DELTA STATE POLYTECHNIC

P.M.B 003,
OTEFE OGHARA, DELTA-STATE, NIGERIA.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY,

SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
(BIOCHEMISTRY OPTION)

GROUP B PRESENTATION

ON

LITERACY APPRECIATION AND ORAL COMPOSITION

(GNS 402)

QUESTION:

Explain the following:

Epic, Sonnet, Ode, Elegy, Romance, Diction, Satire ballad, Theme,

Tone, Mode.

JULY 2024

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 GROUP B MEMBERS

S/N NAMES MAT. NO TEXTBOOK NO SCORE

1 FRIDAY EGBEGBE 17251 94

2 OKORODUDU PRECIOUS BRORIE 20011 5

3 EZINWA AMAKA PETER 18432 50

4 PREYEGBA ROSEMARY SANDRA 18421 89

5 EDOLOSUE OBARO PRECIOUS 20052

6 ONYENIKE DEBORAH AMAKA 19615 19

7 OKE JOY ELOHOR 19448

8 ONORIENOBOHWO OGHENERO 17810 157

JOY

9 EMAMEMOR BENEDICTA 18214

10 NWACHUKWU CHIOMA BLESSING 18586 113

11 NJUWE BENJAMIN 20228

12 OMOVIKE OGHENETEGA 20107 67

ENDURANCE

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 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this assignment work was carried out by the aforementioned
persons in the department of Science Laboratory Technology, (Biochemistry
Option), School of Applied Sciences and Technology, Delta State Polytechnic,
Otefe-Oghara.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - - - - i

Group B Members - - - - - - - - - ii

Certification - - - - - - - - - - iii

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - - iv

Epic - - - - - - - - - - - - 1

Sonnet - - - - - - - - - - - 4

Ode - - - - - - - - - - - - 10

Difference between Elegy, Dirge, and Eulogy - - - - - 15

Romance - - - - - - - - - - - 18

Diction - - - - - - - - - - - 18

Satire Ballad - - - - - - - - - - 21

Theme - - - - - - - - - - - 25

Tone - - - - - - - - - - - - 27

Mood - - - - - - - - - - - 31

References - - - - - - - - - - - 33

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EPIC

The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek epos, which means ‘song’ or
‘word’. The Illustrated Oxford Dictionary defines an epic as “a long poem
narrating the deeds of one or more heroic or legendary figures.” The Penguin
Modern English Dictionary provides a similar meaning of the word- “long poem in
elevated style narrating the adventures of a hero.”

A more in-depth understanding of what constitutes an epic may be reached by

looking at M.H. Abram’s definition; An epic poem is a long verse narrative on a
serious subject, told in a formal and elevated style, and centered on a heroic or
quasi-divine figure whose actions define the fate of a tribe, a nation or the human
race.

The hero of the epic has certain heroic qualities, such as valour, strength, nobleness
and resourcefulness. He/she is often also semi-divine or quasi-divine. The setting
of the epic is ample in scale and the style involves verbal repetitiveness. Human
beings in epic tales have free will- i.e. the Gods do not attempt to stop them from
carrying out a particular action- and each person’s destiny is shaped by his or her
character. The gods, however, aren’t passive, observers either, and directly
interfere in men’s lives, punishing or rewarding them for their deeds, as they see
fit. The single action, around which the epic revolves, is usually, an exploit or a
feat, heroic, super-human in nature.

Characteristics of Epic

1. Heroic Protagonists: A Protagonist is a character that plays the most

prominent/famous/important role in a play or novel, often referred to as the
hero/heroine or the chief character. Epic poetry often showcases formidable

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 protagonists, often embodied as heroes or demigods, who embark upon
heroic odysseys or confront monumental challenges. These characters
symbolize both the positive and negative facets of the human condition.
2. Settings: This refers to the place in which the story takes place. Epics take
place in expansive, legendary locations, including the depths of the
underworld or the highest point of Mount Olympus. The breathtaking
landscapes serve as the backdrop for the heroic adventures and supernatural
encounters depicted in the narrative.
3. Invocation of the Muse: The beginning of an epic poem customarily entails
the invocation of a muse or an alternative celestial entity. On many
occasions, this muse contributes to the telling of the epic.
4. Utilization of Elevated Language: Epic poetry is known for its use of
formal, elevated language. The narrative attains an aura of magnificence
through the consistent application of diction and style that are more intricate
and refined in nature than those encountered in everyday discourse.
5. Episodic Structure: Epics are structured into episodic chapters or episodes,
each of which centers on a significant occurrence or challenge encountered
by the protagonist. These episodes facilitate the progression of the narrative
arc as a whole.
6. Epic shows divine intervention on Human affairs.
7. It starts with a statement of the Theme. The Theme refers to the central
message of the poem.
8. It involves the use of Epithets: An Epithet is a characterizing word or
phrase used in place of a name of a person or thing. Some examples of
epithets are: a dog is a man's best friend, Alexander the Great, and The City
of Lights.

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Uses of the Epic
The main function of poetry in heroic-age society appears to be to stir the spirit of
the warriors to heroic actions by praising their exploits and those of their illustrious
ancestors, by assuring a long and glorious recollection of their fame, and by
supplying them with models of ideal heroic behavior. Heroic songs also were often
sung before a battle, and such recitations had tremendous effect on the morale of
the combatants. Among the Fulani (Fulbe) people in the Sudan, for instance, whose
epic poetry has been recorded, a nobleman customarily set out in quest of
adventures accompanied by a singer (mabo), who also served as his shield bearer.
The singer was thus the witness of the heroic deeds of his lord, which he celebrated
in an epic poem called baudi.
The passing of a heroic age does not necessarily mean the end of its heroic oral
poetry. Even when the nobility that originally created the heroic epic perishes or
loses interest, the old songs can persist as entertainments among the people.
Examples of Epic Poetry
Paradise Lost by John Milton: One of the most widely read epics today, Paradise
Lost, tells the story of Satan’s fall from Heaven, Adam and Eve in the Garden of
Eden, and Satan’s attempts to fight a war against the angels remaining in Heaven.

Amoogu by Kaalu Igirigiri, an Ohafia Igbo poet. Kaalu Igirigiri narrates the epic
tale of a historical battle of the Ohafia and the hero Amoogu. Whilst laying siege to
the town of ’Liike, the Ohafia warriors confront a short-armed dwarf called ’Miiko
who routes successive waves of fighters, preventing the defeat of the town. Kaalu
Igirigiri lists the many preeminent warrior-heroes of Ohafia who each try and fail
to charge the guns of the short-armed dwarf of ’Liike until, finally, a previously-
unknown warrior, Amoogu, steps forward and vanquishes their great adversary.

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SONNET
A sonnet is a type of fourteen-line poem. Traditionally, the fourteen lines of a
sonnet consist of an octave (or two quatrains making up a stanza of 8 lines) and
a sestet (a stanza of six lines). Sonnets generally use a meter of iambic pentameter
(five sets of unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables for a ten-syllable
line. and follow a set rhyme scheme.
One of the most famous examples of iambic pentameter is the opening passage of
Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet:
Two households, both alike in dignity,
In fair Verona, where we lay our scene,
From ancient grudge break to new mutiny,
Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean.

A rhyme scheme is the rhyming sequence or arrangement of sounds at the end of

each line of poetry. It is typically represented by using letters to demonstrate which
lines rhyme with which.
For example:

Roses are red—A

Violets are blue—B
Sugar is sweet—C
And so are you—B

Within these general guidelines for what makes a sonnet, there are a wide variety
of variations. The two most common sonnet variations are the Italian sonnet (also
called a Petrarchan sonnet), and the English sonnet (also called a Shakespearean
sonnet). The main difference between the Italian and English sonnet is in the
rhyme schemes they use.
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Types of Sonnet
Sonnets have been written all over the world and in many different languages:
French, Italian, Spanish, Polish, Czech, Russian, Urdu, and German poets have all
made significant contributions to the evolution of the form. Since the sonnet's
invention in Italy in the 13th century, new variations on the traditional form have
been regularly born. Below is a summary of the different types of sonnets, with
brief explanations of their particular forms and how each of them arose.

The Italian Sonnet: Although the form of the sonnet is said to have been invented

by Giacomo da Lentini in the 13th century, it was popularized by a poet from

Tuscany named Francesco Petrarch, who used the form to write poems expressing

his unrequited love for a woman named Laura. The original form of the Italian

sonnet is therefore known as the Petrarchan sonnet. Consisting of fourteen lines

total, the poem begins with two quatrains (stanzas of four lines) that make up a unit

called an octave, and the poem ends with two tercets (stanzas of three lines) that

make up a single six-line stanza called a sestet. The standard rhyme scheme for the

octave is ABBA ABBA while the rhyme scheme for the sestet is either CDEDCE
or CDCDCD.
The typical structure of the Italian sonnet is for the octave to contain what's called
a "proposition," which establishes a problem (such as unrequited love) or a
question (such as, "does she love me?"). The sestet is concerned with resolving the
problem or question, and it almost always contains a "turn," which signals a shift in
the poem's focus from problem to resolution. The turn is sometimes also called a
"volta" (the Italian word for turn), and it usually comes at the very beginning of the
sestet, in the sonnet's ninth line.

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Ye who in rhymes dispersed the echoes hear

Of those sad sighs with which my heart I fed

When early youth my mazy wanderings led,

Fondly different from what I now appear,

Fluttering 'twixt frantic hope and frantic fear,

from those by whom my various style is read,

I hope, if e'er their hearts for love have bled ,

Not only pardon, but perhaps a tear.

But now I clearly see that of mankind

Long time I was the tale: whence bitter thought

And self-reproach with frequent blushes teem;

While of my frenzy, shame the fruit I find,

And sad repentance, and the proof, dear-bought,

That the world's joy is but a flitting dream.

The sonnet above employs the Petrarchan rhyme scheme

of ABBA ABBA CDEDCE.

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The English sonnet: The English poet Thomas Wyatt introduced the sonnet to the

English language in the 16th century by translating the works of Petrarch from

Italian. Wyatt's contemporary, The Earl of Surrey, then made innovations to the

form by introducing a new structure and rhyme scheme, which became the

defining characteristics of the English sonnet: the fourteen lines are all written in

iambic pentameter and are taken up by three quatrains of four lines followed by a

two-line couplet. The lines follow the rhyme scheme ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.

In the English sonnet, the turn typically occurs in the third quatrain, but William
Shakespeare broke from this rule by frequently situating the turn in the final
couplet of his sonnets. In fact, Shakespeare quickly became the English sonnet's
most venerated practitioner, and the English sonnet is often referred to as the
Shakespearean sonnet as a result. The English sonnet is sometimes also referred to
as the Elizabethan sonnet. This famous example by Shakespeare below follows the
typical rhyme scheme of the English sonnet, ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date;
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimm'd;
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance or nature’s changing course untrimm'd;
But thy eternal summer shall not fade,
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st;
Nor shall death brag thou wander’st in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st:
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

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Modern Sonnet: In the 20th century, poets like Edna St. Vincent Millay, Robert

Lowell, and W.H. Auden continued to use and evolve the form of the sonnet by

creating their own variations. These modern variations are more extreme than the

difference between Italian and English sonnets. Modern poets have written

unrhymed sonnets, "inverted" sonnets in which the sestet precedes the octave, and

sonnets with unusual rhyme schemes. Although today when people refer to sonnets

they usually mean the original form of the English or Petrarchan sonnet, and some

modern poets still write traditional sonnets, modern sonnets can be any poem of 14

lines, with or without a rhyme scheme.

Other types of Sonnet

Other variations of the sonnet have arisen throughout history, but these variations
are always derived from one of the three forms described above. Here are some of
those other types of sonnet, including their definitions and a bit of background on
each:

Occitan sonnets: Occitan is a somewhat obscure Romance language that was

spoken in parts of Italy, France, and Spain. Many sonnets were written in Occitan
during the 13th and 14th centuries, and these sonnets had their own form, which
differs from Italian sonnets in that the sestet of an Occitan sonnet has a CDCDCD
rhyme scheme.

Spenserian sonnets: The 16th century English poet Edmund Spenser created his
own variation of the English sonnet, using a rhyme scheme of ABAB BCBC
CDCD EE.

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Caudate sonnets: The Italian poet Francesco Berni is credited with the invention
of this variation on the standard sonnet form, in which a 14-line sonnet is followed
by a brief concluding stanza of a few lines, known as a coda. This variation is
typically used for satirical poems, such as John Milton's "On the New Forcers of
Conscience under the Long Parliament."

Curtal sonnets: The English poet Gerard Manley Hopkins wanted to "shrink" the
traditional English sonnet to precisely 3/4 its usual size, reducing the octave to a
six-line stanza and the sestet to a four and a half-line stanza. The resulting ten-and-
a-half-line poem is known as a "curtal sonnet."

Word sonnets: This modern and more extreme variation on the sonnet's form
came out of a poetic movement of the late 20th century known as "New
Formalism." These 14-word poems contain just one word per line. The very
existence of this form testifies to the drastic expansion of the definition of the
sonnet that took place over the course of the 20th century

Importance of Using Sonnets

Sonnets are a classic poetic form which has been adopted across languages and
around the world. Although free verse has popularized poetry free of form, rhyme,
or syllabic constraints, the sonnet still remains a popular form in its own right.
Sonnets have allowed poets to examine religious, personal, and political problems.
They allow even the most elementary poets to dabble in romance with the most
classic form of love poetry.

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ODE

An ode is a formal lyric poem that is written in celebration, appreciation, or

dedication. They are generally directed as a specific person, place, idea, or object.
Unlike other forms of poetry, the ode does not have a strict line
or stanza requirement.

Originating in ancient Greece, ode poems were originally performed publicly to

celebrate athletic victories. Later, this poetic form was favored among English
romantic poets, who used odes to express emotions using rich, descriptive
language. Today, we use the term “ode” to describe any outpouring of praise, and
modern ode poems have evolved to include various styles and forms.

Characteristics of an Ode

There are several characteristics of odes that generally exist across all three types.
These characteristics include:

 Length: Odes are usually fairly long poems, taking the time to go into detail
about their subjects. They are usually longer than sonnets but shorter than
epics, which is quite a wide margin.
 Tone: Regardless of their subject matter, odes are usually serious in tone.
They are sincere reflections of the writer's feelings, rather than lighthearted
or humorous poems.
 The catharsis of emotions is yet another essential characteristic of an ode.
The poet wishes to give vent to his emotions through his plight of
imagination in his ode. He really wants to leave the real world and take
shelter in the world of his imagination. Thus catharsis of emotion is an
exclusive feature of an ode.

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Structure of an Ode
An ode poem is traditionally divided into three sections, or stanzas:

1. The strophe. In a Greek ode, the strophe usually consists of two or more lines
repeated as a unit. In modern usage, the term strophe can refer to any group of
verses that form a distinct unit within a poem.

2. The antistrophe. The second section of an ode is structured the same way as the
strophe, but typically offers a thematic counterbalance.

3. The epode. This section or stanza typically has a distinct meter and length from
the strophe and antistrophe, and serves to summarize or conclude the ideas of the
ode.

Types of Ode

PINDARIC ODE: Pindaric ode is a poem with set meter and rhyme just like all
other odes. It is defined by three triads: the strophe and the antistrophe being of the
same stanza form and an epode as the final which is different. This form of Ode

was named after the writer Pindar . Pindar, who was the greatest lyric poet of
Greece, has been considered to be the father of the Pindaric or Choric Ode.
Pindaric odes are also referred to as the choric ode, for the reason that, in Greek
plays, the chorus had to speak out the words of the ode with the accompaniment of
music.

It has a fixed stanza structure; however, the number of stanzas may vary. It is
broken down into three parts: strophe, antistrophe and epode. The very first stanza
of the Pindaric ode is recognized as strophe, wherein the chorus chanted the stanza
and moved in one direction. The second stanza in the Pindaric ode is known

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as antistrophe, whereby the chorus spoke out and proceeded in the opposite
direction of the strophe.

During the epode, the chorus remained stationary. Cowley was the first poet, who
followed the conventions of the Pindaric ode and wrote many odes. However, he
didn’t have an understanding of the true nature of the Pindaric ode, and deviated
slightly from it. He didn’t adhere to the rhythmical and metrical pattern of the
Pindaric ode, rather; he introduced irregular stanzas in his odes. Even though the
Pindaric ode couldn’t blossom in England, yet it paved the way for the coming
poets to try their hands on Irregular and Horation odes. Numerous poets composed
odes and took it to the pinnacle of glory.

William Collins’s “Ode to Fear” is an excellent example in this regard:

Strophe

Thou, to whom the world unknown

With all its shadowy shapes is shown;
Who see'st appalled the unreal scene,
While Fancy lifts the veil between:
Ah Fear! Ah frantic Fear.............
………………………………………………
Antistrophe
Thou who such weary lengths hast passed,
Where wilt thou rest, mad nymph, at last?
Say, wilt thou shroud in haunted cell,
Where gloomy Rape and Murder dwell?
Or in some hollowed seat,
'Gainst which the big waves beat,
Hear drowning seamen's cries in tempests brought!
Dark power, with shuddering meek submitted
thought…………………………………

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Epode
In earliest Greece to thee with partial choice
The grief-full Muse addressed her infant tongue;
The maids and matrons on her awful voice,
Silent and pale, in wild amazement hung.
Yet he, the bard who first invoked thy name,
Disdained in Marathon its power to feel:
For not alone he nursed the poet's flame,
But reached from Virtue's hand the patriot's steel……………………
…………………………………………………………….
(Ode to Fear by William Collins)

HORATIAN ODE: The Horatian ode was named after the 1st century B.C.
Roman lyric poet, Horace. It comes from the Latin tradition of the Aeolic ode and
typically has a calm and contemplative tone, in contrast to the more ceremonial
Pindaric ode. Horatian odes tend to be simple, reflecting on nature, people or
abstract concepts. They usually have a regular stanza pattern — typically 2-4 lines
— length and rhyme scheme.
An example comes from the creator of the Horatian Ode himself, Horace. This
excerpt from “The Ship of State” demonstrates the rhyme scheme and metric
structure that Horace used in his odes.

"O ship the fresh tide carries back to sea again.

Where are you going! Quickly, run for harbour.
Can’t you see how your sides
have been stripped bare of oars,

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how your shattered masts and yards are groaning loudly
in the swift south-westerly, and bare of rigging,
your hull can scarce tolerate
the overpowering waters?"

IRREGULAR ODE: As the name suggests, an irregular ode does not conform to
the structures of either the Pindaric or Horatian ode. However, an irregular ode will
retain some of the elements of a classic ode, such as tone and subject, while
enjoying the freedom to experiment with rhyming and structure. Typically, the
verse is irregular and stanzas are not in a particular order. Additionally, there is no
formal rhyme scheme and irregular odes tend to be more experimental.

Britannica Encyclopedia defines Irregular Ode as, “Irregular ode, a rhymed ode
that employs neither the three-part form of the Pindaric ode nor the two- or four-
line stanza that typifies the Horation ode. It is also characterized by irregularity of
verse and stanzaic structure and by lack of correspondence between parts called
pseudo-Pindaric ode or Cowleyan ode (after Abraham Cowley).”

Abraham Cowley is regarded as the originator of this kind of ode. Irregular ode has
all the important features of the Pindaric ode, but it avoids the division of the ode
into triads or groups. Each stanza of an irregular ode is different from the next
stanza in its length, pattern, and rhyme scheme. Different kinds of meters are
utilized in each stanza. That is why; it is considered the most flexible and easier
one kind of ode.

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This excerpt of British poet Percy Bysshe Shelley's “Ode to the West Wind”
demonstrates how an irregular ode can be structured.

"O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being,

Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead
Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing,

Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red,

Pestilence-stricken multitudes: O thou,
Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed

The winged seeds, where they lie cold and low,

Each like a corpse within its grave, until
Thine azure sister of the Spring shall blow

Her clarion o'er the dreaming earth, and fill

(Driving sweet buds like flocks to feed in air)
With living hues and odours plain and hill:

Wild Spirit, which art moving everywhere;

Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh hear!"

ELEGY

An elegy is a poem that reflects upon death or loss. Traditionally, it contains

themes of mourning, loss, and reflection. However, it can also explore themes of
redemption and consolation.

Elegiac poetry traces back to the ancient Greek tradition of “elegeia.” This term
referred to a poetic verse that is phrased in elegiac couplets, addressing topics such
as loss, death, love, and war. When Romans conquered Greek lands, they
frequently appropriated Greek artistic traditions, and elegiac poetry was no

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exception. Roman elegies, written in Latin, addressed similar topics as Greek
elegies but gave special emphasis to erotic or mythological themes. Elegy poems
were revived during the Renaissance and eventually made their way into the canon
of English literature. The English poets versed their elegies with greater emphasis
upon death and loss of a loved one, while somewhat downplaying the eroticism of
their Roman forebears.
Features of an Elegy
Early elegiac poetry was typically versed in couplets. But, dating back to the
eighteenth century, an elegiac stanza has traditionally contained the following
characteristics:
 It is a quatrain (four lines)
 It contains an ABAB rhyme scheme
 Each line is written in iambic pentameter
Thomas Gray's famous 18th century poem, "Elegy Written in a Country
Churchyard," is an example of this type of elegy—a form that, despite being
defined by its elegaic stanzas, does not have its own name.

Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth

A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown.
Fair Science frown'd not on his humble birth,
And Melancholy mark'd him for her own.

Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere,

Heav'n did a recompense as largely send:
He gave to Mis'ry all he had, a tear,
He gain'd from Heav'n ('twas all he wish'd) a friend.

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This structure is only a loose guideline. Many contemporary elegies contain no set
form, and even the nineteenth-century elegies by the likes of Whitman and
Tennyson take ample liberties with meter and rhyme scheme.

The history of English language elegies is rich and varied. Some of the enduring
elegies include:

John Donne, “The Flea” (published posthumously in 1633). A romantic elegy

using a blood-sucking flea as a metaphor. In general, Donne was bolder in his
sexual descriptions than many of his English contemporaries, although it is
relevant to consider that most of his most erotic work was published after his
death, and often cloaked in literary devices.

John Milton, “Lycidas” (1637). This is a good example of a pastoral elegy,

meaning a poem that uses descriptions of nature to articulate feelings of loss and
remembrance. As was standard for the London-born Milton, “Lycidas” is
brimming with Christian themes.

Thomas Gray, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” (1751). A somber

meditation on death inspired by the 1742 passing of the poet Richard West.

Percy Bysshe Shelley, “Adonaïs: An Elegy on the Death of John Keats”

(1821). An elegy written in the Spenserian style of iambic pentameter with an
ABABBCBCC rhyme scheme. The poem memorializes John Keats, which follows
in the tradition of authors using elegy to honor their literary compatriots.

Alfred, Lord Tennyson, “In Memoriam” (1850). A Victorian-era elegy for

Tennyson’s dear friend and would-be brother-in-law Arthur Henry Hallam.

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Walt Whitman, “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” (1865). An
elegy inspired by Lincoln as well as the loss felt throughout America in the
aftermath of the Civil War.

W.H. Auden, “In Memory of W.B. Yeats” (1940). Written by the British Auden
to honor the departed Irish poet Yeats. The poem is divided into a lament,
eulogistic praise, and solace for mourners.

Difference between Elegy, Dirge, and Eulogy

Elegy, dirge, and eulogy serve similar purposes in relation to mourning and
funereal services, but they are distinct from each other. An elegy is a poem that
reflects on a subject or person through sorrow or melancholy. Elegies are typically
poems about someone who has died. A dirge is a brief hymn or song that expresses
lamentation or grief, and is generally composed to be performed at a funeral.
In lyric poetry, a dirge is typically shorter and less reflective or meditative than an
elegy. A eulogy is a speech given as part of a funeral service that is written in
tribute and praise of someone who has recently died.

ROMANCE

In the strictest academic terms, a romance is a narrative genre in literature that

involves a mysterious, adventurous, or spiritual story line where the focus is on
a quest that involves bravery and strong values, not always a love interest.
“Romance,” etymologically, comes from the Anglo-Norman and Old French word
“romanz,” meaning a story of love, chivalry, and bravery. While it can refer to
relationships, such as in “contemporary romance,” it is most often used in literature
to refer to romantic stories with chivalrous or gallant/courtly, feats— those that

18
defined a man of the time. These stories usually involved heroes, like knights, and
their quests to rescue damsels in distress.

Characteristics

There are several common characteristics of the romance genre. First is their
popularity. Until the shift toward realism beginning in the early 17th century,
works in the romance genre enjoyed much widespread popularity. Since the re-
invigoration of the genre with Gothic romances of the 19th century, romance
literature has regained and is even broadening its popular appeal, accounting for
almost $1.4 billion in book sales in 2008 alone!

Secondly, romances have been so popular through the ages because they're
primarily intended for entertainment purposes, and so the vast majority is almost
entirely fictional - despite some even being loosely based on historical events.
Romance goes further than other fiction genres, though, and breaches the realm of
fantasy, either blatantly with the appearance of elves and wizards, or more subtly
through the recurrence of the improbable.

Types of Romance

Gothic: In Gothic romance, the settings are usually in distant regions and the
stories feature dark and compelling characters. They became popular in the late
19th century and usually had a sense of transcendence, supernatural, and
irrationality. Popular Gothic novels still read by many high school students today
are classics such as: Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte and Frankenstein by
Mary Shelley.

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Historical: Historical romance takes place in times long past and appears romantic
due to the adventure and wildness of the time. This also provides value and
meaning to the lifestyle of the characters. The following novels fit in this sub-
genre: The Last of the Mohicans by James Fenimore Cooper and Rob Roy by Sir
Walter Scott. One literary figure who has had many stories, poems, songs, and
plays written about him is the legendary King Arthur. Historians have never
proven that he existed, but there are theories that the legend may have been based
on a few leaders from long ago. Needless to say, this unknown man has been the
focus of many historical romances.

Contemporary/Modern: Contemporary romance focuses on a love relationship

and has a happy ending. There are two ways these romance novels are written: as a
series or category romance (the author writes a succession of books that fit
a theme or follow a storyline) or as a single-title romance. Many novels of the
author Nicholas Sparks have been made into popular movies, such as The
Notebook, A Walk to Remember, and Safe Haven. His stories all have love as a
theme, some featuring a long-time love that was lost then recovered, others with a
long-time love reaching the end of life, and others with bad relationships that find
happiness in new ones.

Even more so, within the sub-genre romance, and as seen in many movies, there
can be:

 comedy-romance
 tragic-romance
 satire-romance
 serious romance

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Also a very good example of Romance in popular culture is “Shrek”. It is a well-
loved and popular children’s movie enjoyed by adults as well, blends fairy tale,
comedy, musicals, and both historical and modern romance into
one. Shrek features an unlikely hero, an ogre named Shrek, who embarks on a
quest for one simple reason – he wants his swamp back from all the fairy
tale characters that have overtaken his home. This movie is a romantic satire of
many genres, with the basic romance theme running through it, ending with a
lesson about beauty and love being in the eye of the beholder.

The importance of Romance

Romance is a natural human emotion. Sad love songs and poems when one is
recovering from a broken heart can help express unspoken feelings. Happy
romantic movies and plays help people feel optimistic that someday they will also
find true love. However, there is some criticism that many modern romantic stories
make people develop unrealistic views about real relationships, as they expect love
to be like it is in the movies.

DICTION
There are many elements of style in literature. One such element is diction. Diction
is best described as the selection of words an author uses to create a specific impact
or tone in their writing. Word choice is an important part of diction — the words
an author selects and incorporates in their work can change how a reader
experiences a piece. A good author is aware of the repercussions that are caused by
their word choice and seeks to evoke a specific emotion, mood, or tone for the
reader to experience through their diction. A writer will typically look for the word
that best expresses their intent.

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Purpose of Diction
 Diction helps to convey the author’s attitude towards their writing by
establishing tone. This helps readers to pick up on mood and atmosphere so
that the reading can impact them in the way the writer meant to accomplish.
The words that a writer chooses to use have wide-reaching and constant
influence on the reader’s experience of those words.
 Diction is used to help establish genres as well. For example, poetry diction
will often be drastically different from prose diction. In fact, it is not words
being organized into stanzas that necessarily makes a poem, it is the skillful
use of diction to manipulate words and phrases to have poetic qualities.
 In prose, diction helps to reveal the unique personalities of a story’s
characters. Readers will not always identify well with stories that do not
have appropriately created characters who are portrayed realistically. For
example, an uneducated character would not speak like the author probably
speaks. The author will have to study speech and communication patterns of
uneducated people who are similar to his/her character and use diction to
mimic that, thus creating the appropriate affect for the reader.

Elements of Diction

No matter the effect a writer is trying to achieve with diction, there are key
elements to consider.

Denotation: This is essential to writing an effective sentence, and that means

paying attention to a word’s literal or explicit meaning. Writers must pick the
right word that matches their intent if they want to be understood. After all,
writing is only effective if readers can clearly understand it.

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Tone: When choosing between multiple words that mean the same thing, writers
can consider the connotation—the emotions, associations, or implications—each
one evokes. This relates to tone, as writers must choose a word whose emotions
matches the story’s atmosphere. But simply consulting a thesaurus for synonyms
can be tricky; writers must pick the word with the right connotation, not just the
right definition.

For example, thrifty and stingy are synonyms, but thrifty has positive
connotations of savviness and good judgement, while stingy suggests selfishness
and greed.

Register: Finally, writers must also consider register, or a word’s formality and
complexity. High registers are often used in business contexts, where
professionalism is paramount. Informal communication like text messages and
blog posts are often written in a lower register that uses everyday speech patterns
and vocabulary. In literature, this can make writing seem more authentic or
relatable.

Types of Diction

A writer’s linguistic choices directly affect how a reader understands and relates
to the text. As writers can employ several types of diction to best express their
ideas, the following are eight commonly used types.

 Formal – It is best to use formal words in certain situations such as

academic writing, journalistic writing, presentations, etc. For example, in an
email to your boss you would use formal diction by saying something like:
“Hi Sir, I am writing to request more information about the recent project
you assigned to me…”

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 Casual – This type of diction uses informal words and word phrases to express
thoughts in a more casual manner, like talking with friends. For example, you
might say something like, “Hey! How are ya?” instead of the form formal,
“Hello, how are you doing today?”
 Slang – This type of diction involves the use of words or phrases that are
completely casual and newly formed/socially relevant. Slang phrases can even
be considered impolite to many audiences, especially if slang is used in a
formal setting. You wouldn’t attend a research conference and begin your
presentation by saying “Sup, dawgs?” because this would likely alienate most
of your audience
 Poetic diction: This is language that distinguishes poetry from other writing,
particularly the selection and arrangement of words in a poem. In other forms
of literature, poetic diction can refer to vocabulary that evokes a sense of
romance or heightened emotion or that gives a writing a lyrical, melodious
quality.
 Jargon: This is the terminology used in a specific profession or field of
study. Medical dramas are famous for using jargon—like saying “myocardial
infarction” when talking about a heart attack—because this supports both
the setting and the character’s background as a medical professional.
 Abstract diction: This refers to the words and phrases used to describe
intangible qualities, ideas, and feelings, like love, death, or beauty. Abstract
language (e.g., beautiful, sad, freedom, love) is more subjective and less
specific than other forms of diction.
 Concrete diction: The opposite of abstract, concrete language uses words
as they’re defined and which appeal to the five senses
(e.g., hot, sweet, blue, loud). Because concrete diction is specific, it leaves
little room for subjective interpretation.
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  Colloquial diction: This is a subcategory of informal diction.
Colloquialism is the use of everyday language in writing,
including idioms, profanities, regional expressions, and nonstandard
grammar. This can make a story, particularly dialogue, seem truer to life.

SATIRE BALLAD

A ballad is a poem with a musical quality. A ballad is narrative in nature; this

means that it tells a story. The earliest ballads were not primarily meant for reading
but for recitation. They were performed by traveling minstrels often for the
entertainment of the wealthy. The word, ''ballad'' comes from the Latin word for
''dance'', and it is likely that many of these ballads were danced to.

A ballad is rhythmic in nature; they are generally narrative in nature and follow a
particular ballad structure. Most ballads have an ABAB rhyme scheme or an
ABCB rhyme scheme. In an ABAB rhyme scheme, lines 1 and 3 rhyme, and lines
2 and 4 rhyme. In an ABCB rhyme scheme, only lines 2 and 4 rhyme.

A stanza is a group of lines set apart. Both the above rhyme schemes
are quatrains which are stanzas of four lines. Most ballads are composed of
numerous quatrains. To ensure the musical quality, most ballads are written in
iambic pentameter. This refers to the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.
In order to understand iambic pentameter, a few definitions need to be given.

 Foot: A foot in poetry is generally made up of two or three syllables.

 Iamb: An iamb is a specific type of foot consisting of two syllables.
 Pentameter: a line with five feet. Since each iambic foot contains two
syllables, a pentameter has 10 syllables.

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In short, iambic pentameter is a type of verse with 10 syllables alternating between
an unstressed and a stressed syllable.

Satire ballads are examples of ballad poems about satire. Satire ballad uses wit,
irony, sarcasm, and ridicule to criticize or mock societal follies, vices, and
shortcomings to tell a story. It is often intended to bring about improvement or reform
through such critical humour. It has been a powerful tool for social commentary
throughout history, allowing poets to express dissent and provoke thought about
prevailing norms and practices.

Purpose of a satirical ballad.

It highlights the power of written communication as a better alternative to violence.

This saying is also usually associated with the power of satire, which often focuses on
the heated topics of politics, religion, culture, and the economy.

In literature, satire, including satirical poetry, is thought of as a 'mighty' genre because

it aims to instigate change, often by making a person, a group, a thing, or an idea look
so silly, they lose their reputation.

As a result, we can say that satirical poetry has three primary purposes:

1. To amuse the reader

2. To provide social commentary
3. To encourage reflection and change

THEME

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A theme is a universal idea, lesson, or message explored throughout a work of
literature. One key characteristic of literary themes is their universality, which is to
say that themes are ideas that not only apply to the specific characters and events
of a book or play, but also express broader truths about human experience that
readers can apply to their own lives.

Every work of literature—whether it's an essay, a novel, a poem, or something else

—has at least one theme. Therefore, when analyzing a given work, it's always
possible to discuss what the work is "about" on two separate levels: the more
concrete level of the plot (i.e., what literally happens in the work), as well as the
more abstract level of the theme (i.e., the concepts that the work deals with).

There are major themes, which occur throughout the entire work, or minor
themes which are in certain parts of the work and often end where a new minor
theme picks up. Writers often develop themes based on personal experiences, or
personal opinions that they'd like to convey to their readers. Some examples of
themes are:

 Love
 Redemption
 Forgiveness
 Coming of age
 Revenge
 Good vs Evil
 Bravery
 Survival

Themes are so important to literature because they connect the reader to the author
through the relatability of the message. If the theme of an author's work is
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redemption, then people who have experienced redemption in their own lives can
make a much greater connection to the book.

TONE

Tone is the attitude or general character of a piece of writing and is often related to
the attitude of the writer or speaker.

When it comes to literature, tone describes the attitude of the author. Tone is one of
the most complex literary terms to understand, and it is easiest to experience on the
page. A book's tone is dependent on the author's choice and use of words and
phrases that appear in the writing, as well as on the particular sentence structure.
Tone is also determined by the details which the author includes or omits in the
text. Tone is not concerned with emotions felt from the text's audience, but rather
focuses on the judgement or perception of the narratorial voice toward the text's
plot or characters. Tone is extremely important in understanding a story's central
theme or message.

Functions of Tone

Authors want to convey many important points through writing, so tone can be
used to:

 Help articulate a text's argument or message

 Create relations between readers and characters
 Provoke affect or perspective from readers
 Give an individual or unique voice to characters
 Create or influence a text's mood

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While there are many different tones that can be set, there are two main categories
that tone falls into. Tone can be formal or informal.

Formal tone is primarily used in academic or professional writing and uses

appropriate and respectful words while avoiding slang and contractions. Formal
tone focuses on facts and information rather than the use of figurative language.
Some examples of formal tone are:

 A thesis for a Masters Degree

 A cover letter for a job
 A business proposal letter

Informal tone uses a more conversational approach with slang, jargon, figurative
language, contractions, and dialogue. The sentence structures and word usage can
vary greatly depending on the author's preference. Some examples of informal tone
are:

 A casual email to a friend

 A poem
 A science fiction novel

Techniques to Convey Tone in Literary Works

Writers have many tools at their disposal to set and cover tone in their writing.
Depending on the type of writing, tone can be set using some simple techniques.

 Punctuation - Punctuation is a dynamic tool that doesn't just function as a

way to end or bridge sentences. Using punctuation in certain ways can create
a unique tone. In the example of a text message, if someone responds to a
request with the word 'no' but no other punctuation, it probably just means

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 no. But if a period is added to the 'no.', now the message takes on a new
tone. The no means more than no. It shows frustration, annoyance, or even
anger. Using periods, exclamation points, and commas can help set the tone
for the writing.
 Dialogue - Using dialogue through characters or a narrator can be a simple
way to convey tone. If a writer wants a tone of hopelessness, the characters
can convey that in their speech to each other. The use of dialogue is a
wonderful tool for setting tone.
 Word Usage - Word choice can help set tone in literature as well. Using
words that directly describe the tone along with synonyms is another
technique that writers will often use.
 Sentence Arrangement - The way sentences are written and arranged can
have a dramatic effect on tone. Long flowing sentences that are compounded
together have a very different tone than short, abrupt, and simple sentences.
How sentences are arranged and constructed is a good way to convey tone.

Examples of Tone

I’ll just swing by your office at 4 tomorrow!

I will meet you in your office tomorrow at 4:00.

These two sentences convey exactly the same ideas, but one does it in a highly
informal tone while the other uses a formal tone. The tone is set by many different
features: contractions (such as “I’ll”) are key indicators of informal tone. And
there’s also a colloquialism (“swing by”) and an informal punctuation mark (!). In
contrast, the more formal sentence uses perfect grammar, no idioms, and higher
level vocabulary.

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MODE

In literature and other artistic media, a mode is an unspecific critical term usually
designating a broad but identifiable kind of literary method, mood, or manner that
is not tied exclusively to a particular form or genre. Examples are the satiric mode,
the ironic, the comic, the pastoral, and the didactic.

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle uses 'mode' in a more specific sense.
Kinds of poetry, he writes, may be differentiated in three ways: according to
their medium of imitation, according to their objects of imitation, and according to
their mode or 'manner' of imitation. "For the medium being the same, and the
objects the same, the poet may imitate by narration—in which case he can either
take another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own person, unchanged—
or he may present all his characters as living and moving before us". According to
this definition, 'narrative' and 'dramatic' are modes of fiction.

There are a few different modes in Literature

Narrative mode

Narrative mode is a specific type of written mode that is used to tell a story. This
means that narrative mode refers to how a story is told in fiction.

Modes can be mixed to create different effects within one text. A good example of
mixed modes can be seen within the narrative mode. This can include:

 Descriptive mode

 Action mode

 Dialogue mode

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  Thought and monologue mode

 Exposure mode

A descriptive mode in the English language provides information to the reader about
the setting of a story, or the appearance of an object or character to create world-
building in a story. The descriptive mode is useful for building the non-dialogue parts
of a story.

The action mode in the English language refers to the events that happen in the
story and is done through the creation of conflict resolution that introduces tension
and pace. For example, in Romeo and Juliet (1597), we see the conflict between the
children of two warring families who fall in love. The resolution here is that the star
crossed lovers kill themselves after a series of miscommunications.

The dialogue mode is an aspect of the narrative mode which presents what the
characters in the story say. Dialogue, or the absence of dialogue, is fundamentally
important to how a story is told as it provides characterisation, exposition,
and furthers the action of the narrative.

Modes in the English language sometimes explore how the thoughts of the character
are related through monologue or stream of consciousness. Character's thoughts and
intentions are seen in the written mode (such as in novels or in epistolary fiction where
characters confess their feelings in letters) or in the spoken mode (such as monologues
in plays).

Exposition within narrative mode refers to the information provided to the audience:
such as a change in place, point of view background of the plot, character's backstory,
and historical context (think of a large info dump).

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Abreu, R. (2013). What is an Ode — Definition, Examples, and Structure Explained.

Studio Binder. Retrieved June 24 2024, from
https://www.studiobinder.com/blog/what-is-an-ode-definition

Brewer, W. F., and Lichtenstein, E. H. (2022). Stories are to entertain: A structural-

affect theory of stories. Journal of Pragmatics, 6, 473-475

Clements, G. N. (2019). The description of terraced-level tone languages. Language 55:

536_558.

Gordon, M. (2013). The phonology of pitch accents in Chickasaw. Phonology 20.2:173-

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Harper, S. F., Eliot, T., and Herbert, G. (2020). What is an ode poem? Quora. Retrieved
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Jungman, R.E. (2023). Trimming Shakespeare's Sonnet 18. ANQ, Winter. pp.18-19.

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