SOCIOLOGY FOR TECHNOLOGY (TEC 2101)

UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION

The term Sociology refers to the systematic study of human society. It gives evidence and
explanations of how society works; of the actions of individuals and groups; of patterns of
similarity and difference between people within the same societies and those in different
societies; the distribution of social resources and power (economy and political). It is concerned
with studying individuals as social actors and agents operating in the social world and trying to
understand how the social world operates through investigating how social structures and
relationship develop, persist and change. The study of human society is such a complex task that
it is perhaps no surprise to find conflicts of view among sociologists.
It is the systematic study of the social behavior of individuals, the workings of social groups,
organizations, cultures and societies on individual and the influence of social groups on
individual behavior. The individual/society link implies that society is an abstraction of
individual actions, which are in turn influenced by society.

Sociology deals with what happens around us, attempting to understand the everyday life
experiences. Sociologists rely on scientific evidence obtained through a systematic study of
human social life to develop a refined body of scientific knowledge that can explain and in some
cases predict social events. As a science, sociology follows a prescribed set of research
procedures in investigating social phenomena like homosexuality, marriage, family and
relationships among others.

Sociology can also be defined as the scientific study of social structures and social interaction
and of the factors that cause the change in these structures and interaction. This definition points
out four major aspects namely; scientific, social structure, interaction and social change.

It considers human behavior as it is affected by interactions within groups, organizations,

societies, and interactions can range from two people to thousands, at the local, national or global
levels. Sociology does not only describe interactions, but through methods, concepts and theories
it also seeks to challenge the reality as it is seen. Social interaction involves everyday events in
which people get involved taking into account one another attaching meanings to situations,

1
interpreting what others say/do and responding appropriately. It is guided by established rules,
and patterns.

THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Compared to the natural sciences, sociology is a relatively new discipline even though it is
actually over a century old. Before the emergence of sociology many societies changed in ways
that people did not understand because they did not have an adequate intellectual tradition for
dealing with society. The efforts of early scholars and observers to understand these changes led
to the emergence of sociology as a new science.

Changes that came with the industrial revolution of the 19 th century rearranged society and
changed the way people lived. Its Inventions like the steam engine enabled people to move long
distances, other activities like agricultures, mining and manufacturing were also revolutionized.
People moved to urban centers which were formerly for religion and politics, thereby leading to
the growth of cities that lacked effective policing, fire protection, clean water, garbage collection
services; diseases became a common feature of the societies. This change in social and industrial
order came with changes in the political order, the social class system with the royalty and
nobility at the top and others at the bottom changed. Wealth was acquired from commerce,
merchants and industrialists gained new power, ordinary people began to believe that they should
have a say in the government of the society hence the call for liberty, equality and fraternity. It
was against these changes that sociology emerged as an attempt to better understand the social
forces that swept through Europe changing the status quo.

The emergence of sociology as a discipline can be appreciated in the context of the economic,
social and political upheavals of the 18th and 19thC. The work of early sociologists was the
product of their direct experience as middle class intellectuals in a period characterized by social
change. During this period societies were transforming from feudalism to capitalism. The
religious and political powers of the leaders began to be questioned by attacks of enlightenment;
and the traditional practices and social relationships of rural life gave way to the new demands of
the industrial and political revolutions. The massive migration to the towns for work in the
factories increased the industrial classes. The new middle classes were associated with the ideas

2
of enlightenment and the French revolution whereas the working classes were linked to social
crises manifested in urban poverty, crime, poor health and political unrest like trade unionism.

As a discipline sociology has its roots in the works of the political and social thinkers of classical
Europe like Russell Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and the enlightenment period
of the 18th century. The enlightenment era was the intellectual movement that developed within a
span of 100 years from the English revolution in 1689 and culminating in the French revolution
1789. During this period, it was increasingly believed that understanding the social world
derived from modern science and could help improve the conditions of the planet. Its leading
representatives were religious skeptics, political reformers, cultural critics, historians and social
theorists.

Before the Enlightenment period, the laws governing historical and social processes were seen as
the work of GOD. With the enlightenment, the dynamics of social order and change began to be
questioned by rational speculation and scientific study. Sociology has its recent origins in the
intellectual aspirations and social upheavals of 19 th century. Its foundation is attributed to Comte
Auguste (1798-1857), who coined the term sociology to mean the scientific study of society. He
invented the term positivism as the search for order and progression in the social world. He
proposed that a science based on the experimentation and open testing was the only valid form of
human knowledge and he devoted himself to the establishment of sociology as the study of
social facts. Emile Durkheim, born a year after the death of Comte continued to fight for the
recognition of sociology as an academic discipline in France

In Britain, sociology developed from the works of Adam Smith- a political economist and
Herbert Spencer- social evolutionist. These early British sociologists contributed to sociology
through social research and the attempts to solve the social problems of the industrial society. In
Germany, the establishment of the discipline is associated with Karl Marx, Max Weber and
George Simmel.

In other words the development of sociology is closely associated with effect of industrial
revolution of 18th century, the French revolution of 1789, the enlightenment period, the growth of
capitalism in the world, the economic, social and political upheaval.

3
STUDY SOCIOLOGY ?
Sociology for technology equips the learner with analytical skills that enables them to identify,
explain, predict and mitigate challenges they encounter within their various professions such
Engineering, Geomatics and Land Management, Physical planning, architecture and medicine
among others. In all these fields, the application of sociological knowledge, principles and
methods facilities the understanding of society being served.

Even without a career related to sociology, this discipline helps us to look more objectively at the
society in which we live. It helps one to appreciate how the parts of society fit together, the
causes of social problems and the nature of social change. This is essential because modern
societies are rapidly changing and are filled with conflict situations, sociological knowledge is
essential in appreciating and contributing positively towards social change.

Sociological knowledge can help one better understand oneself since we are creatures of our
society, products of social forces that surround us; we can better understand ourselves fully if we
understand the social forces and their effects on us.

Sociology is very relevant in understanding human society and what goes around it. This is
because sociology helps us to understand people’s cultures, language, marriage, religion, social
networks and general social life both in the rural and urban setting.

In addition, sociology equips students with organisation management skills. This enables them to
understand organizational operations both inter and intra-organisation relations. For example
NGOs, Civil society organisation and community based organisation.

As development students, sociology equips students with the necessary analytical tools which are
required in project development and management, people’s livelihood and general development
aspects of a given society.

Further sociology enables students to understand social change and its effect on social structure.
For instance changes in the family structures and roles due to HIV and AIDS, changes in the
economic structures due to capitalism, the rise of religious movements, social movements and
political parties and organizations.

4
Sociology also helps students to identify and analyses social problems like terrorism, corruption,
war, prostitution, divorce, HIV and AIDS among others and how these affect outcomes of the
engineering industry and the associated professions and to seek solutions to such problems, right
from the individual (micro) level to the societal (macro) levels
Since sociology is a scientific discipline, it equips students with necessary research skills and
knowledge. Research is very cardinal for sustainable development, therefore, well trained
sociologists are needed to champion both basic and applied research project across all sectors
world over.

It is helpful in describing, predicting and explain designs and all forms of work in the
construction industry.

Overall, sociology helps students to gain the necessary analytical tools for understanding society-
socially, politically, economically or otherwise. The discipline enables students to have a better
understand of how social forces shape individual interests, choices, values and behaviours. It is
thus a relevant discipline for the contemporary scholars, researchers and development
practitioner and community workers.

THE ROLE OF SOCIOLOGISTS

Sociologists as researchers; Sociologists make contributions to the development of knowledge
and refining it through research, basic research aims at accumulating knowledge for its own sake,
or through applied research that aims at knowledge for practical application purposes.
Sociologists accumulate knowledge because it is enriching for human beings to understand as
much as they can about the world they live in, applied research can help in solving the problems
of the day.

Sociologists as technicians; some sociologists work to improve the operation of specific

organizations. Many work for government agencies, business corporations, and voluntary
organizations. Here they may help understand and improve employee relations, do market
research, improve the efficiency of data collection and storage.

5
Sociologists as policy consultants; Sociologists, like other scholars, frequently advise
government on policy matters either with regard to policy prerequisites, potential impact, and
assessment.

Sociologists as social critics; Sociology gives a vantage point from which to appreciate the
workings of society and to offer suggestions for improvement. Some sociologists concentrate on
critical analysis of social arrangements, a critic often challenges the images that people and
groups have of themselves to give an alternative view of things

Sociologists as teachers; A lot of sociologists are employed as teachers in institutions of higher

learning. Herein they help in passing on a body of accumulated knowledge, methods and insights
of sociology to the educated public and succeeding generations of sociologists.

FOUNDING FATHERS OF SOCIOLOGY

Philosophers have been writing about human relationships for thousands of years, some of them,
notably Aristotle made contributions that present day sociologists draw upon however sociology
as such did not exist till late 19th century.

a) August Comte (1798-1857)

Comte is regarded as the founder of sociology, he coined the term sociology; he believed that
society was governed by social laws just as the universe is governed by the natural laws. He
wanted to discover such laws. He believed that all societies passed through the same series of
stages.

He attempted to formulate conditions that explained social stability at any given moment
(progress and order). The study of social dynamics and social statics were the pillars of his
system of society. In his work, The Positive Philosophy, he said that sociology was a science or
a positive philosophy. It should study society and two of its fundamental aspects; why society
changes (social dynamics) and why it does not change (social statics).
Comte was of the view that sociology should in the attempt to explain the laws of progress and
social order drawing on the resources that have been used in the natural sciences i.e. use methods
like observation, experimentation and comparison in addition to the historical method.

6
He wanted to discover a series of transformations that the human race gone through from a state
not so superior to the great ape to the European civilizations at that time. He talked of this as the
law of human progress or the law of three stages. Comte believed that the human society
paralleled the individual mind. He related this to the development of knowledge; saw it as
passing through three stages: the theological, metaphysical and the positive stages.

At the theological stage, the human mind seeks the essential nature of beings, first and final
causes of all effects. All phenomena are supposedly caused by the effect of supernatural beings.
In the metaphysical stage, the mind supposes abstract forces as the causes of all phenomena
while in the positive stage the mind gives us the search for absolute causes of phenomenon and
tries to study the laws that govern natural phenomena.

He correlated the development of the human mind to social organization, social order and the
material conditions of human life. The theological stage was dominated by the priests and ruled
by the military men, the metaphysical stage by the churchmen and lawyers, and the positive
stage by the industrial administration and scientific moral guides. The family the prototypical
social unit at theological stage, the state dominates the metaphysical stage and in the positive
stage the whole human race becomes the main social unit.

Just as mankind progresses through stages so does scientific knowledge. Different sciences
progress at different rates. Astronomy is the most general and simple of all natural sciences
develops first, the physics, chemistry, biology and finally sociology. Each of these sciences
depends on the previous one in the hierarchy marked by the law of increasing complexity and
decreasing generality. The social sciences are the most complex and most dependent for their
emergence of other sciences.

b) Karl Marx 1818-1883

He was a German philosopher; some of his major works included Das Capital and the
Communist Manifesto. He believed that social scientists should work to better society. His aim
was to liberate workers from poverty and oppression brought about by industrialization and this
he thought would be done through a revolution.

7
He lived in the 19th century the time of unrestrained capitalism in Europe and the US- system that
allows private individuals to own production plants, steel mills, small businesses that hire
workers(other people to work for them and they compete to gain as much profit. The means of
production- production plants, steel mills, and land were owned by the bourgeoisies, the workers
(proletarian) sold their labor to these. He believed that capitalist society will eventually tear up
apart by the struggle between the two classes.

Capitalism contained its own seeds of destruction because the capitalists are driven by the profit
motive; constantly want to pay as low a wage as possible. He predicted that the workers will with
time realize that their only hope was in uniting and stage a revolution. They would then establish
a new government and avoid private ownership of property, the state would take over the means
of production on behalf of the people and society would have a single classless society.

He believed that the industrial labor would contribute to the downfall of capitalism. Work was an
activity that distinguished men from other animals, humans only can put creativity to their work
thereby making work meaningful.

Capitalism, he concluded transforms work into something meaningless. The desire for profits
makes the worker become mere machines in the production process, work becomes monotonous,
repetitive and meaningless, they have no control whatsoever over the work that they do and this
produces alienation- a condition in which man is dominated by the forces of their own creation
that confront them as alien powers. The workers lose control over their lives are estranged from
the social world and feel that life is meaningless.

According to Marx society comprises of forces that generate social change by tension and
struggle. He viewed society as from an evolutionary perspective. Struggle rather than peaceful
growth was the engine of progress. The motivating force in history is the continuous struggle of
men for their insatiable needs; they engage in antagonistic cooperation, division of labor
emerges. He saw society’s history as one of class struggle, society is divided into classes that
clash in pursuit of class interests and the confrontations of power they bring are important
determinants of social and historical processes. To Marx the economy formed the basis of all
social relations in society- infrastructure- this forms the foundation upon which the super

8
structure of society is erected hence the political, legal and philosophical, literary and artistic
development rest on the economic base.

There are different positions in society that have different access to the scarce resources. These
positions shape the experiences of those that occupy them and their predispositions to take action
oriented towards improving their fate. The stratification systems rest upon the relations of
aggregates of men to the means of production. The proletariats and the bourgeoisie. A class is an
aggregate of persons that perform the same function in the organization of production. These are
referred to as a class in itself and when they acknowledge their disadvantaged position and they
unite to fight for a change they become a class for itself.

About social change, Marx said that men make their own history. Human history is the process
through which men change themselves as they try to dominate nature. In the process of
transforming nature, men transform themselves. Unlike animals, man is active in relation to his
environment/ surroundings. This way they produce their means of subsistence and so their
material life.

c) Emile Durkheim 1858-1917

He was Frenchman, and one of the scholars that greatly influenced the development of sociology.
Unlike Karl Marx, he focused on unity in society. Traditional societies he saw as very cohesive
because of the sameness of individuals. Such societies are small, have a simple division of labor
and rely on simple technology. Hunters in a hunting society for example use the same type of
weapons; peasant farmers grow crops using the same tools. People in such societies share the
same values because everyone participates in the same social life. These shared values hold the
society together- Mechanical solidarity.

In industrialized societies, people have specialized tasks using complex tools and they hardly
interact directly. They share many values but they also disagree on many others. There is a lot of
interdependence among the people because of their differences e.g. producers, sellers this leads
to organic solidarity. Like Marx, Emile was concerned with the industrial changes that were
taking place in Europe. He was particularly interested in the way individualism produced
anomie. A condition in which the social norms are entirely in conflict or totally absent
(normlessness).

9
In such a condition the norms guiding conduct breakdown leaving individuals without restraint
or guidance. Anomie is a serious threat to morality. He noted that religion always constrained
people and led them to behave morally by dampening their desires in seeking spiritual rewards.
Industrialization however unleashed passions without establishing any restraints. People become
anomic because of the lack of firm guidelines for behavior.

According to him, social facts are the subject matter of sociology; they have the characteristics
and determinants not amenable to explanations at the psychological or biological level. Social
facts are external to the individual, they endure time, have coercive powers, and they impose
themselves on the will of the individual. These constraints can be laws or customs; they come
into play when social demands are being violated. The facts become effective guides of conduct
when they are internalized by individuals though they continue to be independent of the
individuals thereby making society something beyond us and something in ourselves.

Social phenomena arise when interacting individuals constitute a reality that cannot be explained
in terms of the properties of individual. He was concerned with the characteristics of group
structures not individual attributes; he focused on issues of cohesion of specific groups not
individual traits of its members. He examined the different rates of behavior in populations and
characteristics of groups for example the increase in suicide rates in a particular society indicated
reduced cohesion.

He studied different suicide rates for different religious and occupational groups and their
different ways of bringing about social cohesion but not individual traits. He found out that the
structures which had high rates of suicide had relative lack of cohesion or a condition of
normlessness. His concern with rates other than incidences allowed him to comparatively
analyze different structures. He avoided adhoc explanations for a particular group and this
enabled him to generalize. He concluded that the different cohesion and integration could
account for the varying rates of suicide among different religious groups.
He demonstrated that suicide varied inversely with integration, people that were well integrated
are cushioned to a large extent against the impact of frustrations and the tragedies that afflicted
humans so they were less likely to commit suicide.

10
Integration- the extent to which various members interact with one another for example rituals
were binding, complementary work activities. Frequency of patterned interaction measures the
value of integration, sharing of values and beliefs.

He differentiated between mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity

prevailed where individual differences are minimal and members of the society are much alike
and are devoted to common values.

Organic solidarity develops out of differences between individuals, it’s a product of division of
labor increasing differentiation of functions in a society come with increasing differences
between its members.

He saw individuals as having insatiable needs the more one gets the more they demand hence
individual desires must be checked by individual controls, this is done by society. When social
regulations breakdown, societal influence on individual desires ceases to be effective and
individuals are left on their own. When this occurs anomie occurs and there is relative
normlessness in a society or part of it, it becomes a part of the social structure. It occurs when the
individual desires are not regulated by common norms and individuals have no moral guidance
in the pursuit of goals. A depression (downward mobility) and a boom (upward mobility) cause
rapid movement in the social structure and previous networks of lifestyles may cause anomie. He
identified four types of suicide egoistic suicide, anomic suicide, altruistic suicide and Fatalistic
suicide.
(1) Egoistic suicide: According to Durkheim, when a man becomes socially isolated or feels that
he has no place in the society he destroys himself. This is the suicide of self-centred person who
lacks altruistic feelings and is usually cut off from main stream of the society.
(2) Altruistic suicide: This type of suicide occurs when individuals and the group are too close
and intimate. This kind of suicide results from the over integration of the individual into social
proof, for example - Sati customs, Dannies warriors.
(3) Anomic suicide: This type of suicide is due to certain breakdown of social equilibrium, such
as, suicide after bankruptcy or after winning a lottery. In other words, anomic suicide takes place
in a situation which has cropped up suddenly.

11
(4)Fatalistic suicide: This type of suicide is due to overregulation in society. Under the
overregulation of a society, when a servant or slave commits suicide, when a barren woman
commits suicide, it is the example of fatalistic suicide

SOCIOLOGY AND THE OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

A science is a branch of study that is concerned with discovering and organizing facts, principles
and methods. The natural sciences physics, biology, astronomy) study natural phenomena, the
social sciences on the other hand deal in scientific way with relationships among human beings.
There are several social sciences but the boundaries between them are not very clear cut.Having
seen sociology as the scientific study of society, it is important to see how it differs from other
social sciences for example economics, political science, and psychology.

Economics seems to provide the strongest contrast with sociology because it deals with things
having exchange value whereas sociology deals with people. Economics is a discipline that
studies the production distribution and consumption of goods, material and non-material, having
exchange value. Thus it is concerned with the input of land, labor, capital and managerial skill
into a system, the output from that economic system and the subsequent distribution and
consumption. The system of interest to the economist may be defined as a factory, the economic
system of a country or a system through which goods are produced and distributed. Although the
economists have a limited horizon, they have developed a highly focused, coherent field of
study.Whereas the unit of analysis in economics may be said to be value, the one for political
science may be said to be power. Political scientists have traditionally been concerned with
problems of government ie the formal organizations of power relationships. Power however is a
dimension of any human relationship so the political scientists so the political scientist may
investigate informal and non-legal relationships in their power aspects, the family, in business
relationships recreation and religious activities.

Psychology, often called the science of the mind, deals with mental processes such as thinking,
learning, remembering and decision making. It studies the individual personality, certain
dimensions of personality like intelligence and problem solving ability, the kinds, conditions and
consequences of emotional expression, perception, motivation and attitudes, it focuses on the
individual. There is however social psychology which comes closest to sociology. Social

12
psychologists are interested in how the personality and behavior are influenced by a person’s
social setting in which a person finds themselves. Other social psychologists are interested in
how an individual personality influences their social behavior.

Of all the social sciences, anthropology is the closest kin to sociology. In includes archeology,
physical anthropology, linguistics and social and cultural anthropology which is almost
synonymous with sociology except that anthropologists have put more energies in investigating
relatively primitive often non literate groups whereas the sociologists characteristically study
contemporary complex and literate societies but the distinction between the two is not very clear
cut.

SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION (PRIVATE TROUBLES VS PUBLIC ISSUES)

Brinkerhoff has defined sociological imagination as the ability to see the intimate realities of our
own lives in the context of common social structures; it’s the ability to see personal troubles as
public issues. Many of the things that we experience as individuals are really beyond our control.
But have a lot to do with society as a whole, its historical development and the way it is
organized.

Sociological imagination is developed when we can place such personal troubles such as poverty
divorce into a larger social contest, when we can see them as common public issues. To develop
sociological imagination is to understand how outcomes like dropping out of school, becoming a
drug addict, divorce are a product of society and not fully within control of the individual.
Sociological imagination, the ability to see one’s life and that of others as part of a larger human
drama is central to sociology. It gives the ability to explain other people’s behavior through the
roles and structures that influence this, that solution to the social problems lie not in changing the
individual but the roles and structures that are available to them. Offers a new way to look at and
search for solutions to the problems that face individual.

Sociological imagination a quality of mind that enables people to make connections between
their biography and social historical forces. Individual actions are related to the wider social and
historical forces, global forces, what we use, how we relate to people. It helps 1.To understand
their own biography in a broader context, 2. To recognise the responses available to them by

13
becoming aware of the many individuals who share and not share their situation 3. To position
themselves to change society for the better
Troubles vs. issues
Sociologists distinguish between troubles which can be solved by changing the individual and
issues which can be solved by changing the flaws in institutional arrangements. Troubles have
been defined by W.C mills 1959 defines troubles as personal needs, problems, or difficulties that
can be explained as individual shortcomings related to motivation, attitude ability, character, or
judgment. The resolution of a trouble if it can indeed be resolved lies in changing the individual
in some ways.

An issue is a matter that can be explained by factors outside an individual’s control and
immediate environment. An accurate description of the problem of unemployment and of the
possible solutions requires us to think beyond individual shortcomings and to consider economic,
political and other institutions. An institution is relatively stable and predictable arrangement
among people that have emerged over time to coordinate human activity human interaction and
behavior in ways that meet some human need such as food, shelter, medical attention.

Personal troubles- personal needs, problems, difficulties that can be explained as individual
shortcomings related to motivation, attitude, and ability can be resolved by changing the
individual. An issue-a matter that can be explained by factors beyond the individuals control and
immediate environment

Sociological imagination can help an individual see their lives in terms of institutional
arrangements and larger historical forces. This way they can understand their own experience
and fate by locating themselves in a broader context, they can recognize the responses available
to them by becoming aware of the many individuals that share their situations.

Sociology offers a perspective that permits people to contextualize their lives through
understanding the connection between biographies and larger forces; this decreases our chances
of responding in appropriate ways.

Although sociologists vary in their perspectives, methods and values, they at least all share the
aims of understanding and explaining the social world. Some sociologists believe that good

14
sociology must examine both the structure of society and social interaction. They argue that it is
by combining the study of the major changes in society and individual lives that sociologists can
develop their understanding of social life.

One of the sociologists who contributed to this understanding is an American sociologist C.

Wright Mills. Mills perhaps make the clearest exposition of the view that sociology should study
the structure of society, and also the individual’s lives. This he calls it “Sociological
Imagination” (Mills1959). He argued that the sociological imagination allow people to
understand their ‘private troubles’ in terms of ‘public issues’. For instance social conditions like
unemployment, divorce are all experienced by individuals in terms of their personal lives. But
people react to such individual problems, and their reactions have consequences for the society
as a whole. Therefore, according to Mills, these problems (‘private troubles’) can only fully be
understand in the context of the wider social forces (‘public issues’). E.g. experiences of
increased unstable marriages, mental illness HIV/AIDS need to be explained the wider social
context, although they are private troubles. When the same trouble happens to lots of people at
once, it suggests there is an ISSUE. Our actions can create an Issue elsewhere without creating
troubles for us

Private troubles are personal matters that occur within the character of an individual and within
the range of that individual’s immediate relations with others. While Public issues are matters
that transcend the local environment of an individual and the range of that individual’s inner life.
Therefore as sociologists, there is need to consider the social, economic and political institutions
of society, and not merely the personal situation and character of an individual. To mills then,
sociology should examine the biography of the individual in the context of the history of
societies.

15