4. 11
4.3.3 Impulse Response of RL Circuit....................................................................... 4. 16
4.3.4 Response of RL Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal................................. 4. 18
4.3.5 RL Transient With Initial Current I0 ................................................................ 4. 19
4.4 Transient Response of RC Circuit ............................................................................... 4. 22
4.4.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RC Circuit.............................................. 4. 22
4.4.2 Step Response of RC Circuit
(Response of RC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)............................................. 4. 24
4.4.3 Impulse Response of RC Circuit....................................................................... 4. 28
4.4.4 Response of RC Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal ................................. 4. 30
4.4.5 RC Transient With Initial Voltage V0 .............................................................. 4. 31
 xiii

4.5 Transient Response of RLC Circuit............................................................................. 4. 35

4.5.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RLC Circuit............................................ 4. 35
4.5.2 Step Response of RLC Circuit
(Response of RLC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)........................................... 4. 35
4.5.3 s-Domain Current and Voltage Equation of RLC Circuit................................ 4. 42
4.5.4 Initial Conditions in RLC Circuit ..................................................................... 4. 43
4.5.5 Final Conditions in RLC Circuit....................................................................... 4. 45
4.6 Complete Response of Circuits Excited by Sinusoidal Source................................... 4. 47
4.6.1 RL Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source......................................................... 4. 47
4.6.2 RC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source......................................................... 4. 49
4.6.3 RLC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source....................................................... 4. 51
4.7 Solved Problems in RL Transient ................................................................................. 4. 53
4.8 Solved Problems in RC Transient................................................................................. 4. 69
4.9 Solved Problems in RLC Transient .............................................................................. 4. 90
4.10 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 4. 100
4.11 Short-answer Questions................................................................................................ 4. 103
4.12 Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 4. 106

CHAPTER 5 - TWO-PORT NETWORKS

5.1 Two-Port Networks........................................................................................................ 5. 1
5.2 Parameters of a Two-Port Network............................................................................... 5. 2
5.3 Impedance Parameters (or Z-Parameters)..................................................................... 5. 6
5.4 Admittance Parameters (or Y-Parameters).................................................................... 5. 7
5.5 Transmission Parameters (or ABCD-Parameters)........................................................ 5. 8
5.6 Inverse Transmission Parameters (or A’B’C’D’-Parameters)........................................ 5. 9
5.7 Hybrid Parameters (or h-Parameters)............................................................................ 5. 10
5.8 Inverse Hybird Parameters (or g-Parameters) .............................................................. 5. 12
5.9 Relationship Between Parameter Sets.......................................................................... 5. 13
5.10 Properties of Two-Port Networks.................................................................................. 5. 19
5.11 Inter-Connection of Two-Port Networks....................................................................... 5. 19
5.12 T and P Networks.......................................................................................................... 5. 21
5.12.1 Symmetrical Properties of T and P Networks................................................. 5. 22
5.13 Solved Problems ............................................................................................................ 5. 24
xiv

5.14 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 5. 59

5.15 Short-answer Questions................................................................................................ 5. 61
5.16 Exercises......................................................................................................................... 5. 65

APPENDIX 1 - USING CALCULATOR IN COMPLEX MODE .................................. A. 1

APPENDIX 2 - IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE ................................. A. 3
APPENDIX 3 - LAPLACE TRANSFORM ............................................................ A. 5
APPENDIX 4 - CRAMER’S RULE ..................................................................... A. 8
APPENDIX 5 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES/PARALLEL CONNECTED
PARAMETERS ......................................................................... A. 10
APPENDIX 6 - STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION .............................................. A. 12
APPENDIX 7 - SUMMARY OF THEOREMS ........................................................ A. 13
APPENDIX 8 - IMPORTANT EQUATIONS OF SERIES RESONANCE....................... A. 14
APPENDIX 9 - PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS ............................................... A. 15
APPENDIX 10 - ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF COUPLED COILS ........................... A. 16
APPENDIX 11 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTED
COUPLED COILS....................................................................... A. 17
APPENDIX 12 - INITIAL AND FINAL CONDITIONS IN RLC CIRCUITS EXCITED
BY DC SUPPLY......................................................................... A. 18
APPENDIX 13 - R,L,C PARAMETERS AND V-I RELATIONS IN
VARIOUS DOMAINS ................................................................. A. 19
APPENDIX 14 - SUMMARY OF PARAMETERS OF TWO-PORT NETWORK .............. A. 20
APPENDIX 15 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARAMETER SETS .............................. A. 21
APPENDIX 16 - TWO-PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS OF T AND P-NETWORK....... A. 22
ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS............................................................... Q. 1
INDEX.............................................................................................................. I. 1
 xv

Preface
The main objective of this book is to explore the basic concepts of Circuit Analysis in a simple
and easy-to-understand manner.
This text on Circuit Analysis has been crafted and designed to meet students’ requirements.
Considering the highly mathematical nature of this subject, more emphasis has been given on
the problem-solving methodology. Considerable effort has been made to elucidate mathematical
derivations in a step-by-step manner. Exercise problems with varied difficulty levels are given in
the text to help students get an intuitive grasp on the subject.
This book, with its lucid writing style and germane pedagogical features, will prove to be a master
text for engineering students and practitioners.
Salient Features
The salient features of this book are:
- Proof of important concepts and theorems are clearly highlighted by shaded boxes
- Wherever required, problems are solved using multiple methods
- Additional explanations for solutions and proofs are provided in separate boxes
- Different types of fonts are used for text, proof and solved problems for better clarity
- Keywords are highlighted by bold and italic fonts
- Easy, concise and accurate study material
- Extremely precise edition where concepts are reinforced by pedagogy
- Demonstration of multiple techniques in problem solving-additional explanations and
proofs highlighted
- Ample figures and examples to enhance students’ understanding
- Practice through MCQ’s
- Pedagogy:
. Solved Numerical Examples: 232
. Short-answer Questions: 228
. Figures: 1517
. Practice Problems: 143
. Review Questions (T/F): 117
. MCQs: 139
. Fill in the blanks: 118
xvi

Organization of the Book

This text is designed for an undergraduate course in Circuit Analysis for engineering students. The
book is organized into five chapters. The fundamental concepts, steady state analysis and transient
state analysis are presented in a very easy and elaborative manner. Throughout the book, carefully
chosen examples are presented so that the reader will have a clear understanding of the concepts
discussed.
Chapter 1 starts with explanation of fundamental quantities involved in circuit analysis,
standard symbols and units used in circuit analysis. The basic concepts of circuits are also presented
in this chapter. The mesh and node analyses of circuits are discussed with special attention on
dependent sources.
The second half of Chapter 1 is devoted to basic concepts of network topology with detailed
explanation about formation of tie-sets and cut-sets, and development of mesh and node analyses
from tie-sets and cut-sets. The concepts of dual graph and dual circuits are presented at the end
of the chapter.
The concepts of series, parallel and star-delta network reduction are discussed in
Chapter 2. The analysis of circuits using theorems is also presented in this Chapter.
Chapter 3 starts with fundamental concepts of AC circuits which is a prerequisite for
understanding resonance and coupled circuits. The concepts of resonance are discussed in detail
in this chapter. The analysis of coupled circuits is also discussed.
The transient analysis of circuits is explained in Chapter 4 through Laplace transform.
Transient analysis of circuits excited by impulse, step and exponential signals is also presented in
the chapter.
The concept of two-port network parameters and its properties are presented in Chapter 5.
The relationship between various two-port parameters and symmetrical properties of T and
P network is also presented in this chapter.
The Laplace transform has been widely used in the analysis of electric circuits. Hence
an appendix on Laplace transform is included in this book. All the calculations in this book are
performed using calculator in complex mode. An appendix is also included to help the readers to
practice calculations in complex mode of calculator.
Online Learning Center
The OLC of the book can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/nagoorkani/ca/au
The author hopes that the teaching and student community will welcome the book. The readers
can feel free to convey their criticism and suggestions to kani@vsnl.com for further improvement
of the book.
A. Nagoor Kani

Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be
sent to info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
 xvii

acknowledgement
I express my heartfelt thanks to my wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi Nagoor Kani, and
my sons, N. Bharath Raj alias Chandrakani Allaudeen and N. Vikram Raj, for the support,
encouragement and cooperation they have extended to me throughout my career. I thank
Ms. T. A. Benazir for the affection and care extended during my day-to-day activities.
I am grateful to Ms. C. Mohana Priya for her passion in book work and typesetting
of the manuscript and preparing the layout of the book. It is my pleasure to acknowledge
the contributions of our technical editors, Ms. E. R. Suhasini and Ms. R. Jenniefer Sherine,
for editing and proofreading of the book. I thank all my office staff for their cooperation in
carrying out my day-to-day activities.
My sincere thanks to all the reviewers for their valuable suggestions and comments
which helped me to explore the subject to a greater depth.
I am also grateful to Ms. Vibha Mahajan, Mr. Hemant K Jha, Ms. Vaishali Thapliyal,
Mr. Ganesh, Mr. Asarab, Mr. Satinder Singh and Ms. Taranpreet Kaur, of McGraw Hill
Education (India) for their concern and care in publishing this work.
Finally, a special note of appreciation is due to my sisters, brothers, relatives, friends,
students and the entire teaching community for their overwhelming support and encouragement
to my writing.

A. Nagoor Kani
xviii
 xix

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

P - Active power
Y - Admittance
AC, ac - Alternating current
A - Ampere
ω - Angular frequency
ωr - Angular resonance frequency
S - Apparent Power
I ave - Average value of current
Vave - Average value of voltage
β - Bandwidth
B - Branch
C - Capacitance
XC - Capacitive reactance
BC - Capacitive susceptance
Q - Charge
k - Coefficient of coupling
j - Complex operator (j = - 1)
S - Complex Power
G - Conductance
C - Coulomb
kC - Critical coefficient of coupling
RC - Critical resistance
I - Current
i(0+) - Current at t = 0+
i(0−) - Current at t = 0–
i(∞) - Current at t = ∞
CC - Current Coil
I (jω), I - Current in frequency domain
I(s) - Current in Laplace domain
i(t) - Current in time domain
xx

ζ - Damping ratio
E - DC source voltage
D - Determinant of matrix
DC, dc - Direct current
Y - Driving point admittance
Z - Driving point impedance
hB - Efficiency of battery
W - Energy
Req - Equivalent resistance
F - Farad
φ - Flux
Ψ - Flux linkage
kf - Form factor
p - Half period
H - Henry
Hz - Hertz
ωh - Higher cut-off angular frequency
fh - Higher cut-off frequency
j - Imaginary part
Z - Impedance
θ - Impedance angle
L - Inductance
XL - Inductive reactance
BL - Inductive susceptance
e, e(t) - Instantaneous value of ac source voltage
q - Instantaneous value of charge
i, i(t) - Instantaneous value of current in time domain
iC - Instantaneous value of current through capacitor
iL - Instantaneous value of current through inductor
iR - Instantaneous value of current through resistor
w - Instantaneous value of energy
p - Instantaneous value of power
 xxi

vC - Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor

vL - Instantaneous value of voltage across inductor
vR - Instantaneous value of voltage across resistor
v, v(t) - Instantaneous value of voltage in time domain
J - Joule
K - Kelvin
kWh - kilowatt-hour
KCL - Kirchhoff’s Current Law
KVL - Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
L - Laplace operator
L - Links
IL - Load Current
VL - Load Voltage
RL - Load Resistance
ωl - Lower cut-off angular frequency
fl - Lower cut-off frequency
Z - Magnitude of impedance
Y - Magnitude of admittance
Im - Maximum value of current
Vm - Maximum value of voltage
m - Mesh
 - Mho
M - Mutual inductance
ωn - Natural frequency
IN - Neutral current
N - Neutral point
N - Nodes
Ω - Ohm
Ω-m - Ohm-metre
OC - Open circuit
kp - Peak factor
φ - Phase difference between voltage and current
xxii

pf - Power factor
φ - Power factor angle
P - Power or Active power
PC - Pressure Coil
Q - Quality factor
Qr - Quality factor at resonance
rad/s - Radians/second
X - Reactance
Q - Reactive Power
R - Resistance
ρ - Resistivity
fr - Resonance frequency
s - Second
SC - Short circuit
S - Siemen
SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw
RS - Source Resistance
B - Susceptance
T - Tesla
t - Time
τ - Time constant
V - Volt
VAR - Volt-Ampere-Reactive
V - Voltage
v(0 +) - Voltage at t = 0+
v(0−) - Voltage at t = 0−
v(∞) - Voltage at t = ∞
V ( jx ) , V - Voltage in frequency domain
V(s) - Voltage in Laplace domain
W - Watt
W-h - Watt-hour
W-s - Watt-second
Wb - Weber/Weber-turn
 Chapter 1

BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND

NETWORK TOPOLGY
1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks
1.1.1 Basic Phenomena
The energy associated with flow of electrons is called electrical energy. The flow of electrons
is called current. The current can flow from one point to another point of an element only if there
is a potential difference between these two points. The potential difference is called voltage.
When electric current is passed through a device or element, three phenomena have been
observed. The three phenomena are,
(i) opposition to flow of current,
(ii) opposition to change in current or flux, and
(iii) opposition to change in voltage or charge.
The various effects of current like heating, arcing, induction, charging, etc., are due to the
above phenomena. Therefore, three fundamental elements have been proposed which exhibit only
one of the above phenomena when considered as an ideal element (of course, there is no ideal
element in nature). These elements are resistor, inductor and capacitor.
1.1.2 Ideal Elements
The ideal resistor offers opposition only to the flow of current. The property of opposition
to the flow of current is called resistance and it is denoted by R.
The ideal inductor offers opposition only to change in current (or flux). The property of
opposition to change in current is called inductance and it is denoted by L.
The ideal capacitor offers opposition only to change in voltage (or charge). The property
of opposition to change in voltage is called capacitance and it is denoted by C.
1.1.3 Electric Circuits
The behaviour of a device to electric current can be best understood if it is modelled using
the fundamental elements R, L and C. For example, an incandescent lamp and a water heater can
be modelled as ideal resistance. Transformers and motors can be modelled using resistance and
inductance.
Practically, an electric circuit is a model of a device operated by electrical energy. The
various concepts and methods used for analysing a circuit is called circuit theory. A typical circuit
consists of sources of electrical energy and ideal elements R, L and C. The practical energy sources
are batteries, generators (or alternators), rectifiers, transistors, op-amps, etc. The various elements
of electric circuits are shown in Figs 1.1 and 1.2.
1. 2 Circuit Analysis
Elements of Electric Circuits

Energy Sources Parameters or Loads

DC (Direct Current) Sources

DC Voltage Sources
E
Independent DC Voltage Source, +-

Dependent DC Voltage Source

mVx
Voltage Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -

RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -

DC Current Sources
I
Independent DC Current Source,

Dependent DC Current Source

GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled DC Current Source,

AI Ix
Current Controlled DC Current Source,

AC (Alternating Current) Sources

AC Voltage Sources
o
- V
E+= EÐq
Independent AC Voltage Source, ~
Dependent AC Voltage Source
mVx
Voltage Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -

RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -

AC Current Sources
I = IÐq o A
Independent AC Current Source, ~
Dependent AC Current Source
GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled AC Current Source,
AI I x
Current Controlled AC Current Source,

Fig. 1.1 : Elements of electric circuits - Energy source.

Chapter 1 - Basic Circuit Analysis and Network Topology 1. 3
Elements of Electric Circuits

Parameters or Loads Energy Sources

Fundamental Parameters

R
Resistance,

Inductance
L
Self-Inductance,

Mutual Inductance, M

C
Capacitance,

Derived Parameters

± jX
Reactance,
+jXL = +j2pfL
Inductive Reactance,
1
- jX C = - j
Capacitive Reactance, 2pfC

Z = R ± jX
Impedance,

Inverse Parameters
1
G=
R
Conductance,

1
m jB =
± jX
Susceptance,
1
- jB L = - j
Inductive Susceptance, 2pfL

+jBC = +j2pfC
Capacitive Susceptance,

Y = G m jB
Admittance,
1 1
Y= = = G m jB
Z R ± jX

Fig. 1.2 : Elements of electric circuits - Parameters or loads.

1. 4 Circuit Analysis
Elements which generate or amplify energy are called active elements. Therefore, energy
sources are active elements. Elements which dissipate or store energy are called passive elements.
Resistance dissipates energy in the form of heat, inductance stores energy in a magnetic field, and
capacitance stores energy in an electric field. Therefore, resistance, inductance and capacitance
are passive elements. If there is no active element in a circuit then the circuit is called a passive
circuit or network.
Sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. Batteries, generators
and rectifiers are independent sources, which can directly generate electrical energy. Transistors
and op-amps are dependent sources whose output energy depends on another independent source.
Practically, the sources of electrical energy used to supply electrical energy to various devices
like lamps, fans, motors, etc., are called loads. The rate at which electrical energy is supplied is
called power. Power, in turn, is the product of voltage and current.
Circuit analysis relies on the concept of law of conservation of energy, which states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to other. Therefore,
the total energy/power in a circuit is zero.
1.1.4 Units
SI units are followed in this book. The SI units and their symbols for various quantities
encountered in circuit theory are presented in Table 1.1. In engineering applications, large values are
expressed with decimal multiples and small values are expressed with submultiples. The commonly
used multiples and submultiples are listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 : Units and Symbols

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol

Charge q, Q Coulomb C - -
Current i, I Ampere A Coulomb/second C/s
Flux linkages ψ Weber-turn Wb - -
Magnetic flux φ Weber Wb - -
Energy w, W Joule J Newton-meter N-m
Voltage v, V Volt V Joule/Coulomb J/C
Power p, P Watt W Joule/second J/s
Capacitance C Farad F Coulomb/Volt C/V
Inductance L, M Henry H Weber/Ampere Wb/A
Resistance R Ohm Ω Volt/Ampere V/A
Conductance G Siemens S Ampere/Volt A/V or M
or mho
Chapter 1 - Basic Circuit Analysis and Network Topology 1. 5
Table 1.1: Continued...

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol

Time t Second s - -
Frequency f Hertz Hz cycles/second -
Angular frequency ω Radians/second rad/s - -

Magnetic flux - Tesla T Weber/ meter Wb/m2

square
density
o
Temperature - Kelvin K - -

Table 1.2 : Multiple and Submultiple used for Units

Multiplying Prefix Symbol Multiplying Prefix Symbol

factor factor

1012 tera T 10 −1 deci d

9 −2
10 giga G 10 centi c
6 −3
10 mega M 10 milli m
103 kilo k 10 − 6 micro µ
2 −9
10 hecto h 10 nano n
101 deca da 10 −12 pico p
−15
10 femto f
10 −18 atto a

1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms

The definitions of various terms that are associated with electrical energy like energy, power,
current, voltage, etc., are presented in this section.
Energy : Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. It can also be defined as stored work.
Energy may exist in many forms, such as electrical, mechanical, thermal, light,
chemical, etc. It is measured in joules, which is denoted by J (or the unit of energy
is joules).
In electrical engineering, one joule is defined as the energy required to transfer a power of
one watt in one second to a load (or Energy = Power ´ Time). Therefore, 1 J = 1 W-s.
In mechanical engineering, one joule is the energy required to move a mass of 1 kg
through a distance of 1 m with a uniform acceleration of 1 m/s2.
1. 6 Circuit Analysis

Therefore, 1 J = 1 N - m = 1 kg - m2 - m
s
In thermal engineering, one joule is equal to a heat of 4.1855 (or 4.186) calories, and one
calorie is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1o C.
Therefore, 1 J = 4.1855 calories
Power : Power is the rate at which work is done (or it is the rate of energy transfer). The unit of
power is watt and denoted by W. If energy is transferred at the rate of one joule per
second then one watt of power is generated.
An average value of power can be expressed as,
Energy
Power, P = = W .....(1.1)
Time t
A time varying power can be expressed as,
Instantaneous power, p = dw .....(1.2)
dt
dw dw dq
Also, p = = # = vi .....(1.3)
dt dq dt
Hence, power is also given by the product of voltage and current.
Charge : Charge is the characteristic property of elementary particles of matter. The
elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutrons. There are basically two
types of charges in nature: positive charge and negative charge. The charge of an
electron is called negative charge. The charge of a proton is called positive charge.
Normally, a particle is neutral because it has equal number of electrons and protons.
The particle is called charged if some electrons are either added or removed from it.
If electrons are added then the particle is called negatively charged. If electrons are
removed then the particle is called positively charged.The unit used for measurement
of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is defined as the charge which when placed
in vacuum from an equal and similar charge at a distance of one metre repels it
with a force of 9 × 10 9 N. The charge of an electron is 1.602 × 10 −19 C. Hence,
1/(1.602 × 10 −19) = 6.24 × 10 18 electrons make up a charge of one coulomb.
Current : Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons. It is measured in amperes. One
ampere is the current flowing through a point if a charge of one coulomb crosses
that point in one second. In SI units, one ampere is defined as that constant current in
two infinite parallel conductors of negligible circular cross-section, one metre apart
in vacuum, which produces a force between the conductors of 2 × 10 − 7 newton per
metre length.
A steady current can be expressed as,
Charge Q
Current, I = = .....(1.4)
Time t
A time varying current can be expressed as,
dq
Instantaneous current, i = .....(1.5)
dt
Chapter 1 - Basic Circuit Analysis and Network Topology 1. 7
where, Q = Charge flowing at a constant rate
t = Time
dq = Change in charge in a time of dt
dt = Time required to produce a change in charge dq
Voltage : Every charge will have potential energy. The difference in potential energy
between the charges is called potential difference. In electrical terminology, the
potential difference is called voltage. Potential difference indicates the amount of
work done to move a charge from one place to another. Voltage is expressed in volt.
One volt is the potential difference between two points, when one joule of energy
is utilised in transfering one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
A steady voltage can be expressed as,
Energy
Voltage, V = = W .....(1.6)
Charge Q
A time varying voltage can be expressed as,
Instantaneous voltage, v = dw .....(1.7)
dq

Also, 1 V = 1 J = 1 J/s = 1 W .....(1.8)

1C 1 C/s 1A
` Voltage, V = Power = P .....(1.9)
Current I
One volt is also defined as the difference in electric potential between two points
along a conductor carrying a constant current of one ampere when the power
dissipated between the two points is one watt.
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values
The quantities like voltage, current, power and energy may be constant or varying with
respect to time. For a time varying quantity we can define the value of the quantity as instantaneous,
average, rms and maximum value. The symbols used for these values are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 : Symbols of DC and AC Variables
AC or Time varying

Quantity DC Instantaneous Average Maximum RMS Phasors

value value value value or
Vectors
Current I i Iave Im or Ip I I

Voltage V v Vave Vm or Vp V V

Power P p P Pm - S

Energy W w W Wm - -
1. 8 Circuit Analysis

1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis

Circuit analysis can be classified into steady state analysis and transient analysis. The analysis
of circuits during switching conditions is called transient analysis. During switching conditions,
the current and voltage change from one value to the other. In purely resistive circuits this may not
be a problem because the resistance will allow sudden change in voltage and current.
In inductive circuits, the current cannot change instantaneously. In capacitive circuits, the
voltage cannot change instantaneously. Hence, when the circuit is switched from one state to the
other, the voltage and current cannot attain a steady value instantaneously in inductive or capacitive
circuits. Therefore, during switching conditions there will be a small period during which the current
and voltage will change from an initial value to a final steady value. The time from the instant of
switching to the attainment of steady value is called transient period. Physically, the transient can
be realised in switching of tubelights, fans, motors, etc.
In certain circuits, the transient period is negligible and we may be interested only in steady
value of the response. Therefore, steady state analysis is sufficient. The analysis of circuits under
steady state (i.e., by neglecting the transient period) is called steady state analysis. Steady state
analysis of circuits is discussed in this book in all chapters except Chapter 4.
In certain circuits the transient period is critical and we may require the response of the circuit
during the transient period. Some practical examples where transient analysis is vital are starters,
circuit breakers, relays, etc. Transient analysis of circuits is discussed in Chapter 4.

1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory

In circuit analysis the elements of the circuit are assumed to be linear, bilateral and lumped
elements.
In linear elements, the voltage-current characteristics are linear and the circuit consisting of
linear elements is called linear circuit or network. The resistor, inductor and capacitor are linear
elements. Some elements exhibit non-linear characteristics. For example, diodes and transistors
have non-linear voltage-current characteristics, capacitance of a varactor diode is non-linear
and inductance of an inductor with hysteresis is non-linear. For analysis purpose, the non-linear
characteristics can be linearised over a certain range of operation.
In a bilateral element, the relationship between voltage and current will be the same for
two possible directions of current through the element. On the other hand, a unilateral element
will have different voltage-current characteristics for the two possible directions of current through
the element. The diode is an example of a unilateral element.
In practical devices like transmission lines, windings of motors, coils, etc., the parameters
(R, L and C) are distributed in nature. But for analysis purpose we assume that the parameters
are lumped (i.e., concentrated at one place). This approximation is valid only for low frequency
operations and it is not valid in the microwave frequency range. All analysis in this book is based
on the assumption that the elements are linear, bilateral and lumped elements.
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 Order 7. Piptocephalidaceæ. The conidia are formed
acrogenously and in a series, by transverse divisions. The
zygospore arises at the summit of the conjugating hyphæ, which are
curved so as to resemble a pair of tongs. Piptocephalis and
Syncephalis live parasitically on the larger Mucoraceæ.
Sub-Class 2. Oomycetes.
Sexual reproduction is oogamous with the formation of brown,
thick-walled oospores which germinate after a period of rest. Asexual
reproduction by conidia and swarmspores. Parasites, seldom
saprophytes.
The oospores are large spores which are formed from the egg-cell
(oosphere) of the oogonium (oosporangium, Fig. 89, 95). A branch of
the mycelium attaches itself to the oogonium and forms at its apex
the so-called “antheridium” (pollinodium[13]): this sends one or more
slender prolongations (fertilising tubes) through the wall of the
oogonium to the egg-cell.
 Fig. 85.—Empusa muscæ (Fly-mould). I. A fly killed by the
fungus, surrounded by a white layer of conidia. II. The conidiophores
(t) projecting from the body of the fly. Some of the conidia, a few of
 which have developed secondary conidia, are attached to the hairs
(mag. 80 times). III. A perfect hypha. IV. A hypha in the act of
ejecting a conidium (c), enveloped in a sticky slime (g). V. A
conidium which has developed a secondary conidium (sc). VI. A
branched hypha produced by cultivation. VII. A secondary conidium
which has produced a small mycelium (m). VIII. A conidium
germinating on the fly’s body. IX. Mycelium. X. Conidia germinating
like yeast in the fatty tissue of the fly. (III.-VII. and IX. magnified 300
times; VIII. and X. magnified 500 times.)
A fertilisation, a passage of the contents of the antheridium to the egg-cell, has
as yet only been observed in Pythium; in Phytophthora only one small mass of
protoplasm passes through the fertilising tube to the egg-cell; in Peronospora and
the Saprolegniaceæ no protoplasm can be observed to pass through the fertilising
tube, so that in these instances parthenogenesis takes place; Saprolegnia thuretii,
etc., have generally even no antheridia, but nevertheless form normal oospores.
Fertilisation of the egg-cell by means of self-motile spermatozoids is only found in
Monoblepharis sphærica.

A. Asexual reproduction by conidia only.

Family 1. Entomophthorales.
The mycelium is richly branched. The family is a transitional step
to the conidia-bearing Zygomycetes, since the oospores of many
members of this family arise, and are formed, like zygospores.
Order 1. Entomophthoraceæ. Mycelium abundantly developed.
This most frequently lives parasitically in living insects, causing their
death. The conidiophores forming the conidial-layer project from the
skin, and abstrict a proportionately large conidium which is ejected
with considerable force, and by this means transferred to other
insects. These become infected by the entrance of the germ-tube
into their bodies. The spherical, brown resting-spores develope
inside the bodies of insects and germinate by emitting a germ-tube.
Genera: Empusa has a good many species which are parasitic on flies, moths,
grasshoppers, plant-lice. The conidia emit a germ-tube which pierces the skin of
the insect; a number of secondary conidia are then produced inside its body, by
division or by gemmation similar to that taking place in yeast, each of which grows
and becomes a long unbranched hypha, and these eventually fill up the body of
the animal, causing distension and death. Each of these hyphæ projects through
the skin, and abstricts a conidium, which is ejected by a squirting contrivance. The
best known species is E. muscæ (Fig. 85), which makes its appearance
epidemically towards autumn on the common house-fly, and shows itself by the
dead flies which are found on the windows and walls attached by their probosces,
distended wings, and legs. They have swollen abdomen, broad white belts of
hyphæ between the abdominal rings, and are surrounded by a circle of whitish
dust formed by the ejected conidia.—Entomophthora sends out, at definite places,
from the mycelium hidden in the insect’s body, bundles of hyphæ, which serve the
purpose of holding fast the dead insects, the ramifications attaching themselves to
the substratum: the conidiophores are branched, the conidia are ejected by the
divisional walls between the hyphæ and the conidia dividing into two layers, those
which terminate the hyphæ suddenly expanding and throwing the conidia into the
air. E. radicans makes its appearance epidemically on caterpillars.
B. Asexual reproduction by zoospores or conidia.

Family 2. Chytridiales.
In this family the mycelium is very sparsely developed or is
wanting. The entire plant consists principally or entirely of a single
zoosporangium whose zoospores have generally one cilium. The
resting-spores arise either directly from the zoosporangium, which,
instead of forming zoospores, surrounds itself by a thick cell-wall; or
they are formed by the conjugation of two cells (in which case they
are spoken of as oospores). Microscopic Fungi, parasitic on water
plants (especially Algæ) or small aquatic animals, seldom on land
plants.
Order 1. Olpidiaceæ. Without mycelium. Swarmspores and
resting-spores.
In the Olpidieæ, the swarmspores, probably, most frequently form themselves
into a plasmodium (naked mass of protoplasm) which may become a single
zoosporangium or a resting sporangium. Olpidium trifolii occurs in Trifolium
repens.—In the Synchytrieæ the plasmodium emerging from the swarmspores
breaks up either at once, or after a period of rest, into smaller plasmodia, each of
which will become a zoosporangium. Synchytrium anemones is found on
Anemone nemorosa; S. mercurialis on Mercurialis perennis; S. aureum on many
plants, particularly Lysimachia nummularia.
 Fig. 86.—Chytridium lagenula.
Zoosporangium a before, b after the liberation
of the swarmspores.
 Fig. 87.—Obelidium mucronatum: m mycelium;
s swarmspores.
Order 2. Rhizidiaceæ. Mycelium present. Zoospores and resting-
spores.
Chytridium (Fig. 86). Obelidium (Fig. 87) is bicellular; the one cell is the
mycelium, the other the zoosporangium; found on insects. The species of
Cladochytrium are intercellular parasites on marsh plants. Physoderma.
Order 3. Zygochytriaceæ. Mycelium present. Zoospores and
oospores. The latter are the product of the conjugation of two cells
(Fig. 88).
Polyphagus euglenæ on Euglena viridis. Urophlyctis pulposa on species of
Chenopodium.
 Family 3. Mycosiphonales.
The mycelium is bladder-like or branched. Zoospores. Sexual
reproduction by oospores, which are produced in oogonia. The latter
are fertilised, in some forms, by the antheridium.
Order 1. Ancylistaceæ. The entire bladder-like mycelium is used for the
construction of zoosporangia, oogonia, or antheridia. Lagenedium is parasitic on
Spirogyra, etc.
Order 2. Peronosporaceæ. Almost entirely parasites. The
unicellular, often very long and abundantly branched mycelium lives
in the intercellular spaces of living plants, especially in the green
portions, and these are more or less destroyed and deformed in
consequence. Special small branches (suction-organs, “haustoria”)
are pushed into the cells in order to abstract nourishment from them.
Both oospores and conidia germinate either immediately, or they
develope into sporangia with swarmspores, having always two cilia.
Only one oospore is formed in each oogonium; its contents (Fig. 89)
divide into a centrally placed egg-cell and the “periplasm”
surrounding it; this is of a paler colour and on the maturity of the
oospore forms its thick, brown, external covering.
 Fig. 88.—Polyphagus euglenæ. A with smooth, B with thorny oospores; m and f
the two conjugating cells.
 Fig. 89.—Peronospora alsinearum.
Mycelium with egg-cell and antheridium.
 Fig. 90.—Phytophthora infestans (strongly magnified).
Cross section through a small portion of a Potato-leaf (the
under side turned upwards): a the mycelium; b b two
 conidiophores projecting through a stoma; c conidia; e the
spongy tissue of the leaf; g the epidermis.
The Potato-fungus (Phytophthora infestans) is of great interest. Its
thallus winters in the Potato-tuber; other organs for passing the
winter, such as oospores, are not known. When the tuber
germinates, the Fungus-hyphæ penetrate the young shoot and keep
pace with the aerial growth and development of the plant. The
conidiophores emerge through the stomata, especially on the under
side of the leaves; they branch like a tree (Fig. 90), and appear to
the naked eye as a fine mould on the surface of the plant. The
disease soon makes itself known by the brown colouring of those
parts of the plant which are attacked, and by their withering. An
ovoid conidium arises at first by the formation of a dividing wall at the
apex of each branch of the conidiophore (Fig. 90 c c), and
immediately underneath it another is formed, which pushes the first
to one side, and so on. These conidia sometimes germinate directly,
and form a mycelium, but most frequently their protoplasm divides
into many small masses, each of which becomes a pear-shaped
zoospore provided with two cilia (Fig. 91). Water is required for their
germination, and when the ripe conidia are placed in a drop of water
the swarm-cells are formed in the course of about five hours. They
swarm about in rain and dewdrops in the Potato-fields, and are
carried with the water to the Potato-plants and to the tubers in the
soil. The wind also very easily conveys the conidia to healthy Potato-
fields and infects them. The enormous quantity of conidia and
swarm-cells that may be formed in the course of a summer explains
the rapid spreading of the disease; and the preceding makes it clear
why wet summers are favourable to its existence. When the swarm-
cells germinate, they round off, and then surround themselves with a
cell-wall which grows out into the germ-tube, and pierces through the
epidermis of the host-plant (Fig. 92). Having entered the host, a new
mycelium is formed. The potato disease, since 1845, has been
rampant in Europe; it has, no doubt, been introduced from America,
which, it must be remembered, is the home of the Potato-plant.
 Fig. 91.—Phytophthora infestans: a-c conidia detached; in
c the swarm-cells are leaving the mother-cell; d two free-
swimming swarm-cells.

Fig. 92.—Phytophthora infestans. Cross section through a portion of a Potato-

stalk. Two germinating conidia (a, b) piercing the epidermis, and the mycelium
penetrating the cells.
The conidia exhibit various characters which are employed for the separation of
the genera. Pythium is the most simple form. The contents of the terminally-formed
conidia emerge as a spherical mass and divide into swarmspores. P. de Baryanum
lives in the seedlings of many different Flowering-plants, which it completely
destroys.—Phytophthora is distinguished by the circumstance that the sparsely-
branched conidiophores bear, sympodially, chains of conidia. Besides the Potato-
fungus (see above), Ph. fagi belongs to this group; it developes oospores very
abundantly, and does great harm to seedlings of the Beech, Sycamore, and Pine
trees.—Peronospora generally has conidiophores which are repeatedly forked,
and bear a conidium on each of the most extreme ramifications. Many do great
harm to their host-plants. P. viticola, on Vines, and P. nivea, on umbelliferous
plants, have swarmspores, which are absent in the following species of this genus:
P. sparsa, on Roses; P. gangliformis, on composites; P. alsinearum, on Stitchwort;
P. parasitica, on cruciferous plants; P. viciæ, on Vetches and Peas; P. schachtii, on
Beets; P. violacea, on the flowers of Scabiosa; P. radii, on the ray-florets of
Matricaria.—Cystopus (Albugo) has the conidia developed in chains, which form a
cohesive white layer underneath the epidermis of the host-plant. Cystopus
candidus, on cruciferous plants, especially Shepherd’s Purse and Brassica; the
germination commences on the cotyledons, and from this point the mycelium
developes together with the host-plant; C. cubicus, on the leaves of Compositæ.

Fig. 93.—A fly overgrown with

Saprolegnia.
 Fig. 94.—Formation of swarmspores in a Saprolegnia: a germinating
swarmspores.
Order 3. Saprolegniaceæ, Water-Fungi which live as
saprophytes on organic remains lying in water, for instance, on dead
flies (Fig. 93), worms, remains of plants; but they may also make
their appearance on living animals, being frequently found, for
example, on the young trout in rearing establishments.
 Fig. 95.—Oogonium with
two antheridia, Achlya
racemosa.
The thallus is a single, long and branched cell. It has one portion
which serves as root, and lives in the substratum, where it ramifies
abundantly for the purpose of absorbing nourishment; and another
portion projecting freely in the water, and sending out hyphæ on all
sides (Fig. 93). The asexual reproduction takes place by
swarmspores (Fig. 94), which are developed in large sporangia;
these swarmspores generally possess two cilia, and on germination
grow into new plants. The entire protoplasm in the oogonium is
formed into one or more oospheres, without any surrounding
“periplasm.” The oospheres may not be fertilised (p. 100), and then
develope parthenogenetically.
Genera: Saprolegnia, whose swarmspores disperse immediately after having
left the sporangium. S. ferax is the cause of a disease in fish (“Salmon disease”)
and in the crayfish.—Achlya, whose swarmspores accumulate in a hollow ball
before the mouth of the sporangium.—Leptomitus has strongly indented hyphæ,
causing a “linked” appearance. L. lacteus is frequent in the waste matter from
sugar factories.—Monoblepharis deviates from the others by the greater
development of its fertilising process; the oosphere, situated in an open oogonium,
becoming fertilised by self-motile spermatozoids, which are provided with a cilium
at the posterior end.

Class 2. Mesomycetes.
The Mesomycetes are intermediate forms between the
Phycomycetes and the Higher Fungi. In the vegetative organs, and
in the multicellular hyphæ, they resemble the Higher Fungi; the
methods of reproduction, however, show the characters of the
Phycomycetes, namely sporangia and conidiophores of varying size
and with varying number of spores; definite and typically formed asci
and basidia are not present. Sexual reproduction is wanting. The
Hemiasci are transitional between the Phycomycetes and the
Ascomycetes, the Hemibasidii (Brand-Fungi) form the transition to
the Basidiomycetes.
Sub-Class 1. Hemiasci.
The Hemiasci are Fungi with sporangia which, although
resembling asci, yet have not, however, a definite form and a definite
number of spores. Besides endospores, conidia, chlamydospores
and oidia are found.
Order 1. Ascoideaceæ. Ascoidea rubescens forms irregular, reddish-brown
masses in the sap issuing from felled Beeches. It has free sporangia, which
resemble asci in their structure, in the development and ejection, and in the
definite shape and size of the spores. The formation of the sporangia takes place
when the nutriment is nearly exhausted, and resembles that of the conidia, since
they are developed from the end of a hypha which enlarges, and the swelling
becomes separated by a transverse wall. Within the sporangia numerous spores
of a cap-like form are developed, which are set free through an opening at the
apex. Sporangia are formed successively at the apex of the same hypha, the
second commencing to develope as the first is dehiscing. Conidia and sporangia
are not formed simultaneously; the former may be considered as closed
sporangia.
Order 2. Protomycetaceæ. Protomyces pachydermus causes hard swellings
on the stems and leaf-stalks of the Cichorieæ (Taraxacum, etc.). These swellings
consist of chlamydospores (resting-spores), which germinate and become free,
ascus-like sporangia, with numerous small spores. In nutritive solutions the
chlamydospores form conidia with yeast-like buddings. P. macrosporus on
Ægopodium, and other Umbelliferæ.
Order 3. Thelebolaceæ. Thelebolus stercoreus, is found on the dung of deer,
hares, and rabbits, and has closed sporangia, which resemble asci in their shape
and regular construction, and in the ejection of spores. The covering encloses only
one sporangium, even where the sporangia arise close together.
This order, by reason of the covering of the sporangia, forms the
transition from the Hemiasci to the Carpoasci, while the two first
supply an intermediate step to the Exoasci.
Sub-Class 2. Hemibasidii, Brand-Fungi.
The Brand-Fungi (also known as Ustilagineæ) are Fungi with
basidia-like conidiophores, which, however, have not yet advanced
to a definite form or number of conidia. They are true parasites,
whose mycelium spreads itself in the intercellular spaces of
Flowering plants. The mycelium is colourless, quickly perishable, has
transverse walls at some distance from each other (Fig. 96), and
sends out haustoria into the cells of the host-plant.
 Fig. 96.—Entyloma ranunculi. 1. Cross section of a portion of a leaf of
Ficaria permeated by the mycelium; a bundle of hyphæ with conidia
emerging from a stoma; in one of the cells are found four brand-spores. 2.
A brand-spore developed in the middle of a hypha.
It most frequently happens that the germ-tube enters the host-
plant at its most tender age, that is, during the germination of the
seed; the mycelium then wanders about in the tissues of the shoot
during its growth, until it reaches that part of the plant where the
spores are to be formed. The spore-formation takes place in the
same way in all those species whose brand-spores are developed in
the floral parts of the host-plant. Many Brand-Fungi have, however, a
more local occurrence, and the mycelium is restricted to a smaller
area of the leaf or stem. Those organs of the host-plant in which the
brand-spores are developed often become strongly hypertrophied. In
perennial plants the mycelium winters very often in the rhizome.
 Fig. 97.—Doassansia alismatis. 1. A fruit-body, formed by a covering of
oblong hyphæ, which encloses a mass of brand-spores, and is embedded
in the leaf-tissue of the host-plant; 20 times natural size. 2. A germinating
brand-spore, 500 times natural size. 3. Three connected resting-spores,
400 times natural size. 4. Two conidia grown together, 600 times natural
size.
The brand-spores are the winter resting-spores of the Brand-
Fungi. They arise in the tissues of the host-plant, which is often
destroyed, and become free through the rupture of the epidermis;
they are thick-walled, generally brown or violet, and very often
possess warts, spines, or reticulate markings. Fruit-bodies, that is
enclosed organs of reproduction, are found in few genera
(Sphacelotheca, Graphiola; Doassansia, Fig. 97). In Tolyposporium,
Tuburcinia, Thecaphora (Fig. 102), etc., the brand-spores are united
into a ball of spores. On germination the brand-spores behave as
chlamydospores, namely, as the fundament of conidiophores, by
emitting a short germ-tube, i.e. a conidiophore (“promycelium”). The
Ustilaginaceæ (Fig. 99, 2) have a short transversely divided
conidiophore, with laterally developed conidia (comp. the basidia of
the Protobasidiomycetes). The conidiophores of the Tilletiaceæ are
undivided (unicellular promycelia), and bear the conidia terminally,
and so resemble the basidia of the Autobasidiomycetes.

Fig. 98.—Tuburcinia. 1. T. trientalis. Hyphæ, some of which bear conidia at the

apex, forcing themselves out between the epidermal cells on the under side of the
leaf; 320 times natural size. 2. T. trientalis. A ball of spores in which some of the
individual brand-spores are about to germinate; 520 times natural size. 3. T.
primulicola: various forms of conidia (500 times natural size).
In Tilletia, Entyloma, Neovossia, Tuburcinia, the brand-spores germinate and
form basidia-like conidiophores with spindle-shaped conidia; their mycelium, on
the other hand, produces later only single, sickle-shaped conidia, so that two kinds
of conidia are found, as in a few Basidiomycetes. In some species, e.g. Ustilago
hordei, the brand-spores only germinate vegetatively and form a mycelium. In
nutritive solutions (solutions of dung, etc.) where they live as saprophytes, the
brand-spores of many species emit germ-tubes, and on these, yeast-like conidia
are produced by repeated budding, which grow into mycelia only when the nutritive
solution is exhausted. These conidia have not the power of producing alcoholic
fermentation. The very numerous conidia, which are found in the dung of
herbivorous animals, are probably the yeast-conidia of Brand-Fungi. The brand-
spores, which are eaten by animals with the grain and hay, pass into the dung and
without doubt give rise to a very rich multiplication of yeast-conidia.