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 CONTENTS

1. Evolution of Art and Culture..................1 6. Indian Music...........................................66

1.1.Ancient India (Prehistoric to 700 AD) ...............1 6.1.
Evolution ..................................................................... 66

1.2.
Medieval India (700 AD to 1857 AD)..................2 6.2.
Classical Music........................................................... 67

1.3.
Modern India (From 1857 AD)..............................2 6.3.
Regional Music of India ......................................... 70

2. Indian Architecture, Sculpture and 6.4.

Musical Instruments .............................................. 70

Pottery.......................................................4 6.5.
Music of Uttar Pradesh .......................................... 71

2.1.
Architecture in Ancient times................................4 7. Indian Puppetry.....................................76
2.2.
Medieval Architecture ........................................... 25 7.1.
Classification of Puppetry .................................... 76
2.3.
Modern Architecture .............................................. 31 7.2.
Puppetry in Uttar Pradesh ................................... 78

3. Indian Paintings.....................................35 8. Indian Theaters......................................79

3.1.
Evolution of Painting in India.............................. 35 8.1.
Traditional Theatre ................................................. 79
3.2.
Folk Paintings of India............................................ 40 8.2.
Theatre of Uttar Pradesh ...................................... 81

3.3.
Paintings of Uttar Pradesh.................................... 43 9. Religion in India....................................82
4. Indian Handicrafts.................................46 9.1.
Hinduism...................................................................... 82

4.1.
Evolution of Handicraft ......................................... 46 9.2.
Islamism....................................................................... 84

4.2.
Glassware .................................................................... 47 9.3.
Sikhism.......................................................................... 86

4.3.
Pottery and Clay ....................................................... 47 9.4.
Christians..................................................................... 86

4.4.
Ivory Crafting ............................................................ 47 9.5.
Zoroastrianism.......................................................... 87

4.5.
Bronze Craft ............................................................... 48 9.6.
Judaism......................................................................... 87

4.6.
Leather Products...................................................... 49 9.7.
Buddhism .................................................................... 88
4.7.
Wooden Work............................................................. 49 9.8.
Jainism........................................................................... 91
4.8.Handicrafts of Uttar Pradesh .............................. 50 9.9.
Bhaktism ..................................................................... 93

5. Indian Dance Forms..............................55 9.10.

Sufism............................................................................ 95

5.1.
Evolution in India .................................................... 55
9.11.
Religion of Uttar Pradesh ..................................... 96

5.2.
Classical Dance of India ........................................ 56 10. Calendar..................................................99
5.3.
Folk Dances of India ............................................... 62 10.1.
Indian Calendar Forms........................................... 99
5.4.
Folk Dances of Uttar Pradesh.............................. 63 10.2.
National Calendar of India ................................ 100
11. Indian Languages.................................101 16. Cultural Institution in India................132
11.1.
Classical Language of India .............................. 101 16.1.Major Cultural Institutions in India............... 132
11.2.
Languages of Uttar Pradesh.............................. 103 16.2.Famous Cultural Institutions of
Uttar Pradesh ......................................................... 135
12. Indian Literature..................................106
17. Awards and Honors..............................138
12.1.
Literature in Ancient times............................... 106
12.2.
Sanskrit Literature ............................................... 108 17.1.
Bharat Ratna ........................................................... 138

12.3.
Prakrit & Pali Literature .................................... 108 17.2.
Padma Awards........................................................ 140

12.4.
Literature of Uttar Pradesh............................... 110 17.3.
National Film Awards ......................................... 141

13. Indian School of Philosophy...............112 17.4.

The National Film Awards 2023..................... 141
17.5.
Sahitya Akademi Award...................................... 142
13.1.
Major Schools of Philosophy ........................... 112
17.6.
Jnanpith Award ...................................................... 142
14. Indian Cinema......................................114
17.7.
Saraswati Samman ............................................... 142
14.1.
Evolution in India ................................................. 114
17.8.
Awards in News...................................................... 142
14.2.
Cinema of Uttar Pradesh ................................... 115
18. UNESCO World Heritage Sites...........144
15. Fairs and Festivals of India..................117
18.1.
Cultural Heritage................................................... 144
15.1.
National Festivals of India................................. 117
18.2.
Natural Heritage.................................................... 144
15.2.
Hindu Festivals ...................................................... 119
15.3.
Muslims Festivals.................................................. 122
19. GI Tags..................................................147
15.4.
Sikh Festivals........................................................... 123 19.1.Important GI tags of India in News ............... 148
15.5.
Christian Festivals................................................. 123 19.2.
Recent GI Tags of Uttar Pradesh ..................... 150

15.6.
Buddhist and Jain Festivals............................... 124
15.7.Festival of North Eastern States ...............................124
15.8.
Secular Festivals..................................................... 125
15.9.
Festivals of Uttar Pradesh ................................. 127
19.3.
Other Important GI Tags of
Uttar Pradesh.............................................................152
20. Coins in India.......................................157
20.1.
Ancient India........................................................... 157

15.10.
Fairs of India............................................................ 128 20.2.
Medieval India........................................................ 158
15.11.
Fairs of Uttar Pradesh.......................................... 129 20.3.
Modern India........................................................... 158

vi UPPSC
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 1 Evolution of Art and Culture

Art and culture are interconnected aspects of human expression and creativity. Art can be a reflection of the culture it
emerges from, and it can also play a role in shaping and challenging cultural norms and values. Cultural elements, in turn,
can inspire and inform artistic expression.
Art is a form of human expression that encompasses various creative disciplines, including visual arts (painting, sculpture,
photography) , performing arts (dance, theater, music), literature, poetry, film, etc.

Culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, customs,
traditions, behaviors, and practices of a group of people,
whether that group is a society, community, nation,
or even a subculture within a larger society. Culture
encompasses various aspects of human life, including
language, religion, cuisine, clothing, art, music, dance,
rituals, social norms, and more. Culture evolves over
time (non-static) and can be influenced by historical,
geographical, social, and economic factors.
The evolution of art and culture in India is a rich
and complex journey that spans thousands of years. For
example, the Bhimbetka petroglyphs arts, which are
rock paintings found in central India and believed to be
at least 30,000 years old. These paintings depict a variety
of animals, humans, and hunting scenes. Overview of the
evolution of art and culture in India
1.1 ANCIENT INDIA (PREHISTORIC TO
700 AD)
Indus Valley Civilization: It flourished from around
3300 to 1300 BCE. The people of this civilization
produced a wide variety of art, including pottery,
jewelry, seals, and figurines. Their art is characterized
by its realism and attention to detail. After the decline
of the Indus Valley Civilization, there was a period of
artistic stagnation in India.
Vedic Period: Rigveda, the oldest sacred text, contains hymns that reflect early religious and cultural aspects.
Maurya and Gupta Empires: Flourishing art and architecture, including the famous Ashoka Pillars and the Ajanta
and Ellora caves. The Gupta period is considered to be the Golden Age of Indian art.

1.2 MEDIEVAL INDIA (700 AD TO 1857 AD)

Islamic Influence: The arrival of Islamic rulers led to a fusion of Indian and Islamic art and architecture, as seen
in the Taj Mahal and Mughal paintings. The Mughal style was particularly influential, and it spread to other parts
of Asia, such as Central Asia and Southeast Asia. The Mughals also patronized other forms of art, such as literature,
music, and architecture.
Bhakti and Sufi Movements: It was a movement of music and dance forms that influenced the religion and culture
of India.
South Indian Dynasties: Promoted Dravidian architecture and classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam.

1.3 MODERN INDIA (FROM 1857 AD)

India has one of the world’s largest collections of songs, music, dance, theatre, folk traditions, performing arts, rites
and rituals, paintings and writings that are known as the ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage’ (ICH) of humanity. In
order to preserve these elements, the Ministry of Culture implements a number of schemes and programs aimed
at providing financial support to individuals, groups and cultural organizations engaged in performing, visual and
literary arts etc.
This section offers comprehensive information related to cultural heritage, ancient monuments, literary arts, visual
arts, schemes, programmes, performing arts, fairs and festivals and handicraft of India.

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The evolution of art and culture in India reflects its
dynamic history, diverse traditions, and ability to adapt
and innovate while preserving its heritage.
v v v
UPPSC Evolution of Art and Culture
WALLAH
The art and culture in Uttar Pradesh since immemorial
time are painting, sculpturing, hand-crafting of designs
on metal, wood, ivory, stone and clay, music, dancing,
fair and festivals. For instance, the cave paintings of
Sonbhadra and Chitrakoot, painting in Mughal Era,
Chikankari craft, Zardozi embroidery, Gorakhpur
terracotta horse, Chunar black clay pottery, Kathak
dance, Dhrupad Music, Khayal Music, Thumari, Ghazal
singing, Kumbh and Ardh Kumbh Mela, Ramlila, Diwali,
Holi etc.
Together, art and culture are integral to the human
experience, serving as a means of self-expression,
communication, preservation of heritage, and exploration
of ideas. They enrich societies, contribute to individual
and collective identities, and provide a platform for
creativity and innovation.
Expected Question
1. How did Indian art and culture evolve? Discuss.
3
 Indian Architecture,
2 Sculpture and Pottery

Indian architecture, sculpture, and pottery are a
wonderful tapestry interlinked together by centuries of
rich cultural heritage and artistic expression. Stretching
back to antiquity, these art forms have not only reflected
the evolution of Indian society but have also left a
memorable mark on the global artistic landscape.
Indian architecture boasts a diverse range of styles
and structures that have flourished over millennia. The
design and construction of buildings are referred to
as architecture. In general, various materials, including
stone, wood, glass, metal, sand, etc., are mixed together.
Each structure reflects not only the aesthetic sensibilities
of its era but also the religious, cultural, and technological
advancements of the time.
Indian sculpture is a journey through time,
capturing the essence of spirituality and mythological
narratives. Sculptures are comparatively more compact
3-dimensional works of art. Typically; a single type of
material is used to create a single piece of sculpture. It
requires imagination and creativity and may not rely as
heavily on precise measurements.
Indian Pottery: The creativity and practical artistry of
the Indian people are showcased in their pottery. Pottery
is the art of creating vessels and other items out of clay
and other ceramic materials and then baking them at
high temperatures to give them a tough, long-lasting
shape. It tells the story of craftsmanship passed down
through generations and the integration of indigenous
techniques with external influences.

2.1 ARCHITECTURE IN ANCIENT TIMES

Harappan Art & Architecture

The arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation evolved during the second half of the third millennium BCE. The forms of art
found from various sites of the civilisation include sculptures, seals, pottery, jewelry, terracotta figures, etc. One
of the earliest examples of municipal planning may be seen in the towns of Harappa in the north and Mohenjodaro in
the south, which are the two principal sites of the Indus
Valley Civilization along the Indus river. Other landmarks
included buildings such as homes, marketplaces,
warehouses, offices, public restrooms, etc. that were
arranged in a grid-like layout. There was a sophisticated
drainage system as well. The significant archaeological
sites discovered in India include Lothal and Dholavira
in Gujarat, Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Ropar in Punjab,
and Kalibangan in Rajasthan, whereas Harappa and
Mohenjo Daro are located in Pakistan.
Town Planning in Harappan Civilization
z The main perspective behind the architecture of
Harappan Civilization is that of utilitarianism. They
were also one of the first to introduce separate
worker’s quarters. The cities in Harappan civilization
didn’t have the same town designs but most of the
buildings followed a similar pattern.
z Most of the building structures included defensive
wall, citadel and lower town, as well as alleys and
roadways, drainage and water management systems.
z The plan of the city was created by use of geometrical
tools and followed a certain pattern, the citadel being
located in the west of lower town, however in some
cities it was located in the south.
Mohenjodaro
Important features of town-planning in Harappan
Civilization are as follows:
z Grid Layout: Harappan cities were planned and
laid out on a grid system. Streets were organized
in a perpendicular pattern, creating neat blocks of
buildings. This urban planning demonstrates a high
level of architectural knowledge and systematic
organization.
z Well-Planned Cities: Harappan cities were well-
planned and built on a large scale. The urban centers
were strategically located near rivers, providing access
to water for agriculture, trade, and domestic use. Some
of the major Harappan cities include Mohenjo Daro,
Harappa, Lothal, and Dholavira.
z Uniformity of Architecture: The architecture in
Harappan cities exhibited a remarkable degree of
uniformity. The use of standardized bricks, with a
ratio of 1:2:4, allowed for consistent construction
UPPSC Indian Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery
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throughout the cities. This uniformity suggests a
centralized authority or a standardized building code.
z Defensive Walls: Harappan cities were fortified with
defensive walls made of mud bricks. These walls
served to protect the urban centers from potential
threats and indicate the need for security and defense
in the ancient urban environment.
Town
Town Planning
Planning in
in Indus
Indus Valley
Valley Civilization
Civilization
House of Common People
Grid pattern streets
Citadel
(on raised
platform)
Public Building
Market Areas Drainage
House of rulers System
Workshops
Gateway City walls
z Drainage Systems: One of the most remarkable
features of Harappan town-planning was the
advanced drainage system. The cities had well-
planned, covered drainage networks, which helped
prevent waterlogging during the monsoon season and
maintained a clean and hygienic living environment.
z Public Buildings: The Harappan cities featured
public buildings and structures. Some of the most
famous public structures include the Great Bath in
Mohenjo Daro, which was a large rectangular tank
possibly used for ritual bathing, and granaries for
storing grains.
z Residential Buildings: Houses in Harappan
cities were constructed with mud bricks and had
standardized layouts. They often featured multiple
rooms surrounding a central courtyard. Some houses
had staircases leading to upper levels, suggesting the
existence of multi-story buildings.
z Trade and Craft Centers: Harappan cities were
major centers of trade and craftsmanship. Evidence
of specialized craft workshops, such as pottery,
metalwork, and bead-making, has been found in these
cities.
z Pottery Kilns: The presence of pottery kilns in
Harappan towns indicates a well-developed pottery
industry, with mass production of standardized
pottery items.
z Planned Cemeteries: The Harappans had well-
organized cemeteries located outside the city walls,
reflecting their cultural practices and beliefs related
to burial customs.
5
 Alamgirpur
z Alamgirpur is an archaeological site of the Indus Valley civilization that thrived along Yamuna River (3300–1300
BC) from the Harappan-Bara period, located in Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is the easternmost site
of civilization.
z Archaeological investigations at Alamgirpur have revealed traces of an early farming community that predates the
full-fledged Harappan Civilization. These findings indicate that the area was inhabited by agricultural communities
before the rise of the Harappan cities.
z This site was also called Parasaram-ka-khera.
z A study has found that people who lived in the Indus Valley Civilisation in north west India had a high proportion
of meat in their diet, with cattle/buffalo being the most dominant.

Seals into other materials such as clay. The projections also

have a hole for thread, presumably so the seal can be
worn or carried as a necklace.

z These little artifacts were expertly carved from

stone, then burned to increase their durability. So far,
more than 3,500 seals have been located. The most
common Indus seal is square, with an animal in the
center, a collection of symbols at the top, and one or
more symbols at the bottom.
z Animals found on the seals include rhinoceros,
elephants, unicorns and bulls. On the back is a z The seals were employed to form clay tags for sacks
projection, probably to hold while pressing the seal of traded products like grain, as shown by the imprint

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 of fabric on the reverse of certain seal imprints, and
to seal the lids of jars made of soft clay.
z Indus Valley seals have been found as far a field as
Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) in the cities of
Umma and Ur, in Central Asia and on the coast of the
Arabian Peninsula.
z At the port of Lothal in western India, many seals have
been discovered. Mesopotamian weight discoveries
in Indus Valley settlements attest to trade between
these two civilizations.
z The Pashupati Seal of the Harappan civilization
from Mohenjo Daro is the most well-known seal. A
seal-shaped figure sits in the center, sitting cross-
legged, surrounded by several creatures, including
an elephant, a tiger, a rhino, and a buffalo to its right.
Terracotta
z Terracotta images were also created by the inhabitants
of the Indus Valley, but these were much more primitive
than the stone and bronze statues. In Kalibangan
and sites in Gujarat, they are more realistic. The Indus
sculptures that honor the mother goddess are the
most significant.
z There are also a few terracotta statues of bearded
men with coils in their hair, rigidly erect with their
legs slightly spaced apart, and parallel arms. This
person’s recurrence in the exact same place would
imply that he was a deity.
z Additionally, a terracotta mask of a god with horns
was discovered. In addition, toys featuring wheels,
whistles, rattles, birds, animals, game pieces, and discs
were created.
UPPSC Indian Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery
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z Clay was the earliest medium in which man began
to mould and we have discovered a large number of
terracotta figurines from these Indus Valley sites.
z The terracotta bull figure is a powerful portrayal that
forcefully declares the modeler who created the figure
took extra care to examine the animal’s anatomy. The
animal is seen standing with a string around its neck
and his head turned to the right.
Bronze Casting
z The bronze dancing girl of the same period discovered
at Mohenjodaro is perhaps the greatest surviving
achievement of the metal work of the Harappan age.
This world-famous figure shows a female dancing
figure standing as if relaxing after a dance number,
with her right hand on her hip and the left dangling
free.
z She wears a large number of bangles, probably made
of bone or ivory on her left arm together with a couple
of pairs on her right arm.
z The statuette is a great masterpiece of the art of
the metal craftsman of the period who knew the art
of bronze casting in the cire perdue or lost-wax
process.
Pottery
z Both plain pottery and painted pottery can be
generally categorized among the ceramics found at
the excavation sites.
z Because the glossy black paint was used to depict
patterns and figures on the red backdrop, the painted
pottery is also known as Red and Black pottery. The
paintings frequently featured geometric patterns,
trees, birds, and animal characters.
7
z A significant amount of pottery that was unearthed z Hoards of jewelry found at Mohenjodaro and Lothal
from the sites allows us to comprehend the gradual include necklaces of gold and semi-precious stones,
growth of distinct design motifs as they were used in copper bracelets and beads, gold earrings and head
varied shapes and styles. ornaments, faience pendants and buttons, and
z Few hand-made pieces make up the majority of the beads of steatite and gemstones. All ornaments are
really beautiful wheel-made items found in the
well crafted. It may be noted that a cemetery has been
Indus Valley. More people use plain pottery than
found at Farmana in Haryana where dead bodies were
painted pottery. In general, plain pottery is made of
buried with ornaments.
red clay and may or may not have a fine red or grey
slip. It comprises items with knobs on them that are Mauryan Art & Architecture
embellished.
During the Mauryan era, the emperors were primarily
Ornaments responsible for establishing architecture and art. These
z Additionally, the Harappan people created exquisitely were referred to as “court arts,” which denotes art found
realistic replicas of animals, particularly monkeys and in the king’s court. Additionally, the common people of
squirrels, which were used as pinheads and beads. the realm were engaged in producing popular or folk
z The factories found at Chanhudaro and Lothal are arts. These art forms included sculptures, pottery, and
proof that the bead business was well established. cave paintings.
Carnelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, jasper, crystal,
quartz, steatite, turquoise, and other materials were
used to make beads. Beads have also been produced
from terracotta, burnt clay, shell, bronze, gold, and
faience metals.
z The beads come in a variety of forms, including
segmented, disc-shaped, spherical, and cylindrical.
Some beads were made of stone with gold coverings,
while others were constructed of two or more stones
Palaces
bonded together. Some had designs etched into them,
while others had designs carved, painted, or incised
into them. These were created with a high level of
technical competence.
z The Harappan men and women decorated themselves
with a large variety of ornaments produced from 1. Palaces
every conceivable material ranging from precious
The primary forms of court art were pillars, stupas,
metals and gemstones to bone and baked clay.
and palaces. There are renowned Mauryan palaces
While necklaces, filets, armlets and finger-rings were
commonly worn by both sexes, women wore girdles, in Kumrahar, which is in the contemporary Patna.
earrings and anklets. Wood was largely used in the construction of Mauryan
palaces, such as those built by Chandragupta Maurya
and Ashoka.

2. Stupa and Chaitya

During this time, two religions experienced rapid
growth: Buddhism and Jainism. During this time,
the viharas, chaityas, and stupas were constructed.
Modern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Bihar, and Nepal are the primary locations of such
stupas. Famous stupas constructed during Ashoka’s
rule include the Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh
and the Sarnath stupa close to Varanasi, Uttar
Pradesh.

8 Art and Culture UPPSC

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Sanchi Stupa near the city of Varanasi in the northern Indian state
of Uttar Pradesh.

z The Sanchi Stupa, also known as the Great Stupa at

Sanchi, is a renowned Buddhist monument located in
Sanchi, a small town in the Indian state of Madhya
Pradesh. It is one of the oldest and most important
stupas in India and holds great significance in the
history of Buddhism and Indian architecture.
z The stupa is a remarkable example of early Buddhist
architecture. It is primarily made of stone and follows
z Sarnath is the place where Lord Buddha is believed
the hemispherical dome shape characteristic of
to have delivered his first sermon, known as the
stupas. The structure features intricate gateways,
“Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta’’ or the “Turning
railings, and sculptures.
of the Wheel of Dharma.” This event is often referred
z The central stupa at Sanchi is one of the largest in
to as the “Dharmachakra Pravartana,” and it marks
India, with a diameter of approximately 36 meters
the beginning of Buddha’s teaching and the spread of
(120 feet) and a height of about 16.5 meters (54
Buddhism.
feet). It originally housed the relics of Buddha and
was constructed over them. z The Sarnath Stupa follows the hemispherical dome
shape typical of Buddhist stupas. It is made of brick
z The Sanchi Stupa complex was designated as a UNESCO
World Heritage Site in 1989 for its historical and and stone and stands at a height of approximately
architectural significance. It is considered one of the 43.6 meters (143 feet) with a diameter of about
most important Buddhist sites in India. 28 meters (92 feet).
z Sarnath, including the Dhamek Stupa, is part of the
Sarnath Stupa “Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi” UNESCO World
z Sarnath Stupa, also known as Dhamek Stupa, is a Heritage Site. It was designated as a World Heritage
significant Buddhist monument located in Sarnath, Site in 1989 for its historical and cultural significance.
Chatiyas and Vihar, two different kinds of rock cut caves, were also developed at Buddhist time.

Ajanta-Ellora, Kanheri, Viharas were dwelling The places of worship

Karle, Bhaja, Barabar, places used by and assembly
Elephanta, Udayagiri wandering monks of the monks.
during the rainy
season.

3. Pillars
The pillars have three distinct parts: a shaft, an abacus, and a capital. The abacus lies on the inverted designed
lotus shape in some pillars. Mainly animals are seen on the capital of the pillars. During Ashoka’s reign, Sarnath
Lion Capital was built to honor the Dharmachakrapravartana. The capital of the pillar consists of four lions. The
chakra in the pillar is the Emblem of Dhamma Chakra in Buddhism.

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 Seven Pillar Edicts: The seven pillar edicts of
Mauryan emperor Ashoka can be found in a number
of locations, such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, and
Bihar. Inscriptions concerning the kingdom’s citizens’
protection can be seen on the first pillar decree.
Dhamma is the subject of the second. The third talks
about shunning vices like rage, arrogance, and pride.
The fourth shows Rajukas’ responsibilities. The
sixth emphasizes the importance of not sacrificing
animals in ceremonies and of protecting them.
His Dhamma policy is covered in the sixth edict.
Ashoka’s tolerance for all sects and beliefs can be
shown in his seventh edict.
Ashoka Pillar (Lion Capital of Ashoka)
z The Pillars of Ashoka are free-standing and made
of Chunar sandstone, a famous landmark of Indian
architecture. The Lion Capital of Ashoka is the
capital or head of a pillar erected by the Maurya
emperor Ashoka at Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh. Four
life-size lions are set one after the other on a drum-
shaped abacus. The edge of the abacus is decorated
with raised wheels. Sculptures of animals like lions
and bulls add to the beauty of these pillars. At its
base is a bell-shaped lotus.
z The entire column is 2.1 m (7 ft) tall, carved from
a single block of sandstone and highly polished,
secured to its monolithic column by a metal dowel.
It commemorates the first sermon of Gautam
Buddha.
z It was excavated by the Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) in the early 20th century. F. O. Oertel
carried out the excavations in 1904–1905.
z It was broken during the Turk invasions. But the
base of the pillar still stands at its original location.
z The Lion Capital of Ashoka is the National
Emblem.
10
Major and Minor Pillar Inscriptions: Major pillar
inscriptions of Ashoka are found in the Sarnath
Lion capital, Vaishali pillar, Allahabad pillar, Lauriya
Nandangarh pillar, and Lauriya Araraj pillar. Minor
pillar inscriptions are found in Sanchi, Allahabad,
Sarnath, Nigali Sagar, and Rummindei. The language
of inscriptions was in Prakrit. There are instances of
Brahmi scripts here. The primary purpose of producing
inscriptions was to spread the message of Dhamma.
Edict inscriptions & their details
z Rock edict I: Prohibition of animal sacrifice,
especially during festive seasons.
z Rock Edict IV: Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma/
righteousness) over Bherighosha (sound of war).
z Rock Edict V: Dhamma Mahamatras
z Rock Edict VII: Tolerance towards religions among
all sects and welfare measures for the public in his
as well as his neighboring kingdoms.
z Rock Edict VIII: Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya
and the Bodhi tree (his first Dhamma Yatra). Gave
importance to Dhamma tours.
z Rock Edict XIII: Mentions Kalinga Victory.
z Rock Edict XIV: Purpose of rock edicts.
4. Sculptures
Sculptures were largely employed as religious
expression, as well as to decorate stupas, toranas, and
medhis. Yakshi and Yaksha statues are two of the
most well-known pieces from the Mauryan era.
They served as religious shrines for the three major
world religions – Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
In a Tamil literature called Silappadikaram, yakshi
is first mentioned. Similar to this, every Yakshi was
connected to a Jain tirthankar.
5. Pottery and Cave Art
The majority of the Mauryan-era pottery that has
been discovered comes from northern Indian cities
like Patliputra. Northern Black Polished Ware is
the name given to the glossy black pottery.
Art and Culture UPPSC
WALLAH
 Examples of cave art and architecture from the
Gandhara School of Art Mathura School of Art
Mauryan era can be seen in caves like Nagarjuna
Cave and Barabar Hill Cave. The decorating of The expression of Mathura Buddha is
the entrance is what makes Lomas Rishi Cave in calmness is the centre delighted in mood, seated
the Barabar Hills of Bihar so well-known. These point of attraction of in Padmasana and right
caverns were typically utilized by Jain and Buddhist Gandhar Buddha. hand in Abhyamudra and
monks as viharas, or residential quarters, during the left hand on left thigh
Mauryan era. showing masculinity.
6. Terracotta Representations In Gandhara images, In The Mathura tradition,
The Mauryan era saw a flourishing of terracotta eyes are longer; ear Buddha images have
art. From Bulandibagh, several terracotta statues lobes shorter and noses longer ear lobes, thicker
and sculptures were recovered. Here, a sculpture sharper and better lips, wider eyes and
of a lady dancing was discovered. More terracotta defined. prominent noses.
sculptures were also discovered in Patliputra and
This school uses grey This school used red
Taxila. Greek culture has been included into the
sandstone, stucco (lime stone for making the
clay art’s aesthetic. Common terracotta creations
plaster). sculptures.
included structures, toys, and ornamentation.

Significance of Lion and Bull in Art & Culture: It was a fusion of Greco- It was inspired by the
z Mythology: Lion is the vehicle of mother Goddess Roman/Hellenisitc and early Indian Buddhist
Indian styles. arts of Bharhut and
Durga which represents power. In Indian mythology,
Sanchi of MP.
the lion is associated with power, strength, and
royalty. It is often considered the king of the jungle It flourished from about The origin has been
the middle of the first traced back to the middle
and symbolizes the qualities of leadership, courage,
century BC to about the of the school century BC,
and authority. In Hindu mythology, the lion is the fifth century AD in the but it was only in the
vahana (vehicle) of the goddess Durga, representing Gandhara region (north- first century AD that its
her formidable and fearless nature. Bull represents western India). genuine progress began.
the symbol of giving joy of Hindu God Shiva. The
bull is regarded as a symbol of fertility, virility, and
abundance in Indian mythology. It represents the The Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian
natural power and strength of animals and the elements in Gandhara Art
forces of nature. Gandhara art, which flourished in the region of
z Art: Lion is the adoption of Sarnath capital of Gandhara (present-day northern Pakistan and
eastern Afghanistan) from the 1st century BCE to
Ashoka where bull depicts the sign of Taurus
the 5th century CE, is known for its unique fusion
and Lion depicts the Enlightenment. In Indian art
of Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements. This
and architecture, bull figures are frequently used distinctive art style emerged due to the cultural
as decorative motifs on pillars, walls, and other interactions between the local Gandharan people
architectural elements in temples and palaces. and the Hellenistic influences brought about by
Alexander the Great’s conquests and subsequent
Post Mauryan Art & Architecture Greco-Bactrian rule in the region.

Gandhara School of Art
It is a style of Buddhist
visual art.
It has Hellenistic features
of the Buddha image.
Mathura School of Art
It deals with subjects from
Hinduism (both Vaishnav
and Shavite images) and
Jainism as well.
The Buddha image at
Mathura is modeled on
the lines of earlier Yaksha
images.
1. Iconography and Subject Matter:
z Gandhara art borrowed iconography from both
Hellenistic and Indian traditions. Greek mythological
figures and deities, such as Herakles (Hercules) and
Dionysus, were depicted alongside Indian gods and
goddesses like Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
z Bodhisattvas, in particular, often exhibit a Hellenistic-
inspired contrapposto pose, where the body weight is
asymmetrically distributed, creating a more natural
and lifelike stance, reminiscent of Greek statuary.

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 Empire. The art and architecture of the Gupta Dynasty
2. Artistic Style: can be classified as follows:
z Gandhara sculptures combine Indian elements,
such as drapery and hairstyles, with the naturalistic Architecture
and realistic techniques of Hellenistic art.
The curves of this particular stupa also clear one more
z The statues often display idealized human forms,
point that the Indians were well acquainted with the art
with well-defined musculature, realistic facial
features, and intricate detailing of garments. of arch-making. The artifacts of the “Dhameka Stupa”
are truly an expression of the Gupta architecture.
3. Use of Materials: Apart from this, there were also several Buddhist, Jains
z Gandhara art used the gray-blue mica schist as well as Brahmin sects which were another important
stone, which was readily available in the region. aspect of the Gupta Empire.
This stone closely resembles the marble commonly
used in Hellenistic sculptures, further contributing
to the Greco-Bactrian influence.
4. Architectural Elements:
z Greco-Bactrian architectural elements, such as
Corinthian columns and Greek-style pilasters,
were incorporated into the facades of Gandhara
Buddhist stupas and monastic complexes.
5. Narrative Panels:
z Gandhara art employed narrative panels to
depict scenes from the life of Buddha, Jataka
tales (stories of Buddha’s previous lives), and Ajanta, Ellora and the Bagh cave paintings indicate a
Buddhist legends. These panels were often carved Buddhist philosophy which gained immense popularity
in relief and featured Hellenistic compositional during the reign of this empire. Interestingly, out of so
techniques. many cave paintings which were so created during this
period, each is drastically different from one another,
6. Lotus Motif: though all of them maintain the same level of elegance.
z The Hellenistic “acanthus leaf ” motif was
adapted in Gandhara art to represent the lotus Ajanta Cave: The first caves at Ajanta were made
flower, a symbol of purity and enlightenment in sometime between the 2nd century BCE and 1st century
Buddhism. CE. The Early caves at Ajanta were made through
Gandhara art’s unique blend of Central Asian donations made by upāsakas or laity, monks, traders
and Greco-Bactrian elements became a defining and ordinary people. In this Early period, we find two
characteristic of the region’s Buddhist art, chaityagṛha’s or congregation halls where worshippers
influencing artistic traditions beyond Gandhara. assembled. During this period, upāsaya or dwellings
The synthesis of these diverse cultural influences with avarakas or cells were also created. Commonly
contributed to the establishment of a new art form known as vihāras, the monks resided in three such caves
that played a crucial role in the dissemination of (12, 13 and 15A).
Buddhist iconography and ideas across the ancient
Silk Road trade routes.

Gupta Art & Architecture

Gupta Empire Art and Architecture bloomed during the
Gupta dynasty. As a matter of fact, one of the similarities
between the Mauryan Empire and Gupta Empire was that
the rulers of both these dynasties were royal patrons
of different kinds of art. During the Gupta Empire, art
reached its peak and hence this period was also referred
to as the “Golden Age.”
Ellora Caves: These 34 monasteries and temples,
This artistic wealth was responsible for bringing about extending over more than 2 km, were dug side by side in
a cultural resurgence. The art of this period was a the wall of a high basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad,
beautiful blend of the earlier art as well as of a new style in Maharashtra. Ellora, with its uninterrupted sequence
and technique which subsequently developed under this of monuments dating from A.D. 600 to 1000, brings

12 Art and Culture UPPSC

WALLAH
civilization to ancient Indian people. With its shrines
Dravidian Style Nagara Style
dedicated to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, the
Ellora complex is not only a singular creative and Temples in Southern Temples in Northern India
technological achievement but also exemplifies the India are classified as are classified as Nagara
attitude of tolerance that was typical of ancient India. Dravidian Style Style.

The Gupta age saw a decline in the development of stupas. The Dravidian style has
However, the Dhamek stupa at Sarnath near Varanasi is a a single Shikhara.
fine example of stupa developed during this period. In Dravidian Style,
there is a single tower.
Temple Architecture
Temple architecture is a specialized form of architectural In Dravidian Style,
design and construction that is primarily associated with the Central Tower is
shaped like a Pyramid.
religious structures dedicated to worship, meditation, and
religious ceremonies. It is a diverse and fascinating field In Dravidian Style, the
of architecture with variations across different cultures, most important element
regions, and time periods. is the Gopuram.
In Dravidian Style,
the entrance has
Dwarapalas.
In Dravidian Style,
deities are outside.
Nagara Style has multiple
Shikharas.
In Nagara Style, there are
multiple towers.
In Nagara Style, the Central
Tower is Curvilinear in
shape.
In Nagara style, the most
important element is the
Shikhara.
In Nagara Style, the entrance
of Sanctum Sanctorum;
Ganga and Yamuna rivers are
depicted in personified form.
In Nagara Style, deities are
inside.

The Nagara or North Indian Temple Style

Cave temples were replaced by structural temples for the
purpose of idol worship. The various temple architecture
motifs demonstrate the Gupta Empire’s aesthetic
excellence. The later Dynasties used these temple
designs as a model for their own creations. The temple of
Dashavatar in Deogarh, for example, is an absolute joy
with exquisite carvings and panel constructions.
The Nagara style, also known as the North Indian temple
style, is one of the major architectural styles used in the
construction of Hindu temples in the northern regions
of India. It is characterized by its distinctive tower-like
spires called “shikharas” and is prevalent in states like
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and
other parts of North India. The Nagara style of temple
architecture developed and evolved between the 5th and
12th centuries CE.

SHIKHARA (peak)

GOPURAM (dome)

PEDIMENT VIMANA (tower)

STAMBHA

GRABHAGRIHA
(Sanctum Sanctorum)
BRACKET

MANDAPA
PILASTER

TORANA
(hollway)
NICHE

ADHISHTHANA (base)

Key features of the Nagara or North Indian temple style:

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z Shikhara: The most prominent feature of the Nagara z Lattice Windows: The walls of Nagara temples often
style is the shikhara, a curvilinear tower that rises feature intricately carved lattice windows, known
above the sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) of the as “jalis,” which allow light and air to enter while
temple. The shikhara is often pyramid-shaped and maintaining privacy.
can be made of stone or brick, covered with intricate
carvings and sculptures.
z Mandapa: The temple typically consists of multiple
sections, including the mandapa (hall) that serves
as a gathering space for devotees. The mandapa
is supported by pillars and is often decorated with
intricate sculptures.
z Sanctum Sanctorum: The garbhagriha, or innermost
sanctum, houses the main deity of the temple. It is
usually a small, windowless chamber, emphasizing the
focus on the central deity.
z Amalaka: At the very top of the shikhara, there
is a circular stone disk called the amalaka. It acts z Rectangular Plan: Nagara temples often follow a
as a crowning element and is often adorned with rectangular plan, with the main entrance on the
decorative motifs. eastern side, facing the rising sun.
z Ornaments and Carvings: Nagara temples are known z Regional Variations: While the basic features of
for their elaborate and intricate carvings, both inside the Nagara style are consistent, there are regional
and outside the temple. These carvings typically depict variations in the architecture, particularly in the
various deities, celestial beings, mythical creatures, designs of the shikhara and the arrangement of
and scenes from Hindu epics. subsidiary shrines and mandapas.

Schools of Nagara Style

Odisha School
The Odisha school of Nagara style of temple is one of the three major schools of Nagara architecture, the other
two being the Gujarat and the Rajasthan schools. It is characterized by its tall, curvilinear shikharas (towers),
which are topped by a finial called the kalasha. The shikharas are divided into a number of tiers, each of which is
decorated with intricate carvings. The exterior walls of the temples are also richly decorated with sculptures of
gods, goddesses, animals, and other mythological figures.
Here are some of the key features of the Odisha school of Nagara style temples:
z Shikhara: The shikhara is the most prominent feature of an Odisha temple. It is a tall, curvilinear tower that is
topped by a finial called the kalasha. The shikhara is divided into a number of tiers, each of which is decorated
with intricate carvings.

Amalaka Kalasha -Architecture of the Khajuraho temples-

(example of Kandariya Mahadeva temple)
Sikhara Urushringa
(tower) (Subsidiary sikhara)

Antarala
(Vestibule)
Garba griha (Shrine,
inside the sikhara) Maha mandapa
(Great hall)

Mandapa
(Hall)
Pradakshina
(circumambulation)
Ardha mandapa
(Entrance porch)

Jagati
(platform) East

Adhisthana
(base platform)

Transepts

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z Plan: Odisha temples are typically square or
rectangular in plan. They have a central sanctum
sanctorum (garbhagriha) that houses the image of
the deity. The sanctum sanctorum is surrounded by
a number of smaller shrines.
z Exterior: The exterior walls of Odisha temples
are richly decorated with sculptures of gods,
goddesses, animals, and other mythological figures.
The sculptures are typically carved in high relief
and are very detailed.
z Interior: The interior of Odisha temples is typically
plain. The walls are often whitewashed or painted.
There are no pillars in the interior, as the roof is
supported by beams.
z Boundary wall: Odisha temples are typically
enclosed by a boundary wall. The boundary wall is
often decorated with sculptures.
Some of the most famous examples of the Odisha
school of Nagara style temples include:
z Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar
z Jagannath Temple in Puri
z Sun Temple in Konark
Khajuraho School of Nagara Style
The Khajuraho school of Nagara style is one of the
three major schools of Nagara architecture, the
other two being the Odisha and the Rajasthan schools.
It is characterized by its tall, curvilinear shikharas
(towers) , which are topped by a finial called the
kalasha. The shikharas are divided into a number
of tiers, each of which is decorated with intricate
carvings. The exterior walls of the temples are also
richly decorated with sculptures of gods, goddesses,
animals, and other mythological figures.
Here are some of the key features of the Khajuraho
school of Nagara style temples:
z Shikhara: The shikhara is the most prominent
feature of a Khajuraho temple. It is a tall, curvilinear
tower that is topped by a finial called the kalasha.
The shikhara is divided into a number of tiers, each
of which is decorated with intricate carvings.
UPPSC Indian Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery
WALLAH
z Plan: Khajuraho temples are typically square or
rectangular in plan. They have a central sanctum
sanctorum (garbhagriha) that houses the image
of the deity. The sanctum sanctorum is surrounded
by a number of smaller shrines.
z Exterior: The exterior walls of Khajuraho temples
are richly decorated with sculptures of gods,
goddesses, animals, and other mythological figures.
The sculptures are typically carved in high relief
and are very detailed.
z Interior: The interior of Khajuraho temples is
typically plain. The walls are often whitewashed or
painted. There are no pillars in the interior, as the
roof is supported by beams.
z Boundary wall: Khajuraho temples are typically
enclosed by a boundary wall. The boundary wall is
often decorated with sculptures.
Some of the most famous examples of the Khajuraho
school of Nagara style temples include:
z Lakshmana Temple
z Vishwanath Temple
z Chitragupta Temple
Solanki School of Nagara Style
The Solanki school is a sub-school of the Nagara style
of temple architecture that developed in western
India, particularly in Gujarat and Rajasthan, during
the 10th to 13th centuries CE. It is characterized by its
tall, curvilinear shikharas (towers) , which are topped
by a finial called the kalasha. The shikharas are divided
into a number of tiers, each of which is decorated with
intricate carvings. The exterior walls of the temples are
also richly decorated with sculptures of gods, goddesses,
animals, and other mythological figures.
Here are some of the key features of the Solanki
school of Nagara style temples:
z Shikhara: The shikhara is the most prominent
feature of a Solanki temple. It is a tall, curvilinear
tower that is topped by a finial called the kalasha.
The shikhara is divided into a number of tiers, each
of which is decorated with intricate carvings.
15
z Plan: Solanki temples are typically square or
rectangular in plan. They have a central sanctum
sanctorum (garbhagriha) that houses the image of
the deity. The sanctum sanctorum is surrounded by
a number of smaller shrines.
z Exterior: The exterior walls of Solanki temples
are richly decorated with sculptures of gods,
goddesses, animals, and other mythological figures.
The sculptures are typically carved in high relief
and are very detailed.
z Interior: The interior of Solanki temples is typically
plain. The walls are often whitewashed or painted.
There are no pillars in the interior, as the roof is
supported by beams.
z Boundary wall: Solanki temples are typically
enclosed by a boundary wall. The boundary wall is
often decorated with sculptures.
Some of the most famous examples of the Solanki
school of Nagara style temples include:
z Sun Temple at Modhera
z Dilwara Jain Temples
z Jain Temple at Mount Abu
Odisha governor Ganeshi Lal has suggested that foreigners
should be allowed to enter the world-famous Jagannath
temple in Puri, causing debate and controversy.
Servitors and researchers of Jagannath culture oppose
the suggestion, saying temple traditions and practices
should not be broken.
About Jagannath Temple:
z The Jagannath Temple is one of the four dhams
(char dham) where Lord Jagannath, a form of Lord
Vishnu, is worshiped there with His elder brother
Lord Balabhadra and sister Devi Subhadra
 The Other three are (Dwarika, Badrinath &
Rameswar).
z Only Hindus are allowed inside the shrine to offer
prayers to the sibling deities
z The main entrance of the temple is known as the
Lion’s Gate, and a sign there states: “only Hindus
are allowed”
z Main temple is constructed in Kalinga architecture
in such a way that no shadow of the temple falls.
12 Jyotirlingas in India
(Dedicated to Lord Shiva)
The Jyotirlingam Temple of Parali Vaijnath also called
Vaidyanath and it was renovated by Rani Ahilyabai Holkar.
The temple is built on a hill using stones. Temple is
approximately at a height of 75-80 feet from ground level.
The main entrance is from the East and the magnificent door
present there is brass plated. Surrounded by four strong
walls, the temple consists of corridors and a courtyard.
16
z Somnath (Gujarat): Located in Prabhas Patan near
Veraval in Saurashtra, Gujarat, the Somnath Temple
is one of the most revered shrines dedicated to
Lord Shiva It is believed to be the first among the
12 Jyotirlingas.
z Mallikarjuna (Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh):
Mallikarjuna Temple is situated on the Srisailam
Hill in Andhra Pradesh. It is one of the holiest sites
for Lord Shiva devotees.
z Mahakaleshwar (Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh): The
Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga is located in Ujjain,
Madhya Pradesh, and is known for its unique idol
of Lord Shiva, which faces south.
z Omkareshwar (Khandwa district, Madhya
Pradesh): Omkareshwar is situated on an island in
the Narmada River and is known for its distinctive
“Om” shape, which is formed by the confluence of
the Narmada and Kaveri rivers.
z Kedarnath (Uttarakhand): Kedarnath Temple
is located in the Garhwal Himalayas and is a
significant pilgrimage site for Shiva devotees. It is
one of the Chota Char Dham sites.
z Bhimashankar (Pune, Maharashtra): The
Bhimashankar Jyotirlinga is located in the
Sahyadri Range of the Western Ghats, near Pune
in Maharashtra.
z Kashi Vishwanath (Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh):
Kashi Vishwanath Temple, also known as the
Golden Temple, is one of the most famous temples
in Varanasi and a revered Jyotirlinga.
z Trimbakeshwar (Nashik, Maharashtra):
Trimbakeshwar Temple is located near Nashik in
Maharashtra and is known for the source of the
Godavari River. It is one of the 12 Jyotirlingas.
z Vaidyanath (Deoghar, Jharkhand): The
Vaidyanath Temple, also known as Vaijnath, is
located in Deoghar, Jharkhand. It is an important
pilgrimage site for Shiva devotees.
z Nageshwar (Dwarka, Gujarat): Nageshwar
Jyotirlinga is situated near Dwarka in Gujarat
and is known for its significance in Hindu
mythology.
z Rameshwar (Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu):
Ramanathaswamy Temple in Rameswaram, Tamil
Nadu, is one of the 12 Jyotirlingas and an important
pilgrimage site in South India.
z Grishneshwar (Ellora, Maharashtra):
Grishneshwar Temple is located near the
Ellora Caves in Maharashtra. It is the last of the
12 Jyotirlingas on the list.
Art and Culture UPPSC
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 numerous Jain temples with distinct Dravidian
architecture. These temples were characterized by their
Recently, Arvind Chhirauliya, director of
tall and ornate gopurams (entrance towers) and detailed
Uttar Pradesh Social Organization Kalinjar sculptural work. The Jain temples at Shravanabelagola
Research Institute, said that ancient idols of
Shivalinga, Ganesh, Lord Vishnu, Mother and Moodabidri are noteworthy examples from this era.
Lakshmi and many gods and goddesses have
been found from the wall of Koti Tirtha
Sarovar of historic Kalinjar Fort in Banda
Modern Period (18th Century - Present)
district of the state. During the British colonial period and in modern times,
Jain temple architecture continued to evolve. While
many traditional architectural styles were maintained,
newer temples were constructed with a blend of
Jain Temple Architecture modern techniques and designs. The architecture of
Early Period (6th Century BCE - 4th Century CE) Jain temples has diversified, and different regions in
India now have their unique styles, influenced by local
The earliest phase of Jain temple architecture coincides
culture and materials.
with the founding of Jainism itself in the 6th century BCE.
During this time, Jain monks and followers practiced in Jain Temples Location
simple caves and rock shelters. These caves served as
places of meditation, worship, and shelter. The most Ranakpur Jain Temple Rajasthan
famous examples of such early Jain cave temples are found
Gomateshwara Temple Karnataka
in places like Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Odisha.
Dilwara Temple Rajasthan
Gupta Period (4th - 6th Century CE)
The Gupta dynasty, known for its patronage of art and Sri Digambar Temple Delhi
architecture, played a significant role in the development
Palitana Temple Gujarat
of Jain temples. It was during this period that structural
temples dedicated solely to Jain deities began to emerge. Sonagiri Temple Madhya Pradesh
These temples were constructed using stone and were
characterized by intricate carvings and sculptures. Kulpakji Temple Telangana
The Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu, Rajasthan, are Dharmanath Temple Kerala
excellent examples of Jain temples from the Gupta era.
Shikharji Temple Jharkhand
Medieval Period (7th - 16th Century CE)
During the medieval period, Jain temple architecture Hanumantal Bada Jain Temple Madhya Pradesh
saw further advancements and variations. The Western Parshvanatha Temple Madhya Pradesh
Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, and Hoysalas were some of the
prominent dynasties that patronized Jainism and built Saavira Kambada Temple Karnataka
impressive temples. These structures featured intricate
Badami Cave Temple Karnataka
carvings depicting Jain religious themes, Tirthankaras
(spiritual teachers), and other divine beings. The Jain Ellora Jain Caves Maharashtra
temples at Ellora Caves and Shravanabelagola are
notable examples from this era. Navagraha Temple Karnataka

Solanki and Chalukya Period (10th - 13th Bawangaja Temple Madhya Pradesh
Century CE) Girnar Temple Gujarat
The Solanki and Chalukya dynasties contributed
Sri Humcha Temple Karnataka
significantly to the development of Jain temple
architecture in western India. Temples from this period
often featured elaborate spires, intricate sculptures,
Buddhism Temple Architecture
and detailed carvings. The Ranakpur Jain Temple in Early Buddhist Architecture (3rd Century
Rajasthan, built during the reign of Maharana Kumbha,
is a masterpiece of Solanki architecture. BCE - 1st Century CE)
The earliest Buddhist architecture in India was associated
Vijayanagara Period (14th - 17th Century CE) with the Maurya dynasty, particularly during the reign
The Vijayanagara Empire in southern India was of Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE). Ashoka was a
another significant patron of Jainism. They constructed significant patron of Buddhism, and he commissioned

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the construction of numerous stupas and pillars across
the Indian subcontinent. Stupas were solid, dome-
shaped structures built to enshrine relics of the Buddha
or important Buddhist monks. Sanchi Stupa in Madhya
Pradesh is one of the most well-preserved examples of
early Buddhist architecture.
Hinayana Period (1st Century BCE - 1st Century CE)
During this period, there was a transition from early
stupas to the construction of cave temples. These caves
were used as places of meditation, worship, and monastic
residence for Buddhist monks. Some of the finest examples
of Hinayana cave temples can be found in Ajanta and
Ellora in Maharashtra. The Ajanta Caves, dating back to
the 2nd century BCE and 5th century CE, are renowned
for their exquisite paintings and sculptures that depict
scenes from the life of Buddha and Buddhist legends.
Mahayana Period (2nd Century
CE - 12th Century CE)
With the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the focus shifted from
stupas to the construction of large monastic complexes
and rock-cut cave temples. The Mahayana period
witnessed the development of grand viharas (monasteries)
and chaityas (prayer halls) that often included intricately
carved facades and decorative elements. The Ellora Caves,
especially the Kailash Temple, are outstanding examples of
Mahayana Buddhist temple architecture, showcasing the
grandeur and complexity of these structures.
Gupta Period (4th - 6th Century CE)
The Gupta dynasty, known as the Golden Age of India,
was marked by significant achievements in art, culture,
and architecture. During this period, Buddhist temples
continued to flourish. The Nalanda University, a renowned
Buddhist institution, was also founded during the Gupta
era. While many of the Gupta-era structures have been lost
to time, the remnants at Sarnath and Sanchi bear testimony
to the architectural achievements of that period.
Medieval Period (7th - 12th Century CE)
During the medieval period, as Buddhism started to
decline in India, many Buddhist monuments fell into
disrepair. However, in certain regions, such as eastern
India, Buddhism continued to thrive, and new temples
and monasteries were constructed. The Pala dynasty in
Bengal and Bihar played a significant role in reviving
Buddhist art and architecture. The Mahabodhi Temple
in Bodh Gaya, constructed during this time, is one of the
most important Buddhist pilgrimage sites.
Revival in Modern Times (19th Century CE - Present)
In the 19th and 20th centuries, with the resurgence of
interest in Buddhism in India and around the world,
efforts were made to restore and preserve ancient
Buddhist sites and temples. Many Buddhist monasteries
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and stupas were rebuilt or renovated, particularly in
regions like Ladakh and Sikkim. Additionally, new
Buddhist monasteries and temples were established to
accommodate the growing Buddhist community.
Buddhist Pilgrimage sites in India with their
significance
Places & its Significance
Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh
z It is the site of Gautam Buddha’s first sermon, where
he taught the four noble truths and the eightfold
path known as Dhamma, and a monastic society
known as Sangha.
z The Ashok Pillar and the Indian National Emblem
are two additional sights.
Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh
z Buddhism was accepted in Bharhut until the 12th century.
z Around 1100 AD, a small Buddhist temple was
expanded and a new statue of Budhha was placed.
Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar
z This Temple Complex is one of the four sacred
locations associated with the life of the Lord
Buddha, particularly his enlightenment (Bodhi).
 Lumbini (Birth) in Nepal,
 Sarnath (Dharmachakrapravartana - 1st Sermon)
in Uttar Pradesh, and
 Kushinagar (Mahaparinirvana which
symbolically means death) in Uttar Pradesh are
the other three.
Bodhgaya, Bihar
z It was under a Pipal tree in Gaya where Guatam
Buddha attained enlightenment.
Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh
z It is the place where Lord Buddha is said to have
‘Maharparinivana,’ the highest level of salvation,
in Kushinagar.
z The Ramabhar Stupa, which stands about 50 feet tall
and is located where Lord Buddha was cremated, is
one of the main attractions.
z Mahanirvana Temple, which houses a six-meter-
long reclining Buddha statue; Mathakuar Temple,
which houses a black stone image of the Buddha with
inscriptions dating from the 10th to 11th centuries.
Sravasti, Uttar Pradesh
Sravasti (ancient Savatthi) which is the historical
z
capital of Kosala Mahajanapada, is a major
pilgrimage site of Buddhism.
z It is reported that Lord Buddha and his followers
spent 24 years preaching in this city.
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z There are many ancient stupas, monasteries, and
temples in this city which shows its significance.
Vikramashila, Bihar
z Alongside Nalanda and Odantapuri, Vikramashila
was one of the three most huge Buddhist religious
communities in India during the Pala Realm.
z The Pala ruler Dharmapala (783-820 Promotion)
established Vikramashila in light of an apparent
diminishing in the nature of study at Nalanda.
z With north of 100 instructors and more than
1,000 understudies, Vikramashila was one of the
significant Buddhist colleges.
Kapilavastu, Uttar Pradesh
z Kapilvastu holds critical authentic importance as
the origin of Ruler Buddha.
z There are different Stupas nearby, and stone coffins
containing remains remembered to be those of Buddha
have been found during archeological examinations.
z Stupa Complex, where the engravings of ‘Deoputra’
(Kanishka of the Kushana Administration) might be
found; Castle Site, which is believed to be the remnants
of Ruler Shuddhodhan, Sovereign Gautam’s dad, are
among the conspicuous locales in Kapilvastu.
Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra
z These caves are a group of 30 rock-cut Buddhist
cave structures which are in the Aurangabad district
of Maharashtra, India.
z These are a collection of ancient Buddhist
monasteries and prayer rooms carved into a
75-meter (246-foot) rock wall.
z The caverns may also contain paintings depicting
the Buddha’s earlier incarnations and rebirths,
illustrations of stories from Aryasura’s Jatakamala,
and rock-cut statues of Buddhist deities.
Ellora caves, Maharashtra
z It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Maharashtra,
India, which is located in the Aurangabad district.
z It is one of the world’s greatest rock-cut Hindu
temple cave complexes, with Buddhist and Jain
monuments and artwork.
z It is a mixture of 34 big rock-cut caverns and more
than 25 to 30 lesser excavations related to three
major Indian religions.
Nalanda, Bihar
z In ancient Magadha, Nalanda was an important
Buddhist monastic university.
z It is regarded by historians as the first residential
university in history as well as one of the finest
academic hubs in antiquity.
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z Nalanda was established under the Gupta Empire
with the assistance of numerous Indian and Javanese
donors, both Buddhists and non-Buddhists.
Vaishali, Bihar
z It is a significant location in both the Jain and
Buddhist religions since King Kalasoka called the
Second Buddhist council here in 383 BCE.
z King Kalasoka called for the Second Buddhist
Council to meet here in 383 BCE, and Gautama
Buddha delivered his farewell sermon here before
passing away in 483 BCE.
z The Buddha Relic Stupa, supposedly housing the
Buddha’s ashes and possibly the earliest known
example of a stupa, is also located at Vaishali.
Odantapuri, Bihar
z Odantapuri was a well-known Buddhist
Mahavihara in what is now Bihar, India.
z Gopala I is said to have founded it in the seventh
century.
z After Nalanda, it is recognized as India’s second-
oldest Mahavihara and was situated in Magadha.
z Inscriptions claim that local Buddhist princes,
including the Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya, supported
the Mahavihara.
Sankisa, Uttar Pradesh
z It is said to be the spot from which Buddha came
down from heaven after instructing his mother.
z A shrine dedicated to Bisari Devi and an
uncovered Ashoka elephant pillar are both
located in Saniska.
z It is believed that Lord Buddha descended from
heaven into the Buddha Temple.
Rajgir, Bihar
z Rajgir, also referred to historically as Rajagriha, is
referred to as “The City of Kings.”
z Rajgir served as the capital of the Magadha
kingdom, which would eventually give rise to the
Mauryan Empire.
z Around the sixth and fifth century BC, King Bimbisara
offered the Buddha a wood monastery, and both Mahavira
and Buddha preached their ideologies in Rajgir.
Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh
z Piprahwa is a village near Birdpur in the
Siddharthnagar district of Uttar Pradesh, India.
z It is located in the historical Buddha’s homeland
which is 12 kilometers from Lumbini.
z It is most known for its archaeological site and
excavations, and was the burial site for a portion
of the Buddha’s ashes given to his Shakya kin.
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 z The stupa is 28 m in diameter at the base and 43.6
Dhauli, Odisha
m in height, made partly of stone and partly of brick.
z Dhauli, also known as Dhauligiri, is an Odisha hill The stone facing the lower portion is adorned with
located on the banks of the Daya River which is
delicate floral carvings of Gupta origin.
almost 8 kilometers south of Bhubaneswar.
z It is famous for the “Dhauli Shanti Stupa,” a peace z The stupa was expanded six times, but the upper part
pagoda established by Japan Budhha Sangha and still needs to be completed. The wall has exquisite
Kalinga Nippon Buddha Sangha. carvings of humans and birds and inscriptions in
Brahmi script.
Ladakh
z Ancient monuments, monasteries, oral literature, Dharmarajika Stupa
art forms, fairs, and festivals show the importance z It is one of the few pre-Ashokan stupas left over, with
of Budhhist culture and its significance. only the foundations remaining.
z The Dharmarajika Stupa at Sarnath has five phases
Buddhist Architecture in Uttar Pradesh of construction dating back to the Mauryan and early
With the rise of the Mauryas in the 3rd century BCE, a medieval periods. According to Marshall and Kono,
new chapter opened in the history of art and architecture. the original stupa dates back to the time of Ashoka.
It is said that Ashoka visited Sarnath and Kushinagar
and ordered the construction of stupas and viharas. z It used to be a small circular structure, about 13.5
Their traces have disappeared, but the remains of stone meters in diameter. It was razed during the 18th
pillars found at Sarnath, Allahabad, Meerut, Kaushambi, century CE on the orders of a minister of the local
Sankisa and Varanasi give us an idea of the excellence king. During the destruction, a stone box with a green
of Mauryan art. All Ashoka pillars are made of Chunar marble sarcophagus was found, where the remains
stone. The Lion Capital of Sarnath is undoubtedly a are believed to have been placed. The casket was
masterpiece of Mauryan art. Renowned historian Vincent thrown into the river Ganges. The box is currently in
Smith writes, ‘It would be difficult to find a better or equal the Indian Museum, Kolkata.
example of ancient animal sculpture in any country than
this artistic expression at Sarnath because it successfully Chaukhandi Stupa
combines realistic treatment with idealistic dignity and z Chaukhandi Stupa is an important Buddhist Stupa in
every detail has come out with perfection.’ Sarnath, located 8 km from Cantt Railway Station,
Dhamek Stupa Varanasi.
z The Dhamek Stupa is the most noticeable structure at z The Chaukhandi Stupa is believed to have been
Sarnath near Varanasi. It is one of the most prominent built during the Gupta period between the 4th and
Buddhist structures in India. The Dhamek Stupa was 6th centuries to mark the spot where Lord Buddha
built in 500 CE to replace an earlier structure built by and his first disciples met while traveling from Bodh
the great Mauryan king Ashoka in 249 BCE. Gaya to Sarnath.
z The Dhamek Stupa represents Deer Park z It is a massive earthen mound with a brickwork
(Rishipattana). The park is said to be of great building surmounted by an octagonal tower. This
importance because it was here that the Buddha
place has great importance for Buddhist devotees.
delivered his first sermon to his disciples after attaining
enlightenment and gave his “Eightfold Path”. Architecture Place King
Nalanda Rajgir, Bihar Kumaragupta
University
Vikramashila Antichak, Dharmapala
University Bhagalpur
Khajuraho Chhatarpur, Chandela Dynasty
Temples Madhya Pradesh
Ajanta Cave Aurangabad, MH Satvahanas
Dynasty
Ellora Cave Aurangabad, MH Rashtrakuta
Dynasty
Elephanta Island of Rashtrakuta
Caves Gharapuri, MH Dynasty
Konark Sun Odisha Narasimhadeva-I
Temple

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Temple Architecture in Uttar Pradesh
Temple architecture in Uttar Pradesh is a reflection of
the state’s rich cultural and religious heritage. Uttar
Pradesh, often referred to as the “Heartland of India,” is
home to a wide variety of temples representing various
architectural styles and historical periods.
The Siva temple at Nachana, the Parvati temple at Ajaya Garh
in Uttar Pradesh, the Vishnu temple in the Central Province,
the Ekkalinga Shiva temple at Satana are some of the other
examples of temple architectures belonging to this Dynasty.
Some famous temples of Uttar Pradesh are
discussed below:
Dashavatar Temple, Deogarh
z The Dashavatara Temple, or Vishnu Temple, one of
the oldest surviving Hindu stone temples, was built
in 500 AD at Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh.
z This exquisite Gupta temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu
is the earliest known Panchayat temple in North
India. Figures of Ganga and Yamuna adorn the carved
doorway leading to the sanctum. Large carved panels
along the side walls depict scenes from Vaishnava
mythology. These panels are unique and are not found
anywhere else in the world.
z The Shikhar architecture was introduced here for the
first time in the 5th-6th century. Only the lower part
of the shikhara survived, which was the most crucial
part of the temple.
Bhitargaon Temple, Kanpur
The Bhitargaon temple is a terraced brick building
z
with a terracotta panel in front. Built in the 6th century
during the Gupta Empire, it is the oldest surviving
terracotta Hindu temple with a roof and high spire.
However, its upper chamber suffered some damage
in the 18th century.
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z The temple is built on a square plan with double
corners and faces east. Above the sanctum sanctorum
is a tall pyramidal shikhara. The walls are decorated
with terracotta panels depicting aquatic demons,
Shiva and Vishnu etc.
z When Cunningham first visited the site, the remains
of the porch and ardhamandapa were still visible,
which later collapsed.
Ram Janmabhoomi Temple in Ayodhya
z Ayodhya has existed since the beginning of mankind and
is believed to have been the center of activities of the
deities present on earth many thousands of years ago.
z Lord Rama, the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu,
lived here and ruled his kingdom from this city.
z The city was believed to be built by the gods and was
known as Kosaladesh in ancient times.
z Janmabhoomi is where Lord Rama was born, and
there is a small temple dedicated to Lord Rama. It is
of great religious value to Hindus and Vaishnavas.
Recent news related to Ayodhya
z Recently, The government of Uttar Pradesh has
declared plans to erect a temple museum in
Ayodhya to highlight the historical significance and
technical features of Indian temples. The museum
will recount the illustrious past of Hindu temples
found all over the nation and showcase Sanatan’s
comprehensive culture.
z Ayodhya Haat: An Ayodhya Haat will come up at
Chaudhary Charan Singh Ghat on the bank of river
Saryu, adding another feature to the temple town’s
long list of tourist attractions.As an added tourist
attraction, it will also contain a floating restaurant
and boat services.
Sri Krishna Janmabhoomi Temple, Mathura
z This temple is believed to be the birthplace of Lord
Krishna and is an important pilgrimage site for
devotees of Lord Krishna.
z It is situated in Mathura, the birthplace of Lord
Krishna.
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Banke Bihari Temple, Vrindavan
z Another significant Krishna temple, the Banke Bihari Temple in Vrindavan is known for its beautiful deity of Lord
Krishna in the “Banke Bihari” form.
z The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) has a prominent temple in Vrindavan dedicated to
Lord Krishna and Radha. It is known for its vibrant devotional atmosphere.

Kashi Vishwanath Temple Corridor

z The Kashi Vishwanath Temple Corridor project aims to enhance the pilgrim experience in the city of temples,
Varanasi.
z The Kashi Vishwanath Corridor project proposes to connect the ancient and holy Kashi Vishwanath Temple with
some ghats in Varanasi.
z Due to the overcrowding and narrow lanes leading pilgrims directly from the Kashi Vishwanath Temple to the
Varanasi Ghats, the Government of India has initiated this Kashi Vishwanath Corridor project.

Cave

Terracotta

Cave

South Indian Art

Chola Art
The Dravida or South Indian Temple Style

Shikhara

Mandapa Vimana
Gopuram

Garbhagriha

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The Dravida style, also known as the South Indian
temple style, is a prominent architectural style used
in the construction of Hindu temples in the southern
regions of India. It is characterized by its distinctively
shaped towers called “gopurams’’ and is prevalent
in states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh, and Telangana. The Dravidian style of temple
architecture developed and evolved between the 7th
and 17th centuries CE.
Key features of the Dravida or South Indian temple style:
z Gopurams: The most notable feature of the Dravida
style is the towering entrance gateways called
gopurams. These intricately carved and elaborately
decorated structures are usually tall, pyramid-
shaped towers with multiple tiers. Gopurams serve
as monumental gateways leading into the temple
complex.
z Vimana: The main shrine, known as the vimana or
garbhagriha, is the sanctum sanctorum that houses
the main deity of the temple. The vimana is often
pyramidal or stepped in shape and rises above the
rest of the temple structure.
z Mandapa: Similar to the Nagara style, Dravida temples
also have a mandapa, a hall used for gatherings and
rituals. Dravida temples may have several mandapas
of varying sizes, leading to the innermost sanctum.
z Kalasha: At the top of the vimana, there is a
pot-like structure called the kalasha, which represents
abundance and prosperity.
z Pillared Halls: Dravida temples often feature large
and ornate pillared halls, such as the Ranganatha
Mandapa or the Hall of Thousand Pillars, which is a
hallmark of many temples in the region.
z Outer Walls: The outer walls of Dravida temples are
adorned with intricate sculptures, depicting various
deities, mythological scenes, and celestial beings.
z Rock-cut Temples: In addition to structural temples,
the Dravida style also includes rock-cut temples, where
the temple is carved into the face of a rock or cave.
z Regional Variations: While the Dravida style follows
certain common features, there are regional variations
in the architecture, particularly in the design and
ornamentation of the gopurams and vimanas.
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The Dravida or South Indian temple style showcases a
unique and sophisticated form of architectural expression.
Temples built in this style are not only religious places but
also cultural and artistic marvels, reflecting the rich heritage
of the southern regions of India. Some famous examples
of Dravida-style temples include the Brihadeeswarar
Temple in Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu), the Meenakshi
Temple in Madurai (Tamil Nadu), and the Hoysaleswara
Temple in Halebidu (Karnataka). These temples are not
only important pilgrimage centers but also major tourist
attractions, drawing visitors from all over the world.
Chola Sculpture
The Nataraja sculpture is one of the most iconic and
revered representations of Lord Shiva, the Hindu god of
destruction and dance. It is a symbolic depiction of Shiva
as the cosmic dancer, symbolizing the cycle of creation,
preservation, and destruction.
Key features of the Nataraja sculpture include:
z Dancing Pose: Nataraja is shown in a dynamic
dancing pose known as the “Tandava.” Shiva’s dance
symbolizes the rhythm of creation and destruction,
with one foot raised and the other resting on a demon
or dwarf (Apasmara), representing the triumph of
good over evil.
z Four Arms: Shiva’s four arms represent
various aspects and powers. The upper right
hand holds a drum (damaru) that represents
the sound of creation, while the upper left
hand holds a flame (agni), symbolizing the
destructive forces. The lower right hand is in
the “abhaya mudra,” offering protection and
fearlessness to devotees, and the lower left
hand points to his left foot, signifying liberation
and salvation.
z Ring of Fire: Shiva is encircled by a ring of flames
known as “Prabha Mandala,” representing the cosmic
energy that surrounds the universe and all of creation.
z Crescent Moon: A crescent moon adorns Shiva’s
matted hair, representing the passage of time and the
lunar cycle.
23
z Jatajuta (Matted Hair): Shiva’s hair flows freely as
dreadlocks, symbolizing his untamed and unbound
nature.
z Cobra: A snake is wrapped around Shiva’s neck,
symbolizing the control over ego and desire.
z Foot Stomp: Shiva’s raised foot signifies the
destruction of ignorance and the path to spiritual
enlightenment.
The Nataraja sculpture is significant not only as a
representation of Lord Shiva but also as a symbol
of cosmic order and the interplay of various forces
that govern the universe. It is a profound expression
of the divine dance that sustains and transforms the
cosmos, and it is revered by Hindus and admired by
art enthusiasts worldwide for its artistic beauty and
spiritual symbolism.
The most famous Nataraja sculpture can be found at
the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu,
India. However, Nataraja sculptures are found in various
temples and art collections across India and beyond,
each with its unique artistic style and interpretation.
Recently, A 28-feet Nataraja statue was placed in front
of the venue of the G20 Leaders’ Summit scheduled
in New Delhi.
About 28-Feet Nataraja Sculpture:
z Ashtadhatu: The statue weighs 19 tonnes and is
made of eight metals viz. gold, silver, lead, copper,
tin, mercury, iron and zinc.
z Height: The statue is 22 feet in height, and the pedestal
is six feet, making the entire structure 28 feet tall.
z Model: The model of Chidambaram,
Konerirajapuram and other Natarajas of the Chola
period was followed in making this statue.
z Casting: Sculptors follow the lost-wax casting
method. This is a time-tested method, used since
the days of the Cholas.
24
Other Schools of Art
Vesara Style of Temple
The Vesara style, also known as Deccan style or
Chalukyan style, is a unique architectural style that
developed in the Deccan region of India during the
medieval period. It represents a fusion of the North
Indian (Nagara) and South Indian (Dravida) temple
styles, creating a distinct and harmonious architectural
expression. The Vesara style emerged primarily during
the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasties, from the 6th to
the 12th centuries CE.
Key features of the Vesara style of temple architecture:
z Combination of Nagara and Dravida Elements: The
Vesara style is characterized by its blending of features
from both the Nagara and Dravida styles. It combines
the towering, multi-tiered gopurams of the Dravida
style with the shikhara of the Nagara style, resulting
in a unique superstructure for the main shrine.
z Central Tower (Shikhara): The central tower or
shikhara in the Vesara style is often stepped and
resembles a pyramidal structure. It is similar to the
Nagara style in its vertical emphasis but may also
incorporate horizontal layers like the Dravida style.
z Mandapa and Pillared Halls: Vesara temples typically
have mandapas (halls) with elaborate pillars, often
featuring sculpted reliefs and intricate carvings. These
halls are used for gatherings, rituals, and processions.
z Carvings and Sculptures: Like both the Nagara
and Dravida styles, Vesara temples are adorned
with intricate carvings and sculptures. The outer
walls, pillars, and ceilings feature depictions of gods,
goddesses, celestial beings, and scenes from Hindu
mythology.
z Towered Entrance Gateways (Gopurams): Vesara
temples may also include gopurams, which are towering
entrance gateways adorned with elaborate sculptures
and carvings. These gateways are a prominent feature
of South Indian temple architecture.
z Regional Variations: Just as with the Nagara and
Dravida styles, there are regional variations within
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 the Vesara style, influenced by local traditions and
architectural practices.
z Examples of Vesara-style temples can be found
in various parts of the Deccan region, including
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and parts
of Madhya Pradesh. Some notable examples include
the Virupaksha Temple and Mallikarjuna Temple
at Pattadakal (Karnataka) and the Kailashnath
Temple in Ellora Caves (Maharashtra). These
temples exemplify the exquisite blend of Northern and
Southern architectural elements, creating a unique
and captivating style that showcases the artistic and
cultural heritage of the Deccan region.
Hoysala School of Art
The Hoysala school of art was a prominent architectural
and sculptural style that flourished during the rule of the
Hoysala dynasty in southern India, primarily between
the 11th and 14th centuries. The Hoysala dynasty was
centered in the region of present-day Karnataka and had
its capital in Dwarasamudra (modern-day Halebidu).
Characteristics of Hoysala School of Art
z Temple Architecture: The Hoysala rulers were great
patrons of art and temple construction. Their most
significant contributions were in the form of intricately
carved stone temples. These temples were built using
soapstone, which allowed for intricate detailing in the
sculptures and architecture.
z Star-Shaped Temples: One of the distinctive features
of Hoysala temples is their star-shaped ground plan.
The temples have a central shrine (garbhagriha)
surrounded by multiple projections or subsidiary
shrines (called shikharas or vimanas), creating a star-
like appearance when viewed from above.
z Sculptural Decorations: Hoysala temples are adorned
with elaborate and exquisite sculptural decorations on
the outer walls. The sculptures depict various deities,
mythological stories, celestial beings, animals, and
scenes from daily life. The carvings are characterized
by their intricate details and lifelike expressions.
z Bracket Figures (Madanikas): Hoysala temples are
famous for their bracket figures or Madanikas, which
are decorative female sculptures placed on the outer
walls of the temples. These figures are depicted in
various elegant and graceful poses, adding aesthetic
charm to the architecture.
z Highly Ornate Doorways: The entrance doorways of
Hoysala temples are often elaborately decorated with
detailed carvings of dwarapalakas (guardians) and
various other motifs.
Famous Hoysala Temples
z Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebidu: The Hoysaleswara
Temple in Halebidu is a masterpiece of Hoysala
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architecture, known for its intricate sculptures and
magnificent design.
z Chennakesava Temple, Belur: The Chennakesava
Temple in Belur is renowned for its finely detailed
sculptures, including the bracket figures, and its
impressive exterior carvings.
z Kesava Temple, Somanathapura: The Kesava Temple
in Somanathapura is a well-preserved example of
Hoysala art, featuring a star-shaped structure and
beautiful sculptural work.
Three Hoysala temples of Karnataka inscribed as
UNESCO World Heritage Sites:
Recently, three temples are protected by the
Archaeological Survey of India and the nominations
were entered as ‘The Sacred Ensembles of Hoysalas’.
z The Chennakeshava temple at Belur in Hassan
district of in Karnataka is now a UNESCO World
Heritage site along with temples at Halebid and
Somanathapur.
z The construction of the Chennakeshava temple
at Belur in commenced during the period of king
Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE and took 103 years
to complete, the Hoysaleshwara temple was
commissioned in 1121 CE while the Keshava
temple at Somanathapur in Mysuru district was
commissioned by Somanatha Dandanayaka during
the regime of Narasimha III in 1268 CE.
2.2 MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
Indo-Islamic architecture begins with the Ghurid
occupation of India at the close of the 12 century
A.D. The Muslims having inherited a wealth of varied
designs from Sasanian and Byzantine empires and being
naturally endowed with good taste for buildings, never
failed to adapt to their own requirements the indigenous
architecture of almost every foreign country that they
conquered.
The most important factors common to both forms
of architecture, especially in respect of mosques and
temples, were that to both styles, the ornamental
decoration was very vital and that the open court in
many cases was surrounded by colonnades. But the
contrast was equally striking: the prayer chamber of
the mosque was spacious, whereas the shrine of the
temple was comparatively small. The mosque was
light and open, whereas the temple was dark and
closed. The difference between the layout of a temple
and a mosque is explained by the essential difference
between the Hindu and Muslim forms of worship and
prayer.
In the rear wall of the prayer hall, the center is
occupied by a recess or alcove, called mihrab; and
25
 Finial

Lotus decoration

Onion dome

Drum
Guldasta
Chattri
Spandrel

Calligraphy
Arch

Dado

indicates the direction of prayer (qibla). It has a pulpit system, which eliminated the need for several pillars
(mimber) to the right where the imam will lead the to support the roof.
prayer. Originally built for the muazzin to use in calling z Use of superior mortar to hold the stones.
the devout to prayer, a tower or minaret subsequently z Use of slab and beam method.
developed purely architectural characteristics. To
z Decorative exuberance, such as use of geometrical
provide room for the women who followed purdah, a
shapes, calligraphy, inspirational art etc.
gallery, compartment, or other area of the prayer hall
was screened off. A mosque’s main entrance is on the z Synthesise of indigenous motifs such as ball motif,
east, while cloisters (also known as liwans) enclose lotus etc.
the sides. In a mosque’s courtyard, a tank is normally Qutub Minar
available for ablutions.
z Qutb-Minar in red and buff sandstone is the highest
tower in India. It has a diameter of 14.32 m at the base
Architecture during Delhi Sultanate Period
and about 2.75 m on the top with a height of 72.5 m.
Art and architecture which was a combination of
Arabic and Indian styles that took a new direction in
the Delhi Sultanate period. It witnesses the evolution
and development of Indo-Islamic Architecture
by synthesizing geometrical shapes, calligraphy,
inscriptional art etc. This Indo-Islamic architecture
manifested the aesthetic heritage of the new sultans that
includes both religious and secular structures.
The Indo-Islamic architecture manifested the aesthetic
heritage of the new sultans that includes both religious
and secular structures. While indigenous architecture
is Trabeate i.e. the space is spanned by means of beams
laid horizontally; the Islamic form is Arcuate, whereby
arches are used to bridge a space. The dome is the z Qutbu’d-Din Aibak laid the foundation of Minar in
prominent feature of the mosque in contrast to the AD 1199 for the use of the muazzin (crier) to give
Sikhar of Hindu temples. calls for prayer and raised the first storey, to which
z The construction of vast halls with unobstructed were added three more storeys by his successor and
views was made possible by the arch and dome son-in-law, Shamsu’d-Din Iltutmish (AD 1211-36).

26 Art and Culture UPPSC

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z All the storeys are surrounded by a projected balcony
encircling the minar and supported by stone brackets,
which are decorated with honey-comb design, more
conspicuously in the first storey.
Adhai din ka Jhonpra
z The Imperial style of architecture flourished under
the various dynasties that ruled during this period.
z Qutubuddin Aibak built a famous mosque called
Adhai din ka jhonpra in Ajmer.
z The monument is known for its Indo-Islamic
architecture, combining elements of Hindu and Islamic
design. It has intricately designed pillars, domes, and
arches, showcasing the skill of the artisans of that era.
Balban’s Tomb
z The tomb of Ghiyas ud din Balban is located in Mehrauli,
New Delhi, India built in circa 1287 C.E. Ghiyas-ud-din
Balban, one of the most powerful slave sultans after
Iltutmish, is buried within the archaeological park, in
a building once built by the Sultan himself called the
Dar-ul-Amaan (Haven of Safety) .
z Though in ruins and devoid of decorations, the tomb
of Balban is unique in its architecture as it was the first
building to be constructed using true arches. Unlike
the corbelled arches of the Qutub Complex, the true
arches of Balban’s tomb have the keystone placed at
the center, which evenly distributes the weight of the
superstructure.
z From here on, true arches become a common feature
of the Indo-Islamic architecture of Delhi.
UPPSC Indian Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery
WALLAH
Alai Darwaza
z Alai Darwaza is the southern gateway of the Quwwat-
ul-Islam mosque in Qutb complex, Mehrauli, Delhi,
India erected by Alauddin Khilji when he extended
the mosque.
z The extension included the construction of three
more gateways, two on the eastern side and one on
the northern side.
z It was constructed of red sandstone in 1311 C.E. as
indicated by three inscriptions on it. The steps leading
to the Alai Darwaza are on the side of a shallow ravine,
which has become silted up. It is believed to be the
earliest structure fully based upon Islamic style of
arcuate construction and geometric ornamentation.
z With its excellent proportions, elegant carvings and
inscriptional bands, it is regarded as one of the most
treasured gems of Islamic architecture.
Khilji’s Tomb
z The tomb of Alauddin Khilji lies presumably in the
central room of the southern wing of an L-shaped
block of ruins built around a simple quadrangular
court with a triple gateway on its northern side.
z The L-shaped structure comprising some rooms and
halls is believed to represent the madarsa or school
established by Alauddin Khilji to impart education in
Islamic theology and scriptures.
z It was for the first time in India that a combination of
tomb and school was conceived, drawing inspiration
from the Saljuqi traditions of 11th - 12th century
CE which are known to have influenced the Khilji
architecture in a significant way.
27
Lodhi Garden
z Lodi Gardens are one of the pleasant green spaces in
Delhi - with some labeled trees to help visitors from
overseas become familiar with the Indian flora. It is
an intriguing green refuge from the city’s often-not-
too-clean air.
z The garden contains the tombs of the Lodis, who ruled
this part of India in the 15th century.
z The tombs might have been in woodland when
they were built, but by the 20th century the area
had become a village - and the tombs were used as
dwellings. In 1936 it became a public garden which
now has some labeled plants.
z Mohammad Shah’s tomb (1450), which can be
seen as a predecessor for architecture of Humayun’s
tomb and Sikander Lodi’s tomb (1571), is set within
a walled enclosure and clearly related to Humayun’s
tomb garden.
Architecture during Mughal
Taj Mahal
z The Taj Mahal at Agra represents the culmination of
Mughal architecture in all its refinement and aesthetic
delight. Emperor Shah Jahan built it for his beloved
wife, Mumtaz Mahal, as a magnificent monument of
refined elegance and superb craftsmanship.
z The Taj incorporates and extends the design traditions
of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture, creating a
new dimension to the architectural vision.
z Located on the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra, the
Taj Mahal is the epitome of architectural grandeur. The
dazzling beauty of the Taj has been sculpted from flawless
white marble, with aesthetic use of decorative features
such as pietra dura and captivating motifs in calligraphy.
28
Agra Fort
z This fort is a masterpiece of design and construction
built by Emperor Akbar in 1565 AD. Several
outstanding buildings are built inside the fort,
including the Moti Masjid, the Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-
i-Khas and the Musamman Burj. Jahangir’s Palace,
Khas Mahal and Sheesh Mahal are other important
monuments inside the fort.
Fatehpur Sikri
z Perched atop a rocky ridge 37 km west of Agra,
Fatehpur Sikri existed four centuries ago when
Emperor Akbar set out to build the first planned city
in Indo-Islamic architecture.
z By 1568, Akbar had secured his empire, but his only
sorrow was that he had no son or heir. His search
for blessings for the birth of an heir brought him to
the Sufi Mishti Salim Chishti, who lived in the village
of Sikri. The saint predicted the birth of three sons,
and soon Prince Salim, who later became Emperor
Jahangir, was born.
z Akbar built a royal residence at Sikri to show
his gratitude, which would serve as a joint capital
with Agra. He also named the new city as Fatehpur
Sikri.
Asafi Imambara (Bara Imambara)
z This massive structure in Lucknow was built
in 1784 by Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula and is one of
the architectural marvels of that era. Its central hall
is said to be the largest vaulted chamber in the
world.
Art and Culture UPPSC
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 z It was built by the Mughal emperor Akbar in honor
of the saint. Salim Chishti predicted the birth of his
son, who succeeded Akbar as Jahangir. The door to
the main chamber has Quranic inscriptions and is
intricately carved with Arabic patterns.

z There is no woodwork in the entire structure except

for the galleries in the interior. Shia Muslims now
use it for Azadari.
z It has significant underground passages that have
been blocked. A staircase from outside leads to a
series of labyrinths known as Bhool-Bhulaiya, an
intricate zig-zag passage tangle. Within the premises Khusru Bagh
of the Imambara is the grand Asafi Mosque. Shahi z It is a large historical garden containing the tombs of
Baoli is another attraction here. Shah Begum, the wife of Jahangir; Jahangir’s eldest
Tomb of Salim Chishti son Khusro Mirza and Jahangir’s daughter Nithar
z The tomb of Salim Chishti is one of the finest examples Begum.
of Mughal architecture in the country. This is the burial z It is located at Prayagraj, UP.
place of Sufi saint Salim Chishti. z It was also associated with India’s freedom struggle.

The Mughal Gardens at the Rashtrapati Bhavan (President’s House) in Delhi have been renamed as ‘Amrit Udyan’.
A long history of Mughal Gardens in India:
z The Mughal Gardens (now erstwhile) draw inspiration from the Mughal Gardens of Jammu & Kashmir, the gardens
around the Taj Mahal and miniature paintings of India and Persia.
z Edwin Lutyens had finalized the designs of the Mughal Gardens in 1917.
z Lutyens brought together two different horticulture traditions together for the gardens – the Mughal style and
the English flower garden.

Medieval Architecture
(Indo-Islamic Art)

Features:
Arch & domes
Minars
Calligraphy
Jaali Work
Pietra-dura
Charbagh

Sultnate period Branches Mughal Period

(1206-1526AD) (1526-1761)
Qutub Alai Agra
Taj Mahal
Minar Darwaza Fort
Jama Fatehpur
Balban’s Lodi
Masjid Sikri
Tomb Garden
Adhai din Khusru
Ka Jhopra Bagh

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WALLAH
Rajput & Sikh Style
Sikh style
The modern-day Punjab region is where the Sikh
architectural style originated. The Mughal architectural
style had a big impact on it. A few characteristics of the
Sikh school include:
z The placement of numerous Chhatris or kiosks on
the building’s roof.
z Use of shallow cornices.
z The structures featured fluted domes that were
typically covered in filigree made of brass and copper
for both adornment and support.
z Numerous foliations were used to embellish the
arches.
Golden Temple
z The Golden Temple, also known as Sri Harmandir
Sahib, is one of the most iconic and revered religious
sites in India. It is located in the city of Amritsar in
the northern state of Punjab.
z They popularized the idea of hanging balconies,
which were built in a variety of configurations.
z The cornices were constructed with an arch shape
such that the shadow resembled a bow.
z Example: Hawa Mehal at Jaipur (Rajasthan).
Temples in Kashmir
The Kashmiri style of architecture, often referred to as
“Kashmiri Vernacular Architecture,” is characterized
by its unique blend of cultural, geographical, and climatic
influences. It has evolved over centuries and reflects the
region’s distinctive artistic sensibilities.
Here are some of the eminent features of kashmir temple
architecture:
z Trefoil arches (Gandhara influence)
z Cellular layout and Enclosed courtyard
z Straight-edged Pyramidal roof
z Column walls (Greek influence)
z Triangular pediments (Greek influence)
z Relatively more number of steps.

z The land for the site was acquired by the earlier Guru
Sahibs on payment or free of cost from the Zamindars
(landlords) of native villages. The plan to establish a
town settlement was also made.
z The Golden Temple Amritsar India (Sri Harmandir
Sahib Amritsar) has a unique Sikh architecture. Built
at a level lower than the surrounding land level, The
Gurudwara teaches the lesson of egalitarianism and
humility.
z The four entrances of this holy shrine from all four
directions, signify that people belonging to every walk
of life are equally welcome.

Rajput Style
The Mughal style was also present in the Rajput
constructions of the time, but these were distinguished
by their size and scope. They frequently took up the
construction of grandiose palaces and forts. Following
are a some of the distinctive qualities of Rajput
architecture:
Martand Sun Temple
z Martand Sun Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated
to the Sun God Surya. It is located in the village of
Martand, Jammu and Kashmir, India. The temple
was built in the 8th century by the Karkota dynasty.

30 Art and Culture UPPSC

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 It is one of the most important Hindu temples in India The temple was built by Meru Vardhana, a minister of
and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. King Partha, who ruled Kashmir from 921 to 931 AD.
z The temple is built in a Nagara style of architecture. It The temple is a single-story structure with a square
is a single-story temple with a central shikhara (tower). plan. It is made of red sandstone and has a pyramidal
The shikhara is 44 meters (144 feet) tall and is made of roof. The temple has a portico on each of the four sides.
red sandstone. The temple has a number of porches and The porticos are supported by pillars that are decorated
courtyards. The main entrance to the temple is through
with intricate carvings.
a portico that is supported by four pillars. The portico
is decorated with a number of sculptures, including The interior of the temple is divided into three
images of Surya, Vishnu, and Shiva. chambers. The main chamber is the garbhagriha
z The interior of the temple is divided into a number (sanctum sanctorum), which houses the image of Lord
of chambers. The main chamber is the garbhagriha Vishnu. The garbhagriha is decorated with a number
(sanctum sanctorum) , which houses the image of
of sculptures, including images of Vishnu, Lakshmi, and
Surya. The garbhagriha is decorated with a number
of sculptures, including images of Surya, Vishnu, and Garuda.
Shiva.
z The Martand Sun Temple is a beautiful and well-
preserved temple. It is a testament to the artistic
and architectural skills of the Karkota dynasty.
The temple is a popular tourist destination and is a
reminder of the rich history and culture of India.
Pandrethan Temple
Pandrethan Temple is an 8th-century Hindu temple
dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It is located in the village
of Pandrethan, in the Srinagar district of Jammu and
Kashmir, India. The temple is built in the Kashmiri style
of architecture and is a protected monument of national
importance.
Sun Temples in India

Modhera Konark Martand Dakshina Brahman Surya Sryanaar Suryanar

Sun Sun Sun arka ya Dev Pahar Kovil, ayana
Temple, Temple, Temple, Temple, Temple, Temple, Tamil Swami
Gujrat Odisha Kashmir Gaya, Unao, Assam Nadu Temple,
Bihar Madhya Andhra
Pradesh Pradesh

2.3 MODERN ARCHITECTURE

Architecture traditionally, i.e., before the arrival of the British on the Indian soil, was from the social point of view,
a creation of spectacular sculptural forms hewn out of stone. Architectural material was stone; tools, chisel and
hammer, and the aim was glorification. In contrast, the every-day needs of a common man were ruthlessly neglected.
Then the British arrived on the scene, it was through them that the first introduction to elementary modern building
construction and planning was introduced into India.

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Indo-Gothic Style
The term “Indo-Gothic” refers to a style of architecture
that emerged in India during the colonial period,
particularly during British rule. It is a fusion of Indian
architectural elements and the Gothic Revival style
popular in Europe during the 19th century.
Indo-Gothic Features
z Gothic architectural elements such as pointed arches,
ribbed vaults, and clustered columns. These elements
were inspired by European Gothic architecture and
adapted to Indian contexts.
z Indo-Gothic buildings often incorporate Indian design
elements, including intricate carvings, decorative
motifs, and use of local materials. This fusion
of Western and Indian styles created a unique
architectural identity.
z Many Indo-Gothic buildings are constructed using red
and white sandstone, which was readily available in
various parts of India.
z Some of the most notable Indo-Gothic buildings
in India are churches and cathedrals built by
the British during the colonial period. St. Paul’s
Cathedral in Kolkata and the All-Saints’ Cathedral
in Allahabad are examples of Indo-Gothic religious
architecture.
z Indo-Gothic architectural elements were
also employed in the construction of government
and administrative buildings during British rule.
The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, the
University of Mumbai’s Rajabai Clock Tower and
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly
Victoria Terminus) in Mumbai are examples of
this style.
The Indo-Gothic style reflects the cultural and
architectural exchange that occurred during the British
colonial era in India. It merged European architectural
trends with Indian sensibilities, resulting in a distinctive
architectural heritage that can still be admired in various
parts of the country today.
Neo-Roman Style
The term “Neo-Roman” or “Neo-Romanesque” refers to
a revivalist architectural style that emerged in the 19th
32
century and continued into the early 20th century. The
buildings of New Delhi, which were designed by Edwin
Lutyens and Herbert Baker, are the outstanding
examples of this architectural style. It has been often
called the “Rome of Hindustan”.
Features
z It was a fusion of many architectural styles, which
made the style congested and constrained the amount
of space for artistic expression.
z Neo-Roman buildings often feature rounded arches.
These arches can be found in doorways, windows,
and arcades.
z To create western architectural designs, eastern
motifs were overused.
z It shows a strong sense of symmetry in their design,
with balanced facades and central entrances.
z There was an emphasis on circular structures.
z Neo-Roman architecture was popular for public
buildings, such as government offices, churches,
libraries, and train stations, as it conveyed a sense of
grandeur and historical continuity.
z This phase saw the introduction of the idea of an
upturned dome, as seen in the tops of the Supreme
Court and Rashtrapati Bhavan.
Colonial Architecture in UP
The British added several signature structures
to the skyline of Uttar Pradesh. At that time,
Uttar Pradesh was introduced to the imperialist
leanings of colonial architecture. This led to the
Indo-Islamic style with the traditional European
neo-classical and Gothic styles – recognised today
as the imperialist Indo-Saracenic architecture.
The ornamental designs of these buildings and
many buildings in Lucknow and other places in
Uttar Pradesh reflect the beautiful fusion of Eastern
and Western architectural styles. The buildings of this
time represent the presence of the old typical domes
and towers with a modern colonial touch. Colonial
influence can be seen in churches, educational
institutions, residential quarters, palaces and
administrative buildings.
Some of the major structures in Prayagraj (the erstwhile
capital of the United Provinces) are the Prayagraj
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WALLAH
University and the Prayagraj High Court. All Saints’
Cathedral is the finest Anglican cathedral in Asia – a
fine example of 13th-century Gothic architectural
moorings.
Mayo Memorial Hall
z Mayo Memorial Hall in Prayagraj was built in 1879
by R. Roskel Bene had it done. Showcasing the 19th
and 20th centuries colonial architecture, this hall is
adjacent to the Thornhill and Mayne Memorial Library.
z The hall has a 180 ft high tower and interiors designed
by Professor Gamble of the South Kensington Museum
in London. Public meetings, receptions and balls were
held in this hall built in memory of the slain Viceroy
Mayo.
All Saints Cathedral
z The colonial structure of All Saints Cathedral, also
known as the ‘stone church’, was built in the 19th
century in the Gothic architectural style.
z It was designed by Sir William Emerson in 1870.
z The stained glass panels and intricate marble work
make the structure more attractive.
Sanskrit College in Varanasi
UPPSC Indian Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery
WALLAH
z The present buildings of Sanskrit College were
constructed in the Gothic style.
z In 1916, Lord Hardinge, the Viceroy of India,
commissioned the construction of the Banaras
Hindu University (BHU) building, one of the finest
architecture in Asia.
Raj Bhavan in Lucknow
z The Raj Bhavan in Lucknow used to be Kothi Hyatt
Baksh which was designed by Major General Claude
Martin as his residence.
z Before India’s independence, Kothi Hayat Bakhsh was
declared Government House, the official residence of
the Governor of the United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh. After independence, its name was changed to
Raj Bhavan.
Vidhan Bhavan
z The construction of the Vidhan Bhavan was started by
Sir Harcourt Butler in 1922, which houses the two
Legislative Assemblies, also known as Council Houses.
It was specially built with stones from Mirzapur and
took six years to complete.
z The building, now known as the Lucknow GPO, was once
a ring theatre used by British families for entertainment.
It was used as a platform for showing English films, and
English plays were also performed here.
z Other buildings in Lucknow showing colonial
architecture are La Martiniere School, The Residency,
Dilkusha Palace, Lalbagh Methodist Church and other
churches.
Begum Samru Church
z Begum Samru Church in Sardhana, Meerut, is the
Basilica of Our Lady of Grace.
z It is a Roman Catholic Church and a fine example of
the European architectural style.
33
 Significance of Architecture in Recent
Context
z Hindu-Muslim Unity - The architecture is a
symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity. Today when the
Hindu-Muslim conflict is at its peak, architecture
can bridge the Hindu and the Muslim. For example
- the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, etc., an Indo-Islamic
architecture (Mughal architecture), is visited by
Muslims, Hindus, and other religions.
z Promote Culture - The architecture also has
cultural significance. For example - Dharmarajika
Stupa, Dhamek Stupa, Chaukhandi Stupa and
Ashoka Pillar are symbols of Buddhist culture,
Dashavatara Temple and Bihta Temple are symbols
of Hinduism culture.
z Show Colonial Mindset - The colonial architecture
built by the British and other foreign powers
tells us about the mindset of colonialism and its
contribution to the social, religious, cultural and
political system in UP. For example – Sanskrit
College, Raj Bhavan, Vidhan Bhavan, Begum Samru
Church, All Saints Cathedral, and Mayo Memorial
Hall in Varanasi give us an idea of the colonial rule
in the region at that time.
z Promote Environmental Conservation - Many
temple architectures tell us about the importance
of environment and river conservation. For
example - the figures of Ganga and Yamuna on the
carved door leading to the sanctum sanctorum in
Dashavatara temple suggest that rivers were also
worshiped at that time.
z Promote Tourism - Architecture also contributes
significantly to tourism. Many tourists visit any
place to see the wonders of Vastu. Uttar Pradesh
has many ancient and ancient architecture which
many tourists visit. For example - the Taj Mahal is
the most visited place in India, and UP is one of the
highest tourist places in India.
z Promote Local Economy - The architecture attracts
tourists, generates income for the local people, and
boosts the local economy. It also generates income
for the governments. For example - if a tourist
visits the architecture of a region, he will buy local
products, reside in that place for some time and
eat local food.
v v v
34
z Signifies Love, Care and Respect - Architecture is
also a paradigm of love, care and respect for today’s
generation. For example - The Taj Mahal is a symbol
of love, built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan
in honor of his favorite wife, Mumtaz, who died
giving birth to their 14th child. Akbar built a royal
residence at Fatehpur Sikri to show his gratitude
towards Sufi Salim Chishti, who predicted the birth
of Prince Salim (Jahangir).
z Promote Patriotism - Architecture promotes
social and cultural values and patriotism. Many
architecture and monuments remind us of our
Freedom struggle and Independence from foreign
powers. For example - the Jhansi fort served as
one of the main centres of sepoy mutiny in 1857
and reflected the contribution of ‘Mardaani’ Rani
Laxmibai. Khusru Bagh was also associated with
India’s freedom struggle.
Overall, Indian architecture, sculpture, and pottery have
not only served functional purposes but have also been
integral to the expression of spirituality, culture, and
identity. They continue to inspire and captivate people
around the world, emphasizing India’s enduring legacy
as a hub of artistic and creative excellence.
Previous Year Questions
1. D iscuss the scientific aspects of Indian Culture
Heritage.
2. D escribe the salient features of Mauryan Art &
Architecture.
3. Write a short note on Town planning of Harappan
Civilisation.
4. What is the Heritage Arch? Underline the importance
of Uttar Pradesh in terms of Tourism Potential.
5. W rite a note on the role of urban planning for
development of basic civic amenities in slums.
Expected Questions
1. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of
the Indus Valley Civilisation provided inputs to the
present day urbanization?
2. B riefly discuss Gandhara School of Art and its
relevance.
3. The Taj Mahal at Agra represents the culmination of
Mughal architecture. Explain.
4. I n the recent context, what is the significance of
architecture in Uttar Pradesh?
5. Write about Sarnath Pillar.
Art and Culture UPPSC
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 3 Indian Paintings

Indian Painting has a long history that started with
rock paintings of Bhimbetka, Mirzapur and Panchmarhi
and later moved on to ceramics, textiles, miniature
paintings, and modern paintings. The variety of painting
techniques used throughout the nation represents the
cultural diversity of the nation.
Indian painting can be evident through the ancient and
medieval period where the books were witnessed with
the paintings. The Mughal and Rajput courts were
dominated by miniature styles. With the advent of
the Europeans, the art of painting and engraving took
a western turn. Modern painters experimented with
styles, colors and designs. Many Indian painters have
gained worldwide recognition and are winning prizes
and accolades for their vision.
Every state and region of India is associated with a
particular art form like the Madhubani painting in
Bihar to the Pithora painting in Gujarat, the Warli
painting in Maharashtra, the Kalamkari painting
in Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana to the Gond art in
Madhya Pradesh. There are many folk art forms of India
which have been Internationally known and highly
recognised.
3.1 EVOLUTION OF PAINTING IN INDIA
The evolution of painting in India is a vast and
diverse subject, spanning thousands of years and
influenced by various cultural, religious, and historical
factors.

It takes a number of stages and some major processes to reach the present situation.
The Harappan Civilisation used to paint images on cave walls. Then, during the reign of different rulers, Indian art
was supported with different beliefs, standards, and cultures.Today, contemporary and abstract art mainly prevail in
India, although traditional art still finds its audience.
Pre - Historic Painting
The prehistoric paintings were generally executed on
rocks and these rock engravings were called Petroglyphs.
The first set of prehistoric paintings was discovered in
Bhimbetka caves in Madhya Pradesh. The Bhimbetka
paintings were discovered in 1957-58 by an archaeologist
named V.S. Wakankar.
The Indus Valley civilization that started in India has
been famous for its well-planned architecture and its
affection for the art. Although not much, archaeologists
did find some interesting stuff from Indus Valley and
Harappan civilisations. Many pictographic seals from
Harappa times were discovered that signifies that art in
India did start during pre-historic times only.
The artistic expression of this period can be picked
back to Rock paintings and Temple Arts. The people of
the Harappan civilisation produced the earliest known
Indian art sculptures, from between 2500 and 1800
BCE which were small terracotta and bronze figures
depicting animals and humans, like cows, monkeys,
and dancing positions.
There have been sources of rock & cave paintings
during the Harappa culture time-periods. These
Indian paintings usually show the lifestyle of those
times. The paintings on the caves of Ajanta & Ellora
36
still blow our mind considering how they go back in
time.
During 1000 AD Buddhist and Jain culture started
carving religious scriptures on the palm leaves. Paper
came into use during the quarter of the 14th century.
Ancient and Classical Periods
Rock Painting
z The earliest evidence of painting in India can be found
in prehistoric rock art, dating back to thousands of
years BCE. These paintings depict scenes from daily
life, animals, and symbols.The earliest known paintings
in India are the rock paintings of Bhimbetka, which
date back to at least 30,000 years ago.
z Rock art refers to the artistic expressions created
by humans on the surfaces of rocks or cave walls.
These artworks are man-made and represent the
creative abilities and cultural expressions of ancient
communities.
z It is often divided into three forms:
Petroglyphs: These are carved into the rock surface.
Pictographs: These are painted onto the surface.
Earth figures: These are formed on the ground.
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Significance of Rock Painting
z Cultural and Historical Insights: Rock art serves
as a visual record of the beliefs, rituals, and daily
life of ancient communities. It offers a window into
their social structure, religious practices, economic
activities, and cultural traditions. The images and
symbols depicted in rock art provide clues about the
worldview, mythology, and cosmology of the people
who created them.
z Dating and Chronology: Rock art often lacks written
inscriptions or dated materials, making it challenging
to determine its exact age. However, through various
dating methods and comparative studies, rock art can
be used to establish a relative chronology of different
cultural periods and historical events. This aids in
understanding the timeline of human occupation and
cultural developments in a region.
z Understanding Prehistoric Societies: Many rock
art sites date back to prehistoric times, when written
records did not exist. These artworks offer some
of the earliest evidence of human creativity and The paintings are also notable for their use of
communication. They shed light on the behaviors, vibrant colours and their dynamic compositions.
technologies, and artistic skills of our ancient The Bhimbetka rock paintings are a UNESCO World
Heritage Site (in 2003) and are considered to be one
ancestors.
of the most important archaeological sites in India.
z Ritual and Religious Practices: Rock art frequently
depicts religious and ritual activities, including The paintings at Bhimbetka belong to the Upper
Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic, early historic
depictions of deities, shamans, or spiritual practices.
and medieval periods. Hence, most of the paintings
It provides insight into the religious beliefs and
belong to the Mesolithic age.
practices of ancient cultures and how they perceived
the spiritual realm. These paintings found in the rock shelters to the ones
discovered in Kakadu National Park in Australia;
z Artistic Expression: Rock art showcases the artistic
to the cave paintings of Bushmen in Kalahari Desert
capabilities of prehistoric and early historic societies.
and Upper Palaeolithic Lascaux cave paintings in
The motifs, compositions, and techniques used in
France.
rock art give us an understanding of the aesthetics
and artistic styles prevalent in different periods and It is situated south of Bhopal in the Vindhya ranges
regions. of Madhya Pradesh. The rock shelters have more
than 500 rock paintings.
z Preservation of Indigenous Knowledge: In some
cases, rock art depicts knowledge about the natural z Buddhist and Jain Painting: The rise of Buddhism
world, such as wildlife, plant species, or astronomical and Jainism in ancient India led to the development
observations. This indigenous knowledge may
of cave paintings and murals depicting stories from
be crucial for understanding the environment and
resources available to ancient communities. the life of Buddha and Jain Tirthankaras. The Ajanta
and Ellora caves are prime examples of this art
Bhimbetka Rock Paintings form. The first major flowering of painting in India
Cave paintings dating back to approximately 30,000 occurred during the Buddhist period (3rd century
years. Rock shelters that were home to humans,
BCE to 11th century CE). The most famous examples
millennia ago.
of Buddhist painting are the murals of the Ajanta
The Bhimbetka rock paintings are a vast and complex
collection of artworks that offer a glimpse into Caves, which date from the 5th to 7th centuries
the lives of early humans in India. The paintings CE. These paintings depict scenes from Buddhist
depict a wide range of subjects, including animals, mythology and history, as well as secular subjects
humans, hunting scenes, and geometric patterns.
such as courtly life.

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 styles, and they often depicted scenes of courtly life,
Mesolithic­Era Rock Painting hunting, and battles. Notable Mughal painters include
z The Mesolithic Age, also known as the Middle Stone Basawan, Daswant, and Abul Hasan.
Age, was the second part of the Stone Age.
z In India, it spanned from 9,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C.
This age is characterized by the appearance of
Microliths (small bladed stone tools).
z A Mesolithic period rock painting depicting a person
tilling a piece of land has been found in Orvakallu
village in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh.
z The Paintings were made with “natural white
kaolin and red ochre pigments.
z The paintings throw light on aspects of the social
life and culture of the people who lived in the area.
z The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing,
and food gathering; later on they also domesticated
animals.
z The paintings depicted birds, animals, and human
beings. A considerable number of painted rock
shelters have been found in Bhimbetka, Madhya
Pradesh. z Rajput Miniature Paintings: Parallel to the Mughal
z Spread: Rajasthan, south of the river Krishna, style, various Rajput courts in Rajasthan, Central
central and eastern parts of India, and also in India, and Gujarat developed their own distinctive
southern Uttar Pradesh. miniature painting styles. These paintings often
portrayed Rajput nobility, love stories, religious
Medieval Period themes, and local legends. Notable Rajput schools
include the Mewar, Bundi, and Kishangarh schools.
z Mughal Miniature Paintings: The Mughal era (16th The Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan and Gujarat were
to 19th century) marked the introduction of Persian- also important patrons of painting during the Mughal
influenced miniature paintings in India. These highly period. It primarily focuses on the person in the picture
detailed and intricate artworks depicted themes or on trees, camels and falcons. Rajput paintings were
such as courtly life, portraits, historical events, and often characterized by their use of vibrant colors,
mythology. The Mughal Empire was a period of great bold outlines, and idealized figures. Some of the most
cultural and artistic flourishing in India. Mughal famous Rajput painters include Raja Ravi Varma and
paintings were influenced by Persian and European Amrita Sher-Gil.

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z Pahari Paintings: Pahari painting emerged in the hill
regions of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu, and Kashmir.
It encompassed various sub-schools like Basohli,
Kangra, and Guler. Pahari paintings typically depicted
Radha-Krishna love stories, Ragamala series, and
nature-inspired themes.
Miniature Painting
Indian miniature painting is a highly regarded and
intricate form of traditional art that has a rich
history dating back over a thousand years. It is
characterized by its small-scale, detailed, and finely
crafted compositions. Indian miniature painting has
evolved over time and has various regional styles
and schools.
Characteristics
z Miniature paintings are known for their small
size, which allows for intricate details and precise
brushwork.
z Indian miniature paintings often feature a vibrant
and rich color palette. Natural pigments derived
from minerals, plants, and other sources are used
to create vivid hues.
z Some miniature paintings incorporate gold and
silver leaf to add a touch of luxury and opulence
to the artwork.
z These paintings are characterized by their
meticulous attention to detail, with artists using
fine brushes to create intricate patterns, textures,
and designs.
Colonial and Modern Period
There was one prominent artist, Raja Ravi Varma, who
believed in the idea of integrating Indian Art with the
Western style of painting. But, his efforts were not so
appreciated by the nationalists in India.
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Since English rule was enthusiastic about pushing
the scholastic workmanship way of painting in Indian
culture, the uprising of Bengal School was centered
around protecting the ethnic craftsmanship culture in
the country.
The entire patriot craftsmanship development
depended on the reasoning that Indian workmanship is
otherworldly imaginativeness while the English fine arts
just spotlight on materialistic viewpoints.
z Company School Paintings: During British colonial
rule in the 18th and 19th centuries, a new style of
painting known as the Company School emerged. It
blended European artistic techniques with traditional
Indian subjects. These paintings often depicted
British officials, Indian rulers, landscapes, and scenes
of daily life.
z Bengal School of Art: The Bengal School, founded
by Abanindranath Tagore and his disciples in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries, aimed to revive
traditional Indian art forms. It emphasized the
use of Indian themes, techniques, and naturalistic
styles. Prominent artists of the Bengal School include
Nandalal Bose and Jamini Roy.
z Modern and Contemporary Art: Post-independence,
Indian painting witnessed a diverse range of styles
and movements. From the Progressive Artists’
Group, which advocated for modernism, to the
narrative-driven works of artists like MF Husain,
Tyeb Mehta, and Raja Ravi Varma, Indian art has
evolved to incorporate a wide array of themes,
mediums, and styles.
Mural Paintings
Mural, a painting applied to and made integral with
the surface of a wall or ceiling. Here are some of the
most famous mural paintings in India:
Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): The Ajanta Caves
are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the
most important examples of Buddhist art in India.
The caves contain a series of murals that depict
scenes from Buddhist mythology and history. The
paintings are known for their delicate details and
vibrant colors.
39
 Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): The Ellora Caves are Features of the Painting
another UNESCO World Heritage Site and home to a
variety of religious murals. The caves contain Hindu,
Buddhist, and Jain murals, all of which are beautifully
rendered.
Bagh Caves (Madhya Pradesh): The Bagh Caves are
a group of 24 caves that contain some of the finest
examples of mural paintings in India. The caves are
located in the Vindhya Mountains and date back to
the 5th and 6th centuries AD. The paintings depict
scenes from Buddhist mythology and history, as well
as secular subjects such as hunting and courtly life.
Sittanavasal Caves (Tamil Nadu): The Sittanavasal
Caves are a group of 10 caves that contain some of
the earliest examples of mural paintings in India.
The caves date back to the 2nd century BC and z Since it is popular in the Bihar region of Mithila,
the paintings depict scenes from Jain mythology.
Madhubani art is also known as Mithila Art. It is
The paintings are known for their bold colors and
intricate details. distinguished by line drawings packed with vivid
colors and contrasts or patterns.
Kailasanatha Temple (Maharashtra): The
Kailasanatha Temple is a Hindu temple located z Though men are now also involved to meet demand,
in Ellora. The temple is famous for its intricate women in the area have traditionally created this type
carvings, but it also contains a series of mural of painting.
paintings that depict scenes from Hindu mythology.
z The combination of vibrant earthy colors and tribal
The paintings are known for their vibrant colors
and detailed figures. patterns make these paintings very well-liked.
z The artists’ created mineral pigments are used to
3.2 FOLK PAINTINGS OF INDIA create these paintings. On a freshly plastered or mud-
plastered wall, the task is done.

Warli Painting
z Painting of: Gujarat and Maharashtra
z Cultural Association: The wall paintings are usually
done for auspicious occasions like harvesting and
weddings.
z Recognition: In 2014, these paintings got GI tag.
Jivya Soma Mashe got Padma Shri award for his
contribution towards Warli painting.

Madhubani Painting
z Painting of Bihar
z Cultural Association: The paintings are also made
depicting auspicious occasions like birth, marriage
and festivals.
z Recognition: Since the art has remained Unique
to a specific geographical area, it has been given GI
(geographical indication) status. This art got recognition
in 1970, when the President of India honored Jagdamba
Devi of Jitwarpur village with an award.

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Features of the Painting
z Warli paintings are tribal art done majorly by the
Adivasi community located in North Sahyadri Range
in western India.
z The Warli community is the largest tribe located on
the outskirts of Mumbai.
z The beauty of warli paintings is that each one tells a
unique story.
z In Gujarat, it’s a style commonly practiced by the
artisans of the Dang district. It uses a combination
of simple shapes, that each bear a symbolic meaning.
z Traditionally used as a wall decoration, many of the
tribal huts in the villages of South Gujarat have these
paintings on their walls.
z The art-form was first discovered in the early seventies.
z From the depiction of Hindu gods, and other
mythological characters, the Kalighat paintings
developed to reflect a variety of subjects, including
many depictions of everyday life.
z Paintings on the life of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu are
also quite common in this form of painting.
z They painted historic characters like Rani Lakshmibai,
and Duldul, the famous horse of Imam Hussain of Karbala.
Phad painting

Kalighat Painting
z Painting of Kolkata
z Recognition: Anwar Chitrakar is a National Award
winner recipient for Kalighat artworks from India.

z Painting of: Rajasthan

z Cultural Association: Religious

Features
z Phad painting, also known as Phad, is a style of
religious scroll painting and folk painting.
z This distinctive style of painting is traditionally
created on a long piece of cloth or canvas known
as a Phad, with the narratives of the folk deities
of Rajasthan, particularly Pabuji and Devnarayan,
depicted in vivid detail.
z The intricate and colorful illustrations on
these Phads bring to life the tales of the
region’s rich cultural heritage, making them an
important part of Rajasthan’s artistic and religious
traditions.

Pithora Painting
z Painting of: Gujarat, Rajasthan & Madhya Pradesh
z Cultural Association: Family-occasions as rituals.

Features
z These paintings and drawings were done on paper by
a community called “patuas”.
z A Kalighat painting shows the scenes of everyday life
and mythological deities in a captivating manner.
z The Artists of this painting use subtle earthy Indian
colors like indigo, ochre, Indian red, grey, blue and
white.

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Features
z These paintings speak of the social, cultural and
mythological life and beliefs of the tribals.
z The Pithora wall paintings are done on the main wall
of the house, which divides the verandah from the
kitchen. This part of the house is considered sacred
to Pithoro, the god of food grains and the principal
deity of the tribe.
z The same wall is used by the Warli and the Saora tribes
for some of their paintings. The Pithora paintings are
also made if the children are unwell, or if the children
or cattle are unyielding.
z Particularly interesting is the depiction of sexual
intercourse between men and women, as well as animals.
Pichwai Painting
z Painting of: Rajasthan
z Cultural Association: Religious
Features
z Pichwai paintings also known as “Pichvai” is a
traditional Indian art.
z Pichwai art features intricate painting portraying
Lord Krishna (Sreenath ji) which is done on fabric
using dark rich hues.
z The paintings have deep religious roots and are
executed with the utmost devotion by the artists.
z Most works under this style revolve around the figure
of Shrinathji as a manifestation of Krishna and refer
to the incident of him holding the Govardhan hill on
his last finger.
z Subjects of Pichwai paintings are mostly depictions
of Lord Krishna’s various moods or various sevas
(offering) of Srinathji.
Kalamkari Painting
z Painting of: Andhra Pradesh
z Cultural Association:
42
z GI tag: The traditional dye-painted figurative called
Karuppur Kalamkari Paintings, and Kallakuruchi wood
carvings have received the Geographical Indication
(GI) tag.
Features
z Kalamkari literally means, Kalam - pen & kari - work,
i.e., art work done using a pen. Vegetable dyes are
used to colour the designs applied on cloth. This
art is popular in several parts of India, but this style
of Kalamkari flourished at Kalahasti (80 miles north
of Chennai) and at Masulipatnam (200 miles east of
Hyderabad).
z The stories from the epics the Ramayana, the
Mahabharata and the Puranas are painted as
continuous narratives, each important event framed
in a rectangle. Sometimes short episodes from the
stories are also painted.
z The master craftsman draws the outline of the design
with Kalam or pen on the myrobalan treated cloth
using charcoal sticks made from tamarind wood. He/
she draws from the rich repertoire of design and
motifs and iconographical details of various gods and
goddesses as laid down traditionally.
z The colors are obtained from vegetable and mineral
sources. The main colors used are black, red, blue and
yellow, and alum is used as mordant to fix the colors
and to obtain the reds. The gods are painted blue,
and the demons and evil characters in red and green.
Yellow is used for female figures and ornaments. Red
is mostly used as a background. The cotton cloth is
washed in flowing water to remove starch. Keeping
up with the times, the Kalamkari artists are now
designing also for their modern clientele.
z The outlines and main features are done using hand
carved blocks. The finer details are later done using
the pen. Under British rule the designs as well as
the end use of the fabric differed - for garments as
well as furnishings. During this period floral designs
were popular. The artisans were made to create even
portraits of English men.
z The Kalahasti tradition which developed in the
temple region mostly concentrated on themes from
Hindu mythology, epics (Ramayana, Mahabharatha),
images of Gods and heroes.
Thangka Painting
z Painting of: Sikkim, Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh &
Himachal Pradesh
z Recognition: Khandu Wangchuk has won a series of
awards for his art, beginning with the 1981 National
Award (Handicrafts) in Thangka painting, the Bharat
Excellence as part of the Friendship Forum of India
in 2001.
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Features
z These are painted on a base of cotton canvas with
white background with paints made from natural
vegetable dyes or mineral dyes.
z The colors used in the paintings have their own
significance. For example, red is significant for
intensity of passion, be it love or hatred, golden is
for life or birth, white is for serenity, black depicts
anger, green represents consciousness and yellow
shows compassion.
z Once the painting is complete, it is often framed in
colourful silk brocade.
z Thangkas can be divided into three types according
to their depiction and meaning.
 The first shows the life of Buddha from his birth
to his enlightenment.
 The second represents Buddhist beliefs of life and
death including ‘Wheel of Life’.
 The third kind represents paintings that are used
for offerings to the deities or meditation.
Gond Painting
z Painting of: Madhya Pradesh
z Recognition: Recently, Madhya Pradesh’s traditional
Gond painting has been awarded the Geographical
Indication (GI) tag.
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Feature
z Gond painting originated in the Gond tribal regions
of central India, particularly in the states of Madhya
Pradesh. The Gondi people have a rich cultural
heritage, and their art has been passed down through
generations.
z Gond painting, also known as Gond art, is a traditional
form of tribal art that originates from the Gondi
people, who are one of the largest tribal communities
in India.
3.3 PAINTINGS OF UTTAR PRADESH
The tradition of painting in Uttar Pradesh has been
going on since pre-historic times. The cave paintings of
Sonbhadra and Chitrakoot depict scenes of hunting,
war, festivals, dances, romantic life and animals. The
golden period of painting in UP was the Mughal Era.
The art of painting attained its peak during the reign of
Jahangir. The Mughal style of painting remains one of
the greatest achievements of Asian culture and is unique
in its concept, presentation and style.
Hand printing is Uttar Pradesh’s oldest craft. Its origins
can be traced back to 1714 AD, when Farrukhabad,
the city famous for this craft, was established. Since
the days of the Mughals, the state has promoted many
forms of art. Emperors such as Akbar, Shah Jahan,
Dara Sikoh, and Farrukhsiyar were tremendous art
aficionados who established many traditions during
their reign. Nawabs of Awadh and other lords continued
the tradition later. This is the main reason why, from
Benaras to Agra, every small or large town in Uttar
Pradesh is famed for some wonderful art. Another
major pre-modern painting tradition of UP is known
as the Garhwal School which was patronized by the
Kings of Garhwal.
Some of the famous Paintings of Uttar Pradesh is as
follows:
Mirzapur Paintings
z Centre: Likhunia, Bhasauli, Lohri, Kohbar, Vijayagarh
and Ahirora.
z Famous Painting: The poaching scene of Sambhar
using a spear. Scene of poaching a Barasingha and a
poached wild pig.
z These paintings of Uttar Pradesh are of pre-historic
times.
z Some ancient paintings are found from the Caves of
Lakhaniya Dari in Mirzapur and Sonbhadra district.
z Cave paintings of Mirzapur depict scenes of festival,
dance, war and hunting.
z Sonbhadra and Chitrakoot cave paintings throw
light on the period between the Mesolithic and
Neolithic age.
43
Mughal Miniature Paintings
z During the Mughal era, exquisite miniature paintings
flourished in various parts of Uttar Pradesh, including
Agra and Lucknow.
z These paintings depicted intricate details, vibrant
colors, and themes such as courtly life, portraits, and
historical events.
z The golden period of paintings in Uttar Pradesh was
the Mughal Era. The Mughal style of paintings is also
known as Agra style of paintings. The gallery of Agra
was built by Jahangir.
z Miniature paintings were brought to India by the
Mughals who were assisted by the Persians. It was
started by Humayun. These paintings depict the
events and lifestyles of the Mughals.
z Humayun appointed Persian artists Mir Syed Ali and
Khwaja Abdus Samad to his court.
z A typical miniature painting has a phrase or poetry
written in the Urdu script on the upper or cover end.
Bundelkhand Painting
The art of painting reached the epitome of
perfection in the area of Bundelkhand when the
King of Orchha reconstructed the temple of Keshav
Dev in Mathura. The paintings of Mathura, Gokul,
Vrindavan and Govardhan depict scenes from the
life of Lord Krishna.
Banaras Gharana Paintings
Banaras, also known as Varanasi, has a rich artistic
tradition. The Banaras Gharana style of painting is
influenced by the Mughal miniature tradition and
showcases meticulous details, refined techniques,
and themes such as mythology, nature, and religious
scenes.
44
Rajput Paintings
It was started by Chandel kings of Kannauj and
Bundelkhand. These paintings show the normal life
of persons. They focus on the person in the picture or
on trees, camels and falcons. These are based on love
stories, their culture and tradition.These are usually
devotional and Religious in Nature.
Modern Paintings
z Modern paintings were started and developed in the
20th century.
z The art and craft college was established in 1911 at
Lucknow.
z The disciple of Ravindra nath Tagore, Asit Kumar
Haldar was the first Principal of this college.
z The Indian School of Painting was brought to the
Curriculum in 1925 and graphic arts courses were
introduced in 1963.
z In 1975 this college was merged with the University
of Lucknow as a constituent college. It offers different
undergraduate, postgraduate and diploma courses on
arts.
Importance of Paintings
Paintings hold significant importance in Uttar Pradesh,
both culturally and artistically. Following are the
highlights:
z Paintings in Uttar Pradesh are a vital part of the
state’s cultural heritage. They reflect the rich history,
traditions, and customs of the region. Many painting
styles and techniques have been passed down through
generations, preserving the cultural identity of
the state.
z Paintings provide a platform for artists in Uttar
Pradesh to express their creativity and imagination.
Through their artworks, artists can convey their
emotions, thoughts, and perspectives on various
subjects, including religion, mythology, nature, and
daily life. This artistic expression contributes to the
diverse artistic landscape of the state.
z The presence of vibrant art scenes and the availability
of traditional paintings also contribute to the local
economy through art sales, galleries, and art-related
tourism activities.
z Paintings in Uttar Pradesh often incorporate traditional
techniques and styles that have been practiced for
centuries. By continuing these techniques, artists
help preserve and pass on the traditional artistic
knowledge to future generations. This ensures the
continuity of ancient art forms and prevents them
from being forgotten.
z Paintings in Uttar Pradesh often reflect social issues,
historical events, and contemporary concerns. Artists
use their creativity to raise awareness and stimulate
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 dialogue on important topics such as social inequality, At a Glance
environmental conservation, gender issues, and
Folk Painting State
political activism. These artworks can inspire
Madhubani Painting Bihar
discussions and contribute to social change within
Pattachitra Art Odisha
the state and beyond.
Pithora Painting Gujrat, Rajasthan & M.P
Overall, paintings in Uttar Pradesh play a vital role in
Kalamkari Paintings Andhra Pradesh
preserving cultural heritage, promoting artistic expression,
Kalighat Pat Art West Bengal
boosting tourism, and contributing to the state’s economy.
Warli Art Maharashtra
They are a testament to the artistic richness and diversity
Phad Painting Rajasthan
of the region and provide a means for artists to express
their creativity and engage with society. Expected Questions
1. Discuss various folk Paintings of India.
Personalities from Uttar Pradesh
2. Discuss the significance of Painting in the culture of
related to Paintings
India.
z Jagannath Murlidhar (Gokul): He made wall
3. Paintings in Uttar Pradesh often reflect social issues,
paintings in Vidhan Sabha.
historical events, and contemporary events. Comment
z Raj Kapoor Chitera (Prayagraj): He is known for
4. Discuss the significance of rock paintings in
his 1500 ft statue of Sachin Tendulkar.
understanding prehistoric cultures and societies.
z Krishna Khanna (Kanpur) : Paintings related to
Provide examples from different regions to support
European Culture.
your argument.
z Ramchndra Shukla (Basti): He is known for
5. “Discuss the historical and cultural significance of the
Aakansha, Parajay, Pashchatap.
Bhimbetka rock paintings in India.”

v v v

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 4 Indian Handicrafts
Handicrafts in India have a long and rich tradition,
reflecting the country’s diverse cultural heritage and
skilled craftsmanship. Indian handicrafts encompass a
wide range of artistic expressions, incorporating various
materials, techniques, and regional styles.
Handicrafts are a mixture of all the things that are
made by a man/woman’s hands. Many States in India
have their own handicrafts that show skill and artistic
efficiency. Artists use their skills to create various types
of arts that might be decorative or functional.
In the ancient period, hands were used to make daily
useful items. For instance, the weapons to hunt,
equipment for farming, utensils for making and
preserving food, building homes to reside, etc. all
were made by hand. Hence, the technical excellence in
making these equipment led to the evolution of ‘crafts’
or ‘Handicrafts’.and it requires more creativity and
required skills.
4.1 EVOLUTION OF HANDICRAFT
The history of Indian handicrafts is as old as the Indian
civilization of Indus valley civilization i.e., almost
around 5000 years from now.
Handiworks in India have advanced with the development
in civilization, the necessities of individuals, their
convictions on religion, and later on according to the
requirements of the tip top and governing faction.
The Indian Handwork embraced the new strategies of
craftsmanship as well as had the choice to make a mix
of both Indian and Unfamiliar strengths.
Indian handicrafts’ history can be roughly divided into
three eras: the Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. These
periods can alternatively be divided into the Pre-British,
British Rule, and Post-Independence eras.
Ancient Handicrafts
z Handicrafts in India have a long tradition since
beginning. The oldest handicraft items can be traced
back to the Harappan Civilization.
z Since the Vedic era, artisans have also been familiar
with the arts of weaving, metal, stone, and terracotta
sculpture, jewelry, and ceramics. Writings from
the Vedic era make mention of artists who practiced
weaving, sculpting, and other arts.
z There is additional evidence about these craftsmanship
that they were traded by traders with different
civilisations of the world. Merchants brought new
methods that will improve their local work which
gives importance to handicraft.
z The Gupta rulers were the primary rulers who
arranged the specialty of handiworks viz make for
day to day needs, for exchange, for the exclusive
class and the modern creation. Metalcraft, ivory art
and ornaments were noticeable during the Gupta
tradition.
Pre British Handicrafts
z In Pre British India, the creation of crafted works was
the greatest wellspring of work for individuals.
z Craftsmanship was ordinarily coordinated around
nearby craftsman networks and organizations.
Artisans passed down their abilities through ages,
making major areas of strength for craftsmanship.
z The craft of stone cutting was conspicuous in south
India. Many rulers and honorability belittled and
advanced painstaking work. The Mughal rulers,
for instance, assumed a huge part in cultivating the
improvement of wonderful materials, gems, and
different specialties.
British India Handicrafts
z During the period, Handiworks of India endured
difficulties because of the decay of supporters like
royal states and mechanization. The strategy of
smothering neighborhoods created by Britishers
prompted a sharp downfall.
z Handicrafts played a significant role in the economic
and cultural landscape of India during the British
colonial period, which lasted from the mid-18th
century until 1947.
Post-British Period Handicrafts
After the Independence of India, the plight of artisans
and craftsmen was taken into consideration and various
actions were taken to improve the condition and preserve
the traditions. The actions brought about making
mindfulness among the general population about the
handcrafted Indian merchandise and the significance of
its craft and culture.
4.2 GLASSWARE
The first glass making was found in the Indian epic,
Mahabharata. And the material evidence is found from
the Painted Grey ware culture of Ganges valley. According
to Vedic literature, glass is known as Kanch or kaca.
According to scholars, glass-making in India may have
started in 1730 BCE in the plains of Rivers Ganga and
Yamuna. However, some of the primitive glass finds
from the Harappan culture date back to 1200 BCE. The
Harappans dealt with a type of proto-glass with the After the Gupta period, we have seen new art for
Mesopotamian region. Glass beads of a red-brown color decoration called painting and molding.
have been discovered from these locations. There is evidence of pottery production from all around
Many glass items in different colors such as bangles, India, both by hand and on a wheel. The position of
beads, and ear-reels have been found in multiple (more the potter in Harappan society was one that was highly
than 200) archaeological sites that have been excavated significant. The craft was well developed. The product
in different parts of India. In some places, glass tiles was fired in a rectangular oven. Effective seals, grain,
and parts of glass vessels have also been found. There and water storage containers were created. The potter
are more than 30 sites that are purely glass-making holds a special place in India’s craft traditions. More
sites. Some of the these important sites are Ahicchatra, than a million potters reside in India. The potters are
Maheshwar, Kopia, Hastinapur, Takshashila, Ujjain, excellent practitioners of their craft.
Nalanda, Brahmapuri, Kolhapuri, and Nasik in North
India and Brahmagiri, Paiyampalli, Sulur, and Arikamedu Terracotta pottery is prevalent throughout India and involves shaping
in South India. clay into various forms, which are then sun-dried or fired in kilns.

After about 100 years, glass-making once again gained

Blue Pottery is a traditional craft associated with Jaipur, Rajasthan. It
steam. In the 17th century, Firozabad in Uttar Pradesh, involves the use of a unique technique where the pottery is glazed and
known as the glass city of India, started producing decorated with blue and white designs.

glass. There are multiple areas such as Naini, Hiranagua,

Longpi Pottery, also known as Black Pottery, originates from Manipur. It
Bahjoi, Sasni, Allahabad, and Hathras, among others is made using a unique blend of clay mixed with serpentinite rock, giving
that produce glass. With slow progress, the first it a distinct black color.

glass factory was set up in 1908 in Maharashtra by

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Now, glass is also
produced in other states like West Bengal and Punjab.
4.4 IVORY CRAFTING
Native glass bangles are a specialty of Karnataka. With
the opening of glass operations in India by companies Ivory carving in India has been an extremely common and
like AGI, Piramal, HNGIL, Asahi, and Saint Gobain, a high famous craft since ancient times. The Vedic epics include
level of modernization was attained. ivory work amongst the noblest of crafts. According to
history, King Darius utilized ivory decorations in his palace
Under the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, in the sixth century B.C., while King Solomon purchased
Namda craft of kashmir is being successfully Indian ivory in the tenth century B.C. Khadgaon or the
revived and the first batch of Namda art products sandals made of ivory were used in India, particularly by
for export to the UK has been shipped. the Brahmins and religious figures who considered shoes
made of animal skin unclean.
4.3 POTTERY AND CLAY
Pottery is the most sensual of all arts. In India, we have
had a great tradition of pottery making. In fact, being an
agricultural country, pots for storage of water and grains
were in demand. The real beginning of Indian pottery
from the Indus Valley Civilization and the art of
shaping and baking clay articles as pottery, earthenware
and porcelain has continued through the ages. While
pottery and earthenware are definitely utilitarian and
often decorative, porcelain and studio pottery belong to
the sphere of art.

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India is famous for crafts on Tusks of elephants. The
Ivory carvers of Bengal, Jaipur and Delhi produce
objects like ambari hathi or processional elephant,
models of bullock carts, caskets, book covers, sandals,
palanquins and frames for the European market. In
Orissa, there has been a tradition of offering ivory
furniture to the temple in Puri.
In Kerala and Karnataka, it is customary to build little
shrines with delicate pillars and dexterous floral low
relief work, caskets with scenes from myths and stories,
statues of gods and goddesses, and Christian icons and
symbols. Kerala has a tradition of painting on ivory. The
state recognises figures of gods and goddesses from
Ramayana and other epic stories.
Delhi is another important centres for ivory carving.
Popular items like chess sets, billiard balls and small
articles like scent bottles, paper knives, trinkets or pan
One of the oldest art forms is of bronze work as evinced
boxes, and a number of jewelry items like beads, bead
by the bronze statue of a Dancing Girl from Mohenjo
necklaces, bangles and rings are made here.
Daro, which has been dated around 3500-3000 BCE.
Uttar Pradesh is known for its Hindu and Buddhist The earliest literary source about different methods of
figures of deities, dancing poses and decorative plaques. casting bronze can be found in the Matsya Purana.
Gujarati ivory artisans produce statues of gods and
Bronze craft in India is traditionally made using the lost
humans of the highest quality. Incredible miniatures wax casting method. This method involves creating a
of folk or heroic story characters and elephants with mold out of wax, filling the mold with molten bronze,
elaborate decorations can be found in Punjab. and then allowing the wax to melt away. The resulting
Rajasthan is likewise popular for its ivory things, bronze sculpture is a hollow casting, with a thin outer
which incorporate fans with enchanting figures for shell and a solid inner core.
handles and the focal points for the feasting table
with lavishly cut containers. In Rajasthan, Bharatpur,
Udaipur, Jaipur and Jodhpur are significant places for
ivory cutting. While Jaipur is renowned for its cut ivory,
Jodhpur had practical experience in ivory bangles. The
bangles were worn to cover the entire arm and they
diminished in size from just underneath the shoulder
to the wrist. The Jali-work of a ribbon-like complexity
is a declaration to the ivory carvers, fine eyes and
unerring hands. Creature figures, birds, fish plate,
paper blades and a large group of other enlivening
items are cut with much creativity in ivory. The work
on the entryways of the Golden castle in Jaipur and the
stunning trim in the Mysore royal residence entryways
and the Brilliant Sanctuary at Amritsar announce the Styles
structural embellishment with Ivory. Chola bronzes: Chola bronzes are known for their
intricate details and realistic representations of the
4.5 BRONZE CRAFT human form. They were made during the Chola Empire
(9th-13th centuries CE) and are some of the most prized
Bronze craft in India has a long and rich history, dating examples of bronze craft in India.
back to the Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE). Madurai bronzes: Madurai bronzes are known for
Bronze was one of the most important metals used by their bold colors and stylized representations of Hindu
the Indus people, and they used it to make a variety of deities. They were made in the city of Madurai in Tamil
objects, including jewelry, figurines, and weapons. Nadu and are still made today by traditional craftsmen.

48 Art and Culture UPPSC

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Mysore bronzes: Mysore bronzes are known for their
intricate filigree work and delicate detailing. They were
made in the city of Mysore in Karnataka and are still
made today by traditional craftsmen.
Centers for Brass Handicrafts in India
India is the heart of handmade things, with each state
having its distinct style. Brass handicrafts are created
throughout the country, however, the following states
are regarded as brass handicraft manufacturing hubs in
India:
Andhra Pradesh: Pembarthi (Warangal district of
Andhra Pradesh) is famous for its brass handicrafts.
These fashion designs were influenced by the network
of the adjacent temples of Lepakshi, Orugallu, and
Ramappa. In this region, sculptures with lotus symbols,
Hindu myths, and a goose-shaped top are well-known.
Another well-known location for this is in the Andhra
Pradesh district of Warangal, Tirupati.
Using the Dokra technique, jewelry artisans in India’s
West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa create
intricate pieces. A wax mold is made over a clay
foundation using wax. The mold is then filled with clay
to make a replica of the original wax shape. This clay
cast may be dried and refilled with molten metal to
create a wax copy.
Kashmir: Kashmir handicrafts pique the curiosity
of people all over the world. This region produces
handcrafted brass pieces with almond, chinar leaf, and
vine designs. Ladakh is well-known for its ornate brass
stoves, which are handcrafted and frequently incorporate
copper and silver.
4.6 LEATHER PRODUCTS
The craft of Leather tanning is known to have existed
starting around 3000 BCE.
Although initially not many creatures whose skins were
tanned were tigers furthermore, deer’s, the most well
known creature for the cleaning, became camels.
It is expressed that in the old period, the rishis or the
astute men staying in the backwoods involved creature
UPPSC Indian Handicrafts
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skins as mats. Despite the fact that Leather was utilized in
the Mughal time frame, the degenerative idea of Leather
makes it challenging for us to track down material proof
for it.
Leather is mainly useful to make footwear, wallets and
bags. Rajasthan being the biggest market for the leather
industry which used to make different types of leather
bags. Mojadis are famous from Jaipur and Jodhpur.
Another major centre is situated in Kanpur
(Uttar Pradesh) whose economy is adjusted with
a large level of leather products. Maharashtra is
also famous for kolhapuri footwear. Kolhapuris,
the sturdy leather chappal which rose from its humble
rural origins to involve the high table of fashion
globally, now has a Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
4.7 WOODEN WORK
India has large forest covers and wood is one the major
products derived from these resources. One of the
biggest commodities made from wood is the furniture.
We have different kinds of exquisitely carved woodwork
furniture in sheesham wood, pinewood, etc.
Gujarat Wood-Craft - Wood cutting has forever been a
vital piece of Gujarat’s way of life. The traditional and
old houses are as yet seen having cut wooden entryways
with the pictures of Goddess Lakshmi and God Ganesh
in the opening. The Sadeli art of Surat is additionally
well known whether you really want stuff like cut
articles and boxes with definitively cut mathematical
shapes and plans.
Himachal Pradesh Wood-Craft - The tradition of temple
wood carving is important in the state of Himachal
Pradesh where the complex etching on the gates and
pillars can be seen. The rural artisans are busy in making
wooden sculptures according to their local styles.
Presently, the craftsmen show their skill by making
homewares like wooden vessels and eating bowls.
Bharmour and Chatrahi are the famed places whereas
Chamba specializes in wooden boxes for grain storage.
Punjab Wood-Craft - The old centres of woodcraft
rich places in Punjab are Amritsar, Hoshiarpur,
Bhera, Ludhiana, Chiniot and Jalandhar. These places
predominantly use Shisham and Himalayan Cedar with
minimum under-cutting.
Kashmir Wood-Craft - The characteristics of Kashmir’s
woodcraft is the soft and delicate-toned wood of
Walnut trees. It is world-famous for its minuscule
and magnificent floral designs carved on things like
tabletops, table lamps, boxes, cigarette and cigar cases.
The state is also famous for items like furniture, bowls,
lattice screens and also panels on ceilings and pillars
known as Khatambad.
49
Ladakh’s Wood carving - Ladakh is known for its
pristine glory as a secluded tourist attraction. Among
the arts and crafts of Ladakh, one such sublime art is
woodcarving, which has been there for centuries and is
passed down to generations as a means of invaluable
cultural inheritance. It is the importance, uniqueness,
and unparalleled craftsmanship of this art that earned
it recognition by being the first local art to be granted a
Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
4.8 HANDICRAFTS OF UTTAR
PRADESH
Glassware
Firozabad in Uttar Pradesh is synonymous with glass
as the entire community is involved with this craft.
Traditionally this town produced only glass bangles
but presently glass table ware and other sophisticated
products are produced. Varanasi is known for its glass
beads and a very thin glass from which little pieces
locally called tikulis are cut. These adorn the foreheads
of women or are used for decorating fabrics, while glass
mouthpieces for hookahs and toys containing coloured
liquid called panchkora are the specialities of Saharanpur.
50
Glass of Firozabad got Geographical
Recognition (GI)
Varanasi is one of India’s largest exporters of beads
and bead products. Different types of beads are used
to ornament various products like clothing, decorative
items, curtains, purses, clothing accessories, jewelry
and suchlike, and this trend is increasing rapidly. More
than 2,000 artisans are involved in bead production
and handicrafts in Varanasi, with most of them being
concentrated in the areas of Chandpur, Kandwan and
Ramnagar. Glass, the major raw material required,
is getting expensive and scarce. Better training and
technology are also needed to scale up this growing
industry, since it has great potential. Major products
include earrings, bracelets and necklaces made out of
multicolored glass beads.
Pottery
Khurja Pottery
z Khurja in Uttar Pradesh is famous for its vibrant and
colorful pottery. The distinctive blue pottery of Khurja
features intricate hand-painted designs on white or
blue backgrounds. These ceramics include tableware,
vases, tiles, and decorative pieces. Khurja pottery is
about 600 years old.
z It is a distinct style of pottery as it is not made using
traditional clay but a mix of clay with feldspar and
quartz. Feldspar and Quartz are two materials that are
used to add natural glazing to clay even before molding
the article. It is said to be the oldest glazed pottery of
India and has identifiable painted floral patterns in
blue or brown color on off-white backgrounds. Initially,
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 red clay pottery was made, then later they moved on
to blue glaze and on red clay articles with engravings
of white clay, painting floral designs. Khurja pottery
is protected under the Geographical indication
(GI) of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects
of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement
in 2015.
Metalware
Uttar Pradesh is known as the largest Copper and
Brass making State in the country with thousands of
establishments. In domestic-ware, the small water-pots,
lotas in common parlance, are recognised by the name
of their origin like Banaras, Sitapur, Etawah etc. The
various articles of ritual are largely cast in copper.
Two methods are broadly used in the casting of these
Metalwares. Para, used for creating a single composite
item, uses mold. Whereas the other, darza is a type of
sand-casting where several parts of a complex object are
separately maintained.
Moradabad in the State of Uttar Pradesh has become
famous for its art metalware. It is particularly noted for
its colored enameling as well as the intricate engravings
in niello.
Metalware in Uttar Pradesh also counts the utilitarian
brass. A slight coating of lac is applied on the article.
Afterwards, the pattern is first traced on it and
subsequently engraved with a steel pointed pencil.
Different varieties can likewise be seen among the Uttar
Pradesh Metalware. Plates, boxes, espresso pots, cups
and bowls are engraved with various mathematical and
botanical examples. These plans are frequently decorated
with energetically hued lac or vegetable tar. Some of
the time, the beautifications on these articles might
incorporate pictures suggestive of the style of Mughal
scaled down painting. Indeed, even episodes from the
Hindu Sacred texts track down a spot in these metalwares.
Varanasi and Mirzapur are two places in Northern
India where brass handicrafts are deeply found. Similarly,
Varanasi is where cast sculptures of deities, as well as
household utensils are made using copper and brass.
UPPSC Indian Handicrafts
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Moradabad is a city in Uttar Pradesh state of India.
It is situated at the bank of River RamGanga (a tributary
to the great Ganges). Moradabad is known for its brass
work and has carved a niche for itself in the handicraft
industry throughout the world. The brassware is
exported to countries like the USA, Britain, Canada,
Germany and to the Middle East and Asia. Therefore
Moradabad is also called “Brass City” or Peetal Nagri.
The brassware industry in Moradabad evolved in
the 19th century and the British introduced this art
to foreign markets. Other immigrating artisans from
Benaras, Lucknow, Agra and many other places formed
the current cluster of brassware industry in Moradabad.
Moradabad Metal Craft has been Conferred with
the Geographical Indication (GI) status by the
Government of India in 2013.
Ivory Craft
Agra is very famous for Clay work. This was introduced
by Mughals in Uttar Pradesh. The work of Mosaic is inlay
of crystal, blood stone, carnelian and garnets etc. Some
of the Unique examples are Taj mahal, Place of Akbar at
Agra.
Recently, the well-known baked clay or ‘terracotta’
products made from special clay found in the Bhathat
area of Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh have got
the Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
Leather
The largest center of the leather industry in the country
is Kanpur from Uttar Pradesh. In the British period,
the presence of a large number of troops in the region
created a natural demand for various leather products.
Even before the establishment of factories, leather
goods were manufactured by the village craftsmen as a
cottage industry which used to meet the local demand
for carriage, harness, saddlers and pots. A variety of
leather products like footwear, belts, purses, slippers,
garments, saddles are made here. Kanpur city
contributes over 20% of the total leather and leather
goods export of India. The products made here are
exported to various countries including several US and
European countries.
51
Wood-Craft
Existing Woodcraft
Product Ranges of
Saharanpur
Household Decorative and
Utility Products Toys
Religious Products
Uttar Pradesh is well-known for its wood work and there
is a large variety of wood used here including sisam,
sal and dudhi. The wood work done at Saharanpur
has the typical perforated lacy work. For the big pieces
small lattice frames are made and fitted together. The
wood used here is a rich medium-brown shisham with
deep grains. The wood carvers at Saharanpur have
a natural skill for fine handwork and the fret work-
jali, mehrab or archways motifs -and grapevine or
the anguri work are similar to the stone design work
of Agra. Brass, copper, ivory and plastic inlay work
is also done here. Inlay work in Nagina is done on
ebony wood.
Popularly known as the “sheesham wood village”,
Saharanpur is home to some of India’s finest
woodcarvers. The city is internationally famous for
this craft and its artisans who have been creating
magic for years. They “breathe life into dead trees” is
how they like to put it. Intricate and fine workmanship
are what makes these products unique. The vine-leaf
patterns are a speciality of this region. Geometric
and figurative carving is also done along with superb
brass inlay work. Other materials like wrought iron,
ceramics and glass are being combined with wood to
give a new dimension to the craft and “contemporize”
the traditional products.
Saharanpur village is famous for its wood carving and
lacy craft culture. This village in Uttar Pradesh boasts
wood carving as its pride and thus got recognized by
the GI of India for cottage industry craft and agricultural
products.
52
Carpet
Furniture
z The carpets of Uttar Pradesh have different
designs and various names like Jamabar, Kandhari,
Kethariwala, Jal, etc.
z Carpets of Uttar Pradesh are particularly known all
across the globe for their unique colours and designs.
z Bhadohi, Mirzapur and Agra are the bigger
carpet hubs in Uttar Pradesh. Their designs have
been done by the native weavers. These include
various tints of Taj Mahal in natural colour or in
subdued colours.
z Bhadohi is the largest carpet manufacturing centre
in the country and is also known as Carpet City. The
silk carpets of Bhadohi are famous around the South
Asian region. These carpets have Persian patterns on
them and are of fine qualities.
z Agra in Uttar Pradesh was the first carpet centre
in Mughal India. The carpets of Uttar Pradesh come
with hand imprinted or hand carved borders in rose
beige, honey, ivory and Iraq green colour.
Today, Indian handicrafts continue to enchant the
world with their beauty and uniqueness. They are
not just products; they are expressions of India’s soul,
creativity, and traditions. Supporting and appreciating
these crafts is not only a celebration of artistry but
also a commitment to preserving the cultural identity
and economic well-being of countless artisans who
continue to weave the threads of India’s vibrant craft
heritage.They have been a source of employment,
income, and empowerment for countless artisans and
their communities.
ODOP (One District One Product)
of Uttar Pradesh
In a state as vast as Uttar Pradesh – a geographical
expanse of 2,40,928 sq km, a population of 204.2
million people – there cannot but be great diversity in
all facets of life. The UP government’s One District, One
Product scheme aims to encourage such indigenous and
specialized products and crafts.
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 Name of the District Products Name of the District Products
Agra Leather Products Gonda Food Processing
(Pulses)
Aligarh Locks and Hardware
Gorakhpur Terracotta
Ambedkar Nagar Textile Products
Hamirpur Shoes
Amethi Moonj Products
Hapur Home Furnishing
Amroha Musical Instruments
Hardoi Handloom
Auraiya Food Processing
(Desi Ghee) Hathras Hing Asafoetida
Ayodhya Jaggery Jalaun Handmade Paper Art
Azamgarh Black Pottery Jaunpur Woollen Carpets (Dari)
Baghpat Home Furnishing Jhansi Soft Toys
Bahraich Wheat-Stalk Handicrafts Kannauj Perfume (Attar)
Ballia Bindi Kanpur Dehat Aluminum Utensils
Balrampur Food Processing (Pulses) Kanpur Nagar Leather Products
Banda Shazar Stone Craft Kasganj Zari Zardozi
Barabanki Textile Products Kaushambi Food Processing
(Banana)
Bareilly Zari-Zardozi
Kushinagar Banana Fiber Products
Basti Wood Craft
Lakhimpur Kheri Tribal Craft
Bhadohi Carpet
Lalitpur Zari Silk Sarees
Bijnor Wood Craft
Lucknow Chikankari & Zari
Budaun Zari-Zardozi Zardozi
Bulandshahar Ceramic Product Maharajganj Furniture
Chandauli Zari-Zardozi Mahoba Gaura Stone Craft
Chitrakoot Wooden Toys Mainpuri Tarkashi Art
Deoria Decorative Products Mathura Sanitary Fittings
Etawah Textile Products Mau Powerloom Textile
Etah Ankle Bells, Bells and Meerut Sports Products
Brass Products
Mirzapur Carpets
Farrukhabad Textile Printing
Moradabad Metal Craft
Fatehpur Bedsheets and Iron
Fabrication Works Muzaffarnagar Jaggery

Firozabad Glassware Pilibhit Flute

Gautam Buddh Nagar Readymade Garments Pratapgarh Amla Products

Ghazipur Jute Wall Hanging Prayagraj Moonj Products

Ghaziabad Engineering Goods Raebareli Wood Work

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 Name of the District Products Name of the District Products
Rampur Applique Work along Unnao Zari Zardozi
with Patch Work, Zari
Patchwork Varanasi Banarasi Silk Saree

Saharanpur Wood Crafting Expected Questions

Sambhal Handicraft (Horn-Bone) 1. “Examine the role of traditional handicrafts in India’s
cultural heritage, economy, and socio-economic
Sant Kabir Nagar Brassware Craft
development.”
Shahjahanpur Zari Zardozi 2. Handicrafts in India are important towards the culture
Shamli Iron Arts of India. Discuss.
3. B ronze craft in India has a long and rich history.
Shravasti Tribal Craft Comment to justify the statement.
Siddharthnagar Kala Namak Rice 4. Brief about handicrafts of Uttar Pradesh.
Sitapur Carpet (Dari) 5. Does giving recognition to a particular handicraft
through ODOP serve the purpose for its increased
Sonbhadra Carpets marketability? Critically examine this statement in the
Sultanpur Moonj Products light of some more measures which may be significant
in this regard.

v v v

54 Art and Culture UPPSC

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 5 Indian Dance Forms
According to Hindu mythology, Lord Brahma is credited
with creating dance. A treatise on performing arts called
the Natya Shastra, which was written by the sage
Bharata Muni under the inspiration of Brahma, gave
rise to a structured form of dance and drama. He created
the Natyaveda (body of dance knowledge) by combining
pathya (words) from the Rigveda, abhinaya (gestures)
from the Yajurveda, geet (music) from the Samaveda,
and rasa (emotions) from the Atharvaveda.
Hindu deities Shiva, Kali, and Krishna, three of the
most well-known, are frequently depicted dancing.
Popular themes in Hindu mythology include Shiva’s
cosmic dance, tandava, Kali’s dance of creation and
destruction, and Krishna’s dance with the gopis (cow-
herd females) in the Rasa Lila.
As per Natya Shastra of Bharat Muni, there are two
basic aspects of Indian classical dance:
z Lasya: Lasya is a graceful and gentle form of dance
associated with the goddess Parvati, who is often
depicted as the divine embodiment of beauty, love,
and femininity.
z Tandava, on the other hand, is a powerful and
vigorous style of dance that represents the
masculine aspect and is associated with Lord
Shiva, who is often depicted as the cosmic dancer
or “Nataraja.”
As per Abhinaya Darpan, Nandikeshwara’s famous
treatise on dance, an act has been broken into three
basic elements:
z Nritta: Nritta refers to the purely abstract or
non-representational aspect of dance. It focuses
on the rhythmic and aesthetic elements of
movement. Nritta involves intricate footwork,
body movements, and gestures that are not tied
to any specific storytelling or emotions.
z Nritya: Nritya is the expressive aspect of classical
dance. Unlike Nritta, Nritya is concerned with
conveying emotions, stories, and themes through
movement, facial expressions, and gestures. It
combines elements of Nritta (pure dance) with
Abhinaya (the art of expression). In Nritya, the
dancer uses Abhinaya to communicate narratives,
characters, and sentiments to the audience.
z Natya: “Natya” is a term in Indian classical
performing arts that encompasses various forms
of theatrical and artistic expression.
According to Natya Shastra of Bharat Muni, these are
the nine rasas: love, heroism, pathos, humour, anger,
fear, disgust, wonder, and peace.
5.1 EVOLUTION IN INDIA
The history of dancing can be traced back to ancient
India. Dance scenes are seen in the oldest paleolithic and
neolithic cave paintings, such as those at the Bhimbetka
rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh, which are a UNESCO
World Heritage Site. Several sculptures found at Indus
Valley Civilisation archaeological sites, now distributed
between Pakistan and India, show dance figures. For
example, the Dancing Girl sculpture is dated to about
2500 BCE, showing a 10.5 centimeter high figurine in a
dance pose.
There were no designated auditoriums or theaters in
ancient India, therefore dance was typically a practical
activity performed for religion, amusement, or leisure.
Typically, dancers would perform in temples during
festivals and seasonal harvests. As a form of worship,
dance was frequently done in front of deities.
Even in modern India, deities are invoked by religious
folk dance forms from ancient times. Mudras, or hand
gestures, are also used in classical dance styles like
Bharata Natyam to recreate scenes from mythological
stories like Krishna fighting Kaliya.
Dancers, particularly those from South India, gradually
made their way from temples to the homes of royal
families, where they performed only for royalty.
India offers a number of classical dance forms, each of
which can be traced to different parts of the country.
Classical and folk dance forms also emerged from
Indian traditions, epics and mythology. There are many
Indian folk dances such as Bhangra, Bihu, Ghumura
Dance, Sambalpuri, Chhau and Garba and special
dances observed in regional festivals such as Lohri and
Navratri.
5.2 CLASSICAL DANCE OF INDIA
Nurtured for centuries, dance in India has evolved
in different parts of the country its own distinct style
taking on the culture of that particular region, each
acquiring its own flavour. Presently, Sangeet Natak
Academy (India’s National Academy) recognizes only
eight classical dances of India, these are Bharatnatyam,
Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Mohiniyattam, Kathak, Manipuri,
Odissi and Sattriya. Then, there are regional variations,
the dances of rural and tribal areas, which range from
simple, joyous celebrations of the seasons, harvest or
birth of a child to dances for the propitiation of demons
or for invoking spirits. Today there is also a whole new
body of modern experimental dance.
Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu)
z Bharatanatyam is one of the most ancient and classical
dance forms of India. It originated in the state of
Tamil Nadu and has deep roots in the rich cultural
and artistic traditions of the region. It is considered to
be over 2000 years old. Several texts beginning with
56
Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra (200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.)
provide information on this dance form.
z The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of
the main sources of textual material, for the study
of the technique and grammar of body movement in
Bharatnatyam Dance.
z There is also a great deal of visual evidence of
this dance form in paintings and stone and metal
sculptures of ancient era.
z On the gopurams of the Chidambaram temple,
one can see a series of Bharatanatyam poses, frozen
in stone as it were, by the sculptor. In many other
temples, the charis and karanas of the dance are
represented in sculpture and one can make a study
of the dance form.
z At first there is an invocation song. The first dance
item is the alarippu, literally meaning – to adorn
with flowers.
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z The next item, the jatiswaram is a short pure dance
piece performed to the accompaniment of musical
notes of any raga of Carnatic music.
z As a solo dance, Bharatnatyam leans heavily on the
abhinaya or mime aspect of dance – the nritya, where
the dancer expresses the sahitya through movement
and mime. Shabdam follows the jathiswaram in a
Bharatnatyam dance performance.
z The common pieces are keerthanam, kritis, padams
and javalis. In the keerthanam, the text is important
whereas kriti is a composition in which the musical
aspect is highlighted. Both are usually devotional in
character and represent episodes from the lives of
Rama, Siva, Vishnu, etc. Padams and javalis, are on
the theme of love, often divine.
z A Bharatanatyam performance ends with a thillana
which has its origin in the tarana of Hindustani
music. It is a vibrant dance performed with a few lines
of sahitya. The finale of the piece is a series of well
designed rhythmic lines reaching a climax.
z The performance ends with a mangalam invoking the
blessings of the Gods.
Some Famous Personalities
Rukmini Devi Arundale: Rukmini Devi Arundale
is often considered the pioneer of revitalizing
Bharatanatyam and bringing it to the global stage. She
played a crucial role in transforming Bharatanatyam
from its traditional temple art form to a respected
and widely recognized classical dance. Rukmini Devi
Arundale established Kalakshetra, an institution
dedicated to the promotion and preservation of
Indian arts and culture.
Yamini Krishnamurthy: Yamini Krishnamurthy is
a highly acclaimed Bharatanatyam and Kuchipudi
dancer. She is known for her impeccable technique,
expressiveness, and command over both classical and
contemporary repertoire.
Alarmel Valli: Alarmel Valli is a renowned
Bharatanatyam and classical Indian dancer known for
her graceful movements and expressive storytelling.
Leela Samson: Leela Samson is a renowned
Bharatanatyam dancer, choreographer, and teacher.
She has been acclaimed for her virtuosity, meticulous
footwork, and expressive abhinaya. Leela Samson
has also served as the Director of the Kalakshetra
Foundation and has been honored with prestigious
awards for her artistic contributions.
Malavika Sarukkai: Malavika Sarukkai is a highly
regarded Bharatanatyam dancer known for her
unique style and interpretive abilities. She is known
for her nuanced expressions, dynamic movements,
and innovative choreography.
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Kathakali (Kerala)
Kathakali has its roots in ancient temple and folk arts of
Kerala, particularly in the ritualistic art forms known as
Krishnanattam and Ramanattam.
z It began to take its current form as a distinct dance-
drama in the 17th century under the patronage of the
Travancore ruler Maharaja Kottarakkara Thampuran.
z Kathakali is highly expressive and relies on intricate
hand movements, facial expressions, and body
postures to convey emotions and tell stories.
z The dancers use mudras (hand gestures) to
communicate specific emotions and themes.
z The makeup involves vibrant colors, intricate designs,
and exaggerated facial features, making it instantly
recognizable.
z Kathakali typically portrays stories from Indian epics
like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, as well as
other mythological and historical narratives.
z The performances often revolve around themes of
heroism, devotion, love, and conflict.
z Kathakali is accompanied by traditional Kerala music,
which includes vocalists singing in a distinct style and
percussion instruments like the chenda (drum) and
maddalam.
z Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and
Ramanattam are some of the ritual performing arts
of Kerala which have had a direct link to Kathakali in
its form and its technique.
z Kathakali dramatizes stories, many of which are taken
directly from Indian epics. It combines dance, music,
and acting. The four parts of abhinaya – angika,
aharya, vachika, satvika, and the nritta, nritya, and
natya aspects – are properly integrated in this stylized
style of art.
z The transmission of this art form traditionally occurs
through gurukula-style training, with students living
with their teachers and learning through observation
and practice.
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z While Kathakali remains deeply rooted in tradition, it
has also evolved over time. Contemporary performers
sometimes incorporate modern themes and techniques
into their presentations.
z Kathakali music follows the traditional sopana
sangeet of Kerala. It is said to be the ritual singing
of the Ashtapadis on the flight of steps leading to the
sanctum sanctorum. Now, Kathakali music also uses
Carnatic ragas-the raga and tala conforming to the
bhava, rasa and dance patterns (nritta and natya).
Personalities of Kathakali
Kalamandalam Krishnan Nair: Kalamandalam
Krishnan Nair is one of the most prominent Kathakali
performers and teachers. He is known for his
exceptional artistry, expressive acting, and mastery of
the female roles (stree vesham). She received several
awards and honors for his contributions to Kathakali.
Kalamandalam Gopi: Kalamandalam Gopi is a highly
regarded Kathakali artist known for his powerful and
versatile performances. He has portrayed a wide
range of characters and excels in both male and
female roles.
Padma Shri Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair:
Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair was a celebrated
Kathakali artist and teacher who made significant
contributions to the art form. He was known for his
impeccable footwork, expressive abhinaya (acting),
and dedication to the art form. He was honored with
the prestigious Padma Shri award for his contributions
to Kathakali.
Guru Chengannur Raman Pillai: Guru Chengannur
Raman Pillai was a renowned Kathakali performer
and teacher who made notable contributions to the art
form. He was known for his mastery of the virtuosic
and demanding roles of Kathakali. Guru Chengannur
Raman Pillai played a vital role in training and
inspiring generations of Kathakali artists.
Kathak (Uttar Pradesh)
58
z Uttar Pradesh is the place where Kathak, one of
the six foremost classical dances of India, flourished.
The word Katha, from which the name is derived,
means story. It originated in northern India during
the 7th century A.D. Kathak has intricate and complex
movements of hands and feet and facial expressions.
z The Vaishnavite cult which swept North India in the
15th century and the resultant bhakti movement
contributed to a new range of lyrics and musical
forms. The Radha-Krishna theme proved immensely
popular along with the works of Mirabai, Surdas,
Nandadas and Krishnadas.
z The emergence of Raslila, mainly in the Braj region
(Mathura in Western U.P.), was an important
development. It combined in itself music, dance and
narrative. Dance in Raslila, however, was mainly
an extension of the basic mime and gestures of the
Kathakars or story-tellers, which blended easily with
the existing traditional dance.
z Kathak became highly stylised and regarded as a
sophisticated form of entertainment in both Hindu
and Muslim courts. Under the Muslims, there was a
greater stress on Nritya and bhava giving the dance
graceful, expressive and sensuous dimensions.
z The body’s weight is equally distributed along the
horizontal and vertical axis. Full foot contact is of
prime importance where only the toe or the ball of
the foot is used; their function is limited. There are
no deflections or use of sharp bends or curves of the
upper or lower part of the body. Torso movements
emerge from the change of the shoulder line rather
than through the manipulations of the backbone or
upper chest and lower waist muscles. In the basic
stance, the dancer stands straight, holds one hand at
a level higher than the head, and the other is extended
out on the level of the shoulder.
z Pure dance (nritta) is all-important, where complex
rhythmic patterns are created through the use of flat
feet and the control of the sound of the ankle bells
worn by the dancer. As in Bharatnatyam, Odissi and
Manipuri, Kathak also builds its pure dance sequences
by combining movement units.
z Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to
Hindustani or North Indian music. They have had a
parallel growth, each feeding and sustaining the other.
Pandit Birju Maharaj
z Date of Birth: 4 February 1938
z Place of Birth: Handia, United Provinces, British Raj
z He was a leading exponent and torch-bearer of
Kathak dance form.
z He was the only son and disciple of Shri Achhan
Maharaj and a familiar face of Indian Kathak dance
worldwide.
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z He performed in several countries throughout his
illustrious career.
z Besides being a great classical dancer, Birju Maharaj
was a wonderful singer with a strong grip over
Thumri, Dadra, Bhajan and Ghazals.
z He was not only a Kathak dancer but also a
sensitive poet and captivating orator.
z He gave his first performance at the age of seven.
z He has been felicitated with many honorary titles
and awards in his artistic journey, such as:
 Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1966 for his
contribution to the development of Kathak dance.
 Akademi Award in 1974.
National Kathak Institute
z It was established in 1989 in Lucknow by the
cultural department of India.
z It is an Autonomous Institute.
z This institute encourages different gharanas of
music on the national Platform.
z This institute also offers many Hindustani classical
music courses.
Manipuri (Manipur)
z Manipuri, Classical Dance originated in the picturesque
and secluded state of Manipur in the north-eastern
corner of India. Because of its geographical location,
the people of Manipur have been protected from
outside influences, and this region has been able to
retain its unique traditional culture.

 Jawaharlal Nehru Award in 1983.

 Padma Bhushan by the Government of India in

1986.

Some of the Famous Kathak Dancers are:

z Shambhu Maharaj Sunder Prasad - He was a leading
exponent of the Lucknow Gharana of Kathak. He z Lai Haraoba is one of the main festivals still performed
was known for his powerful and expressive style of in Manipur which has its roots in the pre-Vaishnavite
dancing. period. Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which
z Birju Maharaj - Often referred to as the “Kathak forms the basis of all stylised dances in Manipur.
Maestro,” Pandit Birju Maharaj is one of the most Literally meaning – the merrymaking of the gods,
celebrated Kathak dancers in the world. He comes it is performed as a ceremonial offering of song and
from the illustrious Kalawant lineage of Kathak dance. The principal performers are the maibas and
dancers and is known for his exceptional artistry, maibis (priests and priestesses) who re-enact the
intricate footwork, and expressive abhinaya (facial theme of the creation of the world.
expressions). z The themes often depict the pangs of separation of
z Shri Achan Maharaj - He was the eldest son of the gopis and Radha from Krishna. The parengs
Kalka Prasad ji. His real name was Jagannath Prasad or pure dance sequences performed in the Rasleela
Mishra. He was born in 1893 in the village Lamoha of dances follow the specific rhythmic patterns and body
Sultanpur. He received his training in dance from his movements, which are traditionally handed down.
father, and his paternal Uncle Sh. Bindadin Maharaj ji. The Ras costume consists of a richly embroidered stiff
He was an expert of Bhav and Taal. Apart from Teen skirt which extends to the feet.
Taal, he was equally in command of other aspects. He
could dance with ease and if indicated from any beat,
he would create an impromptu tihai and tukda which
was timed to perfection. This was one of his special
abilities as a dancer-performer.
z Sitara Devi - Sitara Devi was a legendary Kathak
dancer known for her electrifying performances and
captivating stage presence. She was considered the
“Kathak Queen” and made significant contributions
to popularizing the dance form.

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z The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies
the dance which is known as Sankirtana in Manipur.
The male dancers play the Pung and Kartal while
dancing. The masculine aspect of dance – the Choloms
are a part of the Sankirtana tradition. The Pung
and Kartal choloms are performed at all social and
religious festivals.
z The martial dancers of Manipur – the Thang-ta –
have their origins in the days when man’s survival
depended on his ability to defend himself from wild
animals.
z The Manipuri classical style of singing is called Nat
– very different from both north and south Indian
music, this style is immediately recognizable with its
high pitched open throated rendering with particular
type of trills and modulations. The main musical
instrument is the Pung or the Manipuri classical drum.
The Ashtapadis of Jayadeva’s Geeta Govinda are very
popular and are sung and danced in Manipur with
great religious fervor.
Besides the Ras and other leelas, each stage in one’s life
is celebrated with Sankirtana performances – childbirth,
upanayanam, wedding and shraddha are all occasions for
singing and dancing in Manipur. The whole community
participates as song and dance form part of daily life
expressions.
Sattariya (Assam)
z The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th
century A.D by the great Vaishnava saint and reformer
of Assam, Mahapurusha Sankaradeva as a powerful
medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
z The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive
style of dance later on. This neo-Vaishnava treasure of
Assamese dance and drama has been, for centuries,
nurtured and preserved with great commitment
by the Sattras i.e. Vaishnava math or monasteries.
Because of its religious character and association
with the Sattras, this dance style has been aptly
named Sattriya.
60
z Sankaradeva introduced this dance form by
incorporating different elements from various
treatises, local folk dances with his own rare outlook.
z There were two dance forms prevalent in Assam
before the neo-Vaishnava movement such as Ojapali
and Devadasi with many classical elements. Two
varieties of Ojapali dances are still prevalent in Assam
i.e. Sukananni or Maroi Goa Ojah and Vyah Goa Ojah.
z Sukananti Ojapali is of Shakti cult and Vyah Goa Oja
paali is of Vaishnava cult. Sankaradeva included Vyah
Goa Ojah into his daily rituals in Sattra. Till now Vyah
Goa Ojah is a part of rituals of the Satras of Assam.
z The dancers in a Oja paali chorus not only sing and
dance but also explain the narration by gestures
and stylized movements. As far as Devadasi dance is
concerned, resemblance of a good number of rhythmic
syllables and dance postures along with footwork with
Sattriya dance is a clear indication of the influence of
the former on the latter.
z Other visible influences on Sattriya dance are those
from Assamese folk dances namely Bihu, Bodos
etc. Many hand gestures and rhythmic syllables are
strikingly similar in these dance forms.
Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down
principles in respect of hasta mudras, footworks, aharyas,
music etc. This tradition, has two distinctly separate
streams – the Bhaona-related repertoire starting from
the Gayan-Bhayanar Nach to the Kharmanar Nach,
secondly the dance numbers which are independent,
such as Chali, Rajagharia Chali, Jhumura, Nadu Bhangi etc.
Among them the Chali is characterized by gracefulness
and elegance, while the Jhumura is marked by vigor and
majestic beauty.
Mohiniyattam (Kerala)
z Mohiniyattam literally interpreted as the dance
of ‘Mohini’, the celestial enchantress of the Hindu
mythology, is the classical solo dance form of Kerala.
According to a Puranic story, Lord Vishnu took on
the guise of a ‘Mohini’ to seduce the Asuras, both in
connection with churning of the ocean and episode of
the slaying of Bhasmasura.
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z References of Mohiniyattam can be found in the texts
Vyavahar Amala written in 1709 by Mazhamagalam
Narayanan Namputiri and in Ghoshayathra, written
later by great poet Kunjan Nambiar.
z This dance form of Kerala was structured into the
present day classical format by the Travancore Kings,
Maharaja KartikaTirunal and his successor Maharaja
Swati Tirunal (18th -19th century C.E.).
z Mohiniyattam is characterized by graceful, swaying
body movements with no abrupt jerks or sudden
leaps. It belongs to the lasya style which is feminine,
tender and graceful.
z The movements are emphasized by the glides and the
up and down movement on toes, like the waves of the
sea and the swaying of the coconut, palm trees and
the paddy fields.
z The foot work is not terse and is rendered softly.
Importance is given to the hand gestures and
Mukhabhinaya with subtle facial expressions.
z Movements have been borrowed from Nangiar
Koothu and female folk dances Kaikottikali and the
Tiruvatirakali.
z Mohiniyattam lays emphasis on acting. The dancer
identifies herself with the character and sentiments
existing in the compositions like the Padams and
Pada Varnams which give ample opportunity for facial
expressions.
z The hand gestures, 24 in number, are mainly adopted
from Hastalakshana Deepika, a text followed by
Kathakali. Few are also borrowed from Natya Shastra,
Abhinaya Darpana and Balarambharatam.
z The gestures and facial expressions are closer to the
natural (gramya) and the realistic (lokadharmi) than
to the dramatic or rigidly conventional (natyadharmi).
z The traditional repertoire includes Chollukettu,
Jatiswaram, Padavarnam, Padam, Tillana and Slokam.
z Besides these Pandattam and Omanathinkal
(lullaby), introduced by Vallatol are also popular and
are often included in a recital.
z Most of the compositions included in the repertoire
have been composed by Swati Tirunal which
emphasizes the Sahitya Bhava i.e. the literary
content.
z These are portrayed through appropriate hand and
facial expressions that include the nine sentiments.
Kuchipudi Dance (Andhra Pradesh)
z Kuchipudi is one of the classical styles of Indian dance.
Around the third and fourth decade of this century it
emerged from a long rich tradition of dance-dramas
of the same name.
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z In fact, Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the
Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. It is about 35
km. from Vijayawada. Andhra has a very long tradition
of dance-drama which was known under the generic
name of Yakshagana.
z In the 17th century, the Kuchipudi style of Yakshagana
was conceived by Siddhendra Yogi, a talented Vaishnava
poet and visionary who had the capacity to give
concrete shape to some of his visions. He was steeped
in the literary Yakshagana tradition being guided by
his guru Teerthanaaraayana Yogi who composed the
Krishna-Leelatarangini, a kaavya in Sanskrit.
z To show the dexterity of the dancers in footwork and
their control and balance over their bodies, techniques
like dancing on the rim of a brass plate and with a
pitcher full of water on the head was introduced.
Acrobatic dancing became part of the repertoire.
z By the middle of this century, Kuchipudi fully
crystallized as a separate classical solo dance style.
Thus there are now two forms of Kuchipudi; the
traditional musical dance-drama and the solo
dance.
z It is followed by nritta, that is, non-narrative and
abstract dancing. Usually jatiswaram is performed
as the nritta number. Next is presented a narrative
number called shabdam. One of the favorite
traditional shabdam numbers is the Dashavatara.
The Shabdam is followed by a natyanumber called
Kalaapam.
z Many Kuchipudi dancers prefer to perform Satyabhama
from the traditional dance-drama Bhamakalapam.
z The song “bhamane, satyabhamane, the traditional
pravesh adhaaru (the song that is rendered at the time
of the entry of a character) is so tuneful that its appeal
is universal and ever fresh.
61

Personalities
Dr. Vempati Chinna Satyam: Dr. Vempati Chinna
Satyam is considered one of the foremost figures in
the world of Kuchipudi. He is renowned for his efforts
in preserving and popularizing the dance form. Dr.
Vempati Chinna Satyam established the Kuchipudi Art
Academy and trained numerous students who went
on to become accomplished dancers and teachers.
Guru Vedantam Satyanarayana Sarma: He is
a highly regarded Kuchipudi performer, teacher,
and choreographer. Guru Vedantam Satyanarayana
Sarma has trained several generations of Kuchipudi
dancers and has received numerous accolades for his
contributions to the art form.
Dr. Uma Rama Rao: Dr. Uma Rama Rao is a prominent
Kuchipudi dancer and choreographer known for her
graceful movements, expressive abhinaya (acting),
and technical prowess.
Guru Vempati Ravi Shankar: Guru Vempati Ravi
Shankar, the son of Dr. Vempati Chinna Satyam, is an
accomplished Kuchipudi dancer and choreographer.
He has gained recognition for his creative
choreography, dynamic performances, and efforts
in propagating the art form globally. Guru Vempati
Ravi Shankar has trained numerous dancers and has
received prestigious awards for his contributions to
Kuchipudi.
Odissi (Odisha)
z Odisha, on the eastern sea coast, is the home of Odissi,
one of the many forms of Indian classical dance.
Sensuous and lyrical, Odissi is a dance of love and
passion touching on the divine and the human, the
sublime and the mundane.
z The Natya Shastra mentions many regional varieties,
such as the south-eastern style known as the Odhra
Magadha which can be identified as the earliest
precursor of present day Odissi.
62
z Archaeological evidence of this dance form dating
back to the 2nd century B.C. is found in the caves of
Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Bhubaneswar.
z Later, innumerable examples of the Buddhist
sculptures, the tantric images of dancing Yoginis, the
Nataraja, and other celestial musicians and dancers of
early Shaivite temples bear testimony to a continuing
tradition of dance from the 2nd century B.C.E to the
10th century C.E.
z The magnificent Sun Temple at Konarak, built in the 13th
century, with its Natya mandap or Hall of dance, marks
the culmination of the temple building activity in Odisha.
z The opening item is Mangalacharan where the dancer
slowly enters the stage with flowers in her hands and
makes an offering to mother earth. This is followed
by an invocation to the deity of the dancer’s choice.
Generally, Ganesha is called upon to grant an auspicious
beginning. The item ends with a nritta sequence with
salutations to God, the Guru and the audience.
z The next item is called Batu where the basic concepts
of the Odissi nritta technique are highlighted bringing
out the duality of the masculine and the feminine
through the basic stance of the chauk and tribhanga.
This is danced in praise of Batukeshwar Bhairav or
Shiva. The accompanying music is very simple -only
a refrain of dance syllables.
z This is followed by the rendering of abhinaya. Odisha
has a continuing tradition of dancing of theAshtapadis
of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda since the 12th century.
The lyricism of this poem is particularly suited to the
Odissi style.
z Apart from the Gita Govinda, the compositions of
other Odia poets like Upendra Bhanja, Baladeva Ratha,
Banamali and Gopal Krishna are also sung.
z The concluding item of the repertoire, which may
consist of more than one pallavi and items based
on abhinaya, is called moksha. Pakhawaj syllables
are recited and the dance moves from slow to quick
sequences to reach a climax, when the dancer pays
the final obeisance.
5.3 FOLK DANCES OF INDIA
India is a land of varied cultures and traditions.
Diversities in all spheres make the Indian culture quite
unique. Indian folk and tribal dances are products of
different socio-economic set up and traditions evolved
over ages. Folk dances are an essential component of
our social environment since celebrations are a part
of every event. Numerous folk and tribal dances exist,
and practically all of them have undergone constant
development and improvisation.
Indian Folk dances tend to be performed by the masses
untrained, spontaneously, and in a simple manner. The
art form has a natural beauty because of its simplicity.
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The knowledge of these creative forms, however, has South India
only been passed down through the ages to a certain
group of people or in a particular region. The following Padayani Kerala
are some of India’s well-known folk dances: Kummi Tamil Nadu and Kerala

North India Kolannalu Andhra Pradesh

Parai Attam Tamil Nadu
Dumhal Jammu & Kashmir
Karakattam Tamil Nadu
HurkaBaul Uttarakhand
Mayil Attam Tamil Nadu and kerala
Choliya Uttarakhand
Paampu Attam Tamil Nadu
Bhangra Punjab
Theyyam Kerala
Dhamyal Haryana
Mayur Nritya Uttar Pradesh South West India
Charkula Uttar Pradesh Dollu Kunitha Karnataka
Raslila Uttar Pradesh Ghodemodni Goa
Giddha Punjab Lava Dance Lakshadweep

Central India Veeragase Karnataka

Gaur Chhattisgarh West India

Muria Chhattisgarh Dandiya Gujarat & Rajasthan
Saila Chhattisgarh Garba Gujarat
Karma Chhattisgarh Koli Maharashtra
Suwa Dance Chhattisgarh Padhar Gujarat
Tertali Dance Chhattisgarh Tippani Maharashtra
Jawara Madhya Pradesh
Bhagoria Madhya Pradesh 5.4 FOLK DANCES OF UTTAR PRADESH
Grida Madhya Pradesh Other forms of folk dance popular all over Uttar Pradesh
and performed on several occasions such as religious as
East India well as culture include:
Chhau Odisha, Jharkhand and West z Ramlila – Ramlila is a dramatic dance form that
Bengal narrates the epic story of Ramayana. Uttar Pradesh
is known for its elaborate Ramlila performances,
Brita Dance West Bengal
particularly in Ayodhya, the birthplace of Lord
Dalkhai Odisha Rama. The dance-drama involves various characters,
Bardo Chham Arunachal Pradesh colorful costumes, and energetic choreography.
Ramlila showcases Lord Rama’s cultural and
Gotipua Odisha
religious significance and teachings, promoting
North East India unity, righteousness, and moral values within the
community.
Bihu Assam z Raslila – Raslila is a devotional dance-drama that
Hojagiri Tripura originated in the Braj region of Uttar Pradesh,
particularly in Mathura. It depicts the eternal love
Nongkrem Dance Meghalaya
between Lord Krishna and the gopis (cowherd girls).
Bagurumba Assam The Raslila performances involve intricate dance
Bhortal Dance Assam movements, traditional costumes, and soulful music.
The dance form not only entertains but also upholds
Jhumur Assam, Jharkhand, West
the religious and cultural traditions associated with
Bengal, and Odisha
Lord Krishna and his divine play.
Cheraw Dance Mizoram
z Nautanki – a form of mimicry
Chang Lo Nagaland z Naqal – also a blended form of mimicry and dance

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Folk Dances of Braj Region
Charkula
z Charkula dance form is an integral part of the cultural
background of the Braj area in the state of Uttar
Pradesh in India.
z The Charkula dance is performed on auspicious days,
mainly on the 3rd day of Holi, when Radha was born,
according to popular belief. Girls in long skirts and
colorful blouses cover their faces with veils.
z The performers carry a large, vibrant coloured
circular wooden pyramid on their heads while
dancing. These wooden pyramids have 108 lighted
lamps.
z Many Personalities are connected with the origin
of the Charkula dance. These dances are performed
dedicated to the popular Hindu God, Lord Krishna.
z Women dance to the rhythm of ‘rasiya’, songs
dedicated to Krishna and his consort Radha.
According to one Philosopher, the mother of Radha
z Jogini
rushed outside to give the news of the birth of Radha
while carrying chakra or oil lamps on her head.
z Another legend related to the birth of this dance is
based on the story of Krishna’s ‘Govardhan Leela’.
Mayur
z Mayur dance is created from an episode of love
between Radha and Krishna.
z In that, Radha, pining for Krishna after a brief
separation, decides to console herself by the sight of
peacocks, whose feathers Krishna wears on his crown,
at the Mor Kuti pavillion.
Rasiya
z This dance form is associated with Radha-Krishna,
and the compositions are popularly sung during Holi,
Janmashtami, and to honor the Brajbhoomi. This
sacred land endorses the footprints of Krishna.
64
Folk Dances of Bundelkhand Region
Hori or It is sung in the Spring Season and is a
Phag romantic and sensual dance form.
It is performed during the monsoon
Kajri
season.
It is performed on the occasion of the
Sohar
birth of a child.
This dance is performed by Women
Rai
dancers. Men also perform Dussehra.
Folk Dances of Purvanchal Region
This dance is performed by the Dhobi
Dhobia caste, where one dancer becomes the
washerman, and the other is a donkey.
This dance is popular among the Ahirs
and Yadavas of eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Natwari
It is performed in sports postures on
the rhythm of music and nakkars.
In Uttar Pradesh and North Bihar, it is
a widely practiced dance style. Dadra
has historically been a dancing style
with suggestive sexual implications.
This dance has a distinctive style in
Dadra
which the vocalists provide playback
for the performers who are lip-syncing
and dancing on stage. Most of the time,
the theme of Dadra revolves around
nuptials and sexual bliss.
Folk Dances of Awadh Region
This form of a Sage is performed
collectively by a male dancer and a
Female dancer. In this form of dance,
males and females dress as a sage.
During this dance form, dancers play
Kalabazi Morbaja instruments and sit on Kachhi
Ghodi.
Dancers carry a plate full of lighting
Dhediya lamps/diyas on their heads in such
dances.
Uttar Pradesh’s dance forms significantly contribute
to the state’s culture and heritage. They showcase the
region’s artistic diversity and reflect the social, religious,
and historical aspects of Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh’s
culture and heritage are preserved through these dance
forms, passed onto future generations, and celebrated.
Dance plays a vital role in connecting people, conveying
stories and emotions, and promoting the values and
traditions that define the identity of Uttar Pradesh.
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Significance z Dance is a form of artistic expression that combines
Dance forms hold immense significance in various movement, music, costumes, and visual elements. It
cultures and societies around the world. They serve allows artists to explore creativity and innovation,
as powerful means of expression, communication, and contributing to the enrichment of the arts.
preservation of cultural heritage. Here are some of the z Dance forms are studied academically and researched
key significances of dance forms: by scholars to gain insights into cultural anthropology,
z Dance forms are an essential part of a community’s sociology, history, and psychology. They provide a
cultural identity. They reflect the history, beliefs, values, window into the social, political, and economic aspects
and social norms of a particular group of people. of various societies.
Dance is often used to pass down traditions from Overall, dance forms are a dynamic and integral part of
one generation to another, thereby preserving the human life, offering numerous benefits and enriching
cultural heritage and maintaining a sense of identity. the human experience in multifaceted ways. They bridge
z Dance is a universal language that allows individuals to the gap between the past and the present, transcend
express their emotions, feelings, and experiences language barriers, and celebrate the diversity and unity
non-verbally. It provides an outlet for emotions such of the human spirit.
as joy, sorrow, love, anger, and celebration, helping
people to cope with various emotions and experiences. Dance State
z Dance plays a crucial role in religious and ceremonial Bharatnatyam Tamil Nadu
rituals across cultures. It is used to invoke gods,
celebrate festivals, mark important life events Kathak Uttar Pradesh
such as weddings and funerals, and perform rites of Odissi Odisha
passage. Dance forms often have sacred and spiritual
significance in traditional societies. Kuchipudi Andhra Pradesh
z Dance is a form of entertainment and recreation that
Kathakali Kerala
brings joy and amusement to both participants and
audiences. Various dance forms are performed in social Sattariya Assam
gatherings, festivals, and theatrical performances,
serving as a source of pleasure and leisure. Manipuri Manipur
z Dance often involves group participation, fostering a Mohiniattam Kerala
sense of community and social bonding. It brings people
together, creating a shared experience and promoting a Expected Questions
sense of unity and solidarity among participants.
z Engaging in dance forms is a form of physical exercise 1. What are the main forms of classical dance in India?
that promotes physical fitness, flexibility, and Indicate two features of each.
coordination. Dancing also releases endorphins, 2. Discuss the ‘Tandava’ dance as recorded in early Indian
which can lead to improved mood and mental well- inscriptions.
being. 3. What are the different aspects and elements of Kathak
z Dance forms are often shared and exchanged between Dance?
different cultures, leading to cultural integration and
mutual understanding. This exchange can foster 4. Describe the major folk dances of Uttar Pradesh?
appreciation for diverse cultures and promote 5. What is the significance of Indian dance? Explain the
global harmony. Raslila folk dance of Uttar Pradesh.

v v v

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 6 Indian Music
Indian classical music aims to bring the artist and
the audience together in the experience of emotions
or bhava through a range of melodic entities (ragas),
embellishment of notes, and rhythmic patterns. Classical
music in India has had a complementary relationship
with other varieties of music–folk, sacred, dance,
opera, light, katha kalakshepam etc. Indian classical
music is a part of Indian culture. Music has been an
inseparable part of daily life in India.
The history of Indian music can be studied under three
major periods like Ancient, Medieval and Modern. The
era of Ancient music extends from the Vedic Age to the
period of Sangita Ratnakara, after which the medieval
system of music evolved. Around the 14th century it
culminated in the bifurcation of Indian music into two
branches- Hindustani and Carnatic systems. Both of
these branches developed and firmly planted themselves.
Numerous musicologists and composers entered the
scene during this time, enriching ideas about raga, tala,
and musical forms.
6.1 EVOLUTION
Ancient Period
z The ancient literature of our country, like the Vedas,
Agamas, Upanishad, Vayu Purana, Brihaddharma
Purana, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata, Shiksha
granthas and others contain invaluable references to
the basic principles of classical music such as - seven
swaras, three gramas, twenty one murchanas,
three layas (speeds), nine rasas, three sthayis
(octaves), srutis, etc.
z Narada Parivrajaka Upanishad mentions about the
saptaswaras for the first time.
z The idea of Adhara shadja did not exist in the Vedic
era. The Vedas were only recited using the Swara-
based musical scales. Vedas are the treasure house of
all ancient Indian knowledge and culture. Out of the
four Vedas, Sama Veda is mainly considered as the
originator of music. Vedic singing started with a single
note. Seeking a better and attractive way of reciting,
gradually 2 notes, and then 3 notes were used.
z Then finally the scales stabilised with 7 basic notes,
which culminated in the Vedic recitals transforming
themselves into the fine art of music. These
developments took centuries. Both the orchestral
music and concert music of today can trace their
origin to ancient times.
z The Vedic hymns were sung and danced around the
ritual fire during yagas and yagnas, accompanied by
percussion and string instruments.
z Later, the practice of playing instruments together
became known as “kutapa.” Kutapa is the earlier
form of orchestra. The concept of Raga had not yet
emerged. They were tuned to the saptaswaras and
played on open strings. Manodharma sangita and
musical notation as we understand them today, were
unknown.
z The Vedic recitation’s ups and downs in pitch were
symbolically noted on the manuscripts, and the
rhythm was denoted by particular finger movements.
In the silappadi kaaram, Ilango Adigal, a renowned
scholar in the Chera Kings’ court, mentions that the
Tamils of antiquity created the fundamental concepts
of music as early as the first century AD. Mahendra
Verma (7th century) has done yeomen service to
Carnatic music by mentioning all the contemporary
musical facts in Kudumiyanmalai inscriptions.
Medieval Period
z India had one system of music throughout the country
till about the 13th century. The same fundamentals
like saptaswaras, octave, sruti etc. formed the basic
principles. Haripala, for the first time mentioned the
terms Hindustani and Karnatak (Carnatic) music.
z With the advent of Muslim rule in the North, the
art of Indian music interacted with the Arabian
and Persian systems of music. Patronised by the
Muslim rulers in their royal court, the Indian music
branched out to develop along with new dimensions.
Comparatively South India remained undisturbed
without any foreign invasions or upheavals.
z The 7th century onwards/Bhakti movement in the
country brought in its wake hundreds of saint singers
and religious teachers. Shaivite and vaishnavite saints
wrote Tevarams and Divya Prabhandas in Tamil region.
Devotional singers like Purandara Dasa. Bhadrachala
Ramadasa, Annamacharya, Mira Bai, Surdas, Kabir
Das, Tulasidas, Gurunanak and other saint singers
composed thousands of simple devotional songs.
z During this period Raga classifications became clearer,
though not specific. Raga is the soul of Indian music
and it is an Indian contribution to International music.
Vidyaranya (14 percent) mentioned 15 melas and their
Janya Ragas in his treatise “Sangita Sara”. Ramamatya
(16th cent) mentioned 20 melas in his treatise “Swara
mela Kalanidhi”. This treatise covers nearly 2000 years
history of development in Indian Music and is like a
preface to the modern Carnatic Music.
18th Century- Golden Age
z The quality and quantity of musical genres, such as
Ragas, Talas, musical instruments, and notation
systems, all saw extensive development throughout
this time.
z Numerous scholarly musical genres were created,
including beautifully ornamented Kritis, Swarajatis,
Varna, Pada, Tillana, Jawali, and Ragamalikas.
z It is crucial to note that the prabandham of old served
as the foundation for all of these many compositional
genres. Only the sections had changed in the more
recent pieces; the musical and lyrical elements had not.
6.2 CLASSICAL MUSIC
Throughout the ages, man has sought to express the
stirrings of his soul, the search for something beyond
the mundane through the medium of the arts.
z The evolution of poetry, painting and other visual arts
has been preserved on stone, leaves and paper but
music being auditory, no such evidence exists. As such
it is not possible to listen today to the music of the
ancient times.
z Inspite of such a variety of cultural interactions, our
music has remained essentially melodic. In melody,
one note follows the other, making for a continued
unity of effect, whereas in harmony musical sounds
are superimposed on one another. Our classical music
has retained its melodic quality.
z Today we recognise two systems of classical music:
the Hindustani and the Carnatic.
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z The notation of music compositions was also
protected and preserved, and the current generation
is privileged to have access to all of the priceless
earlier compositions.
z The 18th–19th century was equally important for the
Hindustani music system too. Guru Vishnu Under
the ‘That’ concept, Narayan Bhat Khande organized
the Hindustani Ragas. Khayal, Thumri, and Tarana,
among other compositional genres, were composed.
Legends of the following century included musicians
like Ustad Alladia Khan, Pt. Omkarnath Thakur, Pt.
Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, and Ustad Bade Gulam
Alikhan. Famous gharanas such as those in Agra,
Gwalior, Jaipur, Kirana, Lucknow, etc. were founded
over time.
z During the same period, even western classical music
enjoyed prosperity and development. The legendary
musicians The trio of composers known as the “trinity
of western music”—Bach, Haydn, and Beethovan—
emerged and elevated western classical music to new
heights. Another composer who improved western
music was Wagner.
Carnatic music is confined to Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
 The classical music of the rest of the country goes
under the name, Hindustani Classical Music.
 There are some areas in Karnataka and Andhra
where the Hindustani Classical system is also
practiced. Karnataka has given us in the recent
past some very distinguished musicians of the
Hindustani style.
Hindustani Music
Hindustani music is a rich and diverse tradition that has
been evolving for centuries. It is a living art form that
continues to be performed and enjoyed by people all
over India.
67
Some of the characteristic features of
Hindustani music include
z Raga: The raga is the foundation of Hindustani music.
It is a melodic framework that is based on a set of
notes, intervals, and emotions. Each raga has its own
unique character, and the musician’s goal is to evoke
that character through their performance.
z Tala: The tala is the rhythmic framework of Hindustani
music. It is a pattern of beats that is divided into
smaller units. The musician must keep the tala in mind
while performing, and their playing must be in sync
with the tala.
z Improvisation: Improvisation is a key element of
Hindustani music. The musician is free to improvise
within the framework of the raga and tala. This allows
them to express their own creativity and interpretation
of the music.
z Memorization: Hindustani musicians typically
memorize their music. This is because the music is
often very complex and cannot be easily written down.
z Gharanas: Gharanas are schools of Hindustani music.
Each gharana has its own unique style and approach
to music.
There are ten main styles of singing in Hindustani music
like the ‘Dhrupad’, ‘Dhamar’, ‘Hori’, ‘Khayal’, ‘Tappa’,
‘Chaturang’, ‘Ragasagar’, ‘Tarana’, ‘Sargam’ and ‘Thumri’.
Some of the major Styles are:
The Dhrupad is even now highly respected and can be
heard on the concert platform but more often in temples
of North India. The dhrupad has somewhat receded to
the background and is not so popular with the masses.
The Been and Pakhawaj which were closely associated
with the dhrupad also do not find much patronage
these days.
Today the pride of place in classical Hindustani Music
is occupied by the Khayal. We are really not sure about
the beginning of the Khyal. The word is alien and means
‘imagination’. And as you will find when you hear it is
more lyrical than the dhrupad. But whether the musical
form itself is foreign. It is a matter of doubt. Some
scholars are of the opinion that in fact, it has its roots in
the ancient Indian roopaka alaps. It is also said that Amir
Khusrou of the 13th century gave it an impetus. Sultan
Mohammed Sharkhi of the 15th century is credited with
encouraging this form. However, it attained its maturity
at the hands of Niyamat Khan Sadarang and Adarang
of the 18th century. The major Gharanas under Khyal
music are:
z The oldest of these is the Gwalior gharana. The father
of this school was one Nathan Peerbaksh, who settled
down in Gwalior, and hence the name.The qualities of
this gharana are an open voice, clear enunciation of
words, and a comprehensive attention to raga. Svara
andtala. Some of the prominent musicians of this
68
gharana are Krishna Rao Shankar Pandit, Raja Bhaiya
Poonchwale etc.
z The Agra Gharana is said to have been founded by
one Khuda Baksh of Agra. He had studied with Nathan
Peerbaksh of Gwalior, but developed his own style.
Here again the voice is open and clear, a speciality of
this gharana is its bol taan: that is, a fast or medium
layakari passage using the bols or words of the song.
The song itself is rendered in medium tempo. Of the
most well known musicians of this gharana in recent
times are Vilayat Hussain Khan and Fayyaz Khan.
z The Jaipur Atrauli gharana is said to take off directly
from dhrupad. It is associated with Alladiya Khan of
the 19th-20th century. The khyal is always at medium
speed. The words are pronounced clearly and in an
open and clear voice. The distinguishing characters are
the passages which are primarily based on alankars–
that is repetitive melodic motifs–and an almost
metronomic insistence of tala division. Some of the
prominent musicians of recent times are Mallikarjun
Mansur, Kishori Amonkar etc.
z Finally we come to the Rampur Sahaswan gharana.
Since the earlier singers came from Rampur in Uttar
Pradesh, this school has come to be called so. The
slow and fast Khayals usually are followed by a
Tarana. The style is very lyrical and full of finer tonal
embroidery. Nisar Hussain Khan, Rashid Khan are the
two prominent musicians of recent times belonging
to this gharana.
The Thumri is very lyrical in its structure and
presentation. These forms are termed as ‘semi’ or ‘light’
classical. Thumri is a love song and hence the textual
beauty is very important. This is closely coordinated
with the musical rendition. And keeping in mind its
mood a thumri is usually set to ragas like Khamaj,
Kaphi, Bhairavi and so on and the musical grammar is
not strictly adhered to. There are two styles of thumri
singing: the Poorab or Banaras which is fairly slow and
staid and the Punjab style which is more mercurial.
Rasoolan Devi, Siddheshwari Devi are prominent
musicians of this style.
The Tappa consists of the song uttered in fast note
patterns. It is a difficult composition and needs much
practice. Both the Thumri and Tappa require special
training as do the Dhrupad and Khyal forms of singing.
Ragas in which Tappa compositions are set remain the
same as in Thumri style. L.K. Pandit, Malini Rajurkar are
names who specialize in this form of singing.
Carnatic Music
It is said, that South Indian Music, as known today,
flourished in Deogiri the capital city of the Yadavas in
the middle ages, and that after the invasion and plunder
of the city by the Muslims, the entire cultural life of the
city took shelter in the Carnatic Empire of Vijayanagar
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under the reign of Krishnadevaraya. Thereafter, the music of South India came to be known as Carnatic Music. The
following are the major carnatic music:

The music of this form is a simple melodic extension of the raga in which it is
composed. The tempo is uniform. It has no sections dividing one part of the song
GITAM from the other. It is sung without repetition from the beginning to the end.

The Varnam is a beautiful creation of musical craftsmanship of a high order,

combining in itself all the characteristic features of the raga in which it is
VARNAM composed.

This is learnt after a course in gitams. The Svarajati paves the way for the
learning of the Varnams. It consists of three sections, called Pallavi, Anupallavi
SVARAJATI and Charanam. The theme is either devotional, heroic or amorous.

To sum up; the outstanding feature of Carnatic music is its raga system, in the concept of which, the ideal or ‘absolute
music’ is reached, and the highly developed and intricate tala system, which has made it extremely scientific and
systematic and unique in all respects. Though clear cut demarcations in the style of musical presentation, similar to
the gharanas of Hindustani music are not seen in Carnatic music, yet, we do come across different styles in rendering
compositions.

Hindustani Music Vs Carnatic Music

Aspect Hindustani Music Carnatic Music

Northern India, particularly the Southern India, primarily the states of Tamil
Geographical Origin
Gangetic plains Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh

Instruments like sitar, tabla, and Instruments like veena, mridangam, and violin
Instruments
harmonium are common are common

Diverse vocal styles, including khayal, Emphasis on structured compositions like kriti
Voice and Singing
thumri, and dhrupad and varnam, often sung in a clear and precise
Style
style

Improvisation is a key element, with While there is some improvisation, the focus is
Improvisation
musicians using alap, taan, and more on rendering compositions

Taala Various taalas are used, such as tintal, Carnatic music also employs various talas like
(Rhythmic Cycles) ektaal, and jhaptaal adi, rupaka, and khanda chapu

Performances often include alap, jor, Concerts follow a structured format, starting
Concert Structure jhala, and gat in instrumental music; with varnam and progressing through kritis
khayal or thumri in vocal music and ragam-tanam-pallavi

Hindustani music uses a simplified Carnatic music uses a more elaborate notation
Notation System
notation system called sargam system

Lyrics are often in languages like Hindi, Lyrics are primarily in classical languages like
Language of Lyrics
Urdu, and Persian Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil, and Kannada

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6.3 REGIONAL MUSIC OF INDIA 6.4 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Cultural traditions from various regions of the country India is the inheritor of one of the most ancient and
reflect the rich diversity of Regional Music of India. Each evolved music systems in the world. The continuity of
region has its own particular style. the musical traditions of India is established through a
Tribal and folk music is not taught in the same way that study of musical texts and numerous visual references
Indian classical music is taught. There is no formal period one finds of musical instruments in painting and
of apprenticeship where the student is able to devote sculpture from prehistoric times to the present day.
their entire life to learning the music, the economics of
rural life does not permit this sort of thing. The musical
practitioners must still attend to their normal duties of
hunting, agriculture or whatever their chosen profession is.
It is very common to find folk instruments that have been
fabricated of commonly available materials. Animal Skin,
bamboo, coconut shells, and pots are but a few commonly
available materials used to make musical instruments.

Regional Music Region

Barahmasa Kumaon
Shakunakhar Kumaon
Pandavani Chattisgarh
In the Natya Shastra, compiled by Bharat Muni dated 200
Lotia Rajasthan B.C.-200 A.D., musical instruments have been divided
into four main categories on the basis of how sound is
Pankhida Rajasthan
produced.
Mando Goa z The Tata Vadya or Chordophones- Stringed instruments
Chhakri Kashmir z The Sushira Vadya or Aerophones- Wind instruments
z The Avanaddha Vadya or Membranophones-
Laman Himachal Pradesh Percussion instruments
Tappa Punjab z The Ghana Vadya or Idiophones- Solid instruments
which do not require tuning.
Burrakatha Andhra Pradesh
Tata Vadya–Stringed Instruments
Bhakha Jammu and Kashmir The tata vadya is a category of instruments in which
Bhuta Song Kerala sound is produced by the vibration of a string or chord.
These vibrations are caused by plucking or by bowing
Powada Maharashtra on the string which has been pulled taut. The length of
the vibrating string or wire, the degree to which it has
Daskathia Odisha
been tightened, determines the pitch of the note and
Bihu geet Assam also to some extent the duration of the sound.

Sana Lamok Manipur Kamaicha

Songs of Lai Haraoba Festival Manipur z A bowed instrument with a big bowl shaped skin
covered resonator, a rectangular finger board and a
Saikuti Zai Mizoram round peg box.
Chai hia Mizoram
Basant Geet/Ghasiyari Geet Garhwal
Sukar ke Biah Bhojpuri
Bow Song Tamil Nadu
Ammanaivari Tamil Nadu

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z Three main gut strings and eight drone steel strings Ghana Vadya
are attached to a metal hook, passed over the bridge
The earliest instruments invented by man are said to
and tied to the pegs.
be the Ghana Vadya. Once constructed, this variety of
z Played with a bow made of Sheesham wood instrument does not need special tuning prior to playing.
and horsehair. Used by the ‘Manganiar’ Community In early times these instruments were the extension of
of West Rajasthan as a popular accompaniment to the human body such as sticks, clappers, rods, etc. and
their songs. were also closely related to objects of utility in daily life
such as pots and pans, jhanj, falams, etc.
Sushira Vadya
In the Sushira Vadya group, sound is produced by
blowing air into a hollow column. The pitch of the note
is determined by controlling the air passage and the
melody is played by using the fingers to open and close
the instrument.
There is reference in the Vedas to an instrument-the
Venu which was used as an accompaniment to chanting
and recitation. There is also mention of a kind of a
flute called the Nadi. The flute has a variety of names
like Venu, Vamsi, Bansuri, Murali and so on in the
north, and Pullankuzhal, Pillankarovi and Kolalu in the
Jhanja
south. The wind instruments are roughly divided into Jhanj Player, Konarak, Orissa
two categories on the basis of how sound is produced.
In the Sun temple of Konarak, Orissa, we see this large
They are:
sculpture nearly 8 f1. high of a lady playing the Jhanj.
z The flutes
z The reed instruments 6.5 MUSIC OF UTTAR PRADESH
z Uttar Pradesh had been the land of the great sages
and hermits, and the singing of ancient hymns and
mantras laid the essential music tradition, which has
blossomed into a musical tradition.

Avanaddha Vadya
In the Avanaddha Vadya category of instruments,
sound is produced by striking the animal skin which
has been stretched across an earthen or metal pot or a
wooden barrel or frame. The earliest references to such
instruments have been found in the Vedas where there
is mention of Bhumi Dundhubhi; this was a hollow pit
dug in the ground and covered with the hide of a buffalo
or ox which was stretched across the pit. z The state has a variety of Classical, semi-classical
and Folk genres to enthral the visitors. In addition to
that, the state is home to some of the most versatile
and popular masters of this art form.
z Uttar Pradesh is the citadel of ‘Purvaiya Ang’ of
Hindustani Classical Music. The centre of this unit has
Drums Tabla Damru been Varanasi or Banaras for years.

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z The medieval age saw the emergence of two distinct
strands of music.
z One was the court music that found patronage in
Courts like Agra, Fatehpur-Sikri, Lucknow, Jaunpur,
Varanasi, Ayodhya, Banda and Datia.
z The second was the religious tradition emerging from
the Bhakti Cult rooted and flowered in centres like
Mathura, Vrindavan and Ayodhya.
z Artistes of the stature of the shehnai maestro Ustad
Bismillah Khan, Kathak wizard Birju Maharaj,
tabla maestro Kishan Maharaj, the legendary Baba
Allaudin Khan and his disciples Pt. Ravi Shankar
and Ustad Vilayat Khan; ghazal singers Begum
Akhtar, Rasoolan Bai, Girija Devi and many more
have lived and practised their art here.
Famous Music Gharanas of Uttar Pradesh
Agra Gharana
z Agra is known as the city of architectural grandeur.
Hindustani Classical Music flourished under the
patronage of King Akbar. Therefore, the concept
of Gharana implies an exclusive singing style where
basic notations of the Ragas remain the same, sung
according to the particular style followed by a Gharana.
z Agra Gharana is a blend of Khayal Gayaki and
Dhrupad-Dhamar.
z Ustad Ghagge Khuda Baksh is considered an important
person in the field of Khayal Gayaki, who transformed
the old style to derive his style of Khayal Gayaki.
Gwalior Gharana is considered the parent of the
Khayal tradition, although they are believed to have
imported Khayal from Lucknow.
z During the reign of Nawab Asaf-ud-Daulah, his
court musician, Ghulam Rasood, invented the Khayal
gayaki.
z Agra Gharana was originally connected with the
dhrupad tradition, where Khayal Gayaki was introduced
later. It is associated with Nauhar Bani, known to have
existed from the period of Allauddin Khilji.
z The first recorded music of Agra Gharana was by
its famous member Zohrabai Agrewali. She was a
disciple of Ustad Sher Khan, Ustad Kallan Khan and
Ustad Mehboob Khan. It is said that Zoharabai’s gayaki
was also close to the Gwalior tradition. She was also
known for singing Thumri and Ghazal, which she
learned from Ahmad Khan of Dhaka.
z Agra and Jaipur Gharana were particular about Raag
Roop. One of the notable personalities of Agra Gharana
was Ustad Faiyaz Khan. He felt the need for alap and
Vistar in Khayal Gayaki, and he combined dhrupad
with khayal singing, which was one of his specialities.
He was the court musician of Sir Sayajirao Gaekwad
III, the Maharaja of Baroda.
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Kirana Gharana
z Founders: Abdul Karim Khan and Abdul Wahid
Khan; Exponents: Sawai Gandharva, Gangubai Hangal,
Bhimsen Joshi, Hirabai Barodekar, Basavaraj Rajguru,
Rasiklal Andharia, Prabha Atre, Phiroz Dastur,
Saraswati Rane, Jitendra Abhisheki and Nachiketa
Sharma.
z The Kirana gharana emphasised melody rather than
rhythm.
z Bhimshen Joshi has become the most popular artist
of this Gharana because he combines melody with
virtuosity. His teacher Sawai Gandharva’s teacher
Abdul Karim Khan was a pioneer and the founder of
the Kirana Gharana.
z Bhimshen Joshi has brilliantly combined a romantic
intensity of feeling with the classical concern for
form.
Rampur Gharana
z It is the latest and last of the greatest gharanas of
India. Founded by Bahadur Hussain and Amir Khan,
it was characterized by some special charms in the use
of alap, dhrupad, and dharma and instrumental music,
which were not found anywhere in India.
Atrauli Gharana
z The founders of this Gharana were two brothers
from the Junagarh principality, namely Kale Khan and
Chand Khan.
z Atrauli town of Aligarh district remained famous for
many vocalists.
z This Gharana is based on Dhrupad and Khayal
singing styles.
z Dullu Khan and Chhajju Khan were their former
singers who were famous singers of Dhrupad-Dhamar.
z Important vocalists of this Gharana are Ghulam
Ghaus Khan, Bhupat Khan, Hashu Khan, Daulat Khan,
Alladiya Khan, Kesarbai Kerkar, Kishori Amonkar,
Ratnakar Pai, Padmavati, Bhongu Bai, Mallikarjun
Mansur, Shaligram Gokhale, etc.
Kanpur Gharana
z Influential vocalists of this Gharana are Ustad Bahadur
Hussain Khan, and Ustad Amir. Khan, Ustad Wazir
Khan, Ustad Nazeer Khan, Ustad Inayat Hussain
Khan, etc.
Banaras Gharana
z This Gharana was founded by the ruler of Kashi
(Varanasi), Kashiraj, who gave patronage to many
famous musicians.
z The artists of this Gharana worked for Hindu kings,
and there was no Mughal influence in this Gharana.
z Founder: Pandit Gopal Mishra (a satrangiya);
Exponents: Rajan Mishra and Sajan Mishra.
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z Important vocalists of this Gharana are Girija
Devi, Bakhtawar Mishra, Thakur Dayal Mishra,
Ramsevak Mishra, Jwala Prasad Mishra, Amarnath
Pashupatinath Mishra, etc.
Saharanpur Gharana
z Sufi saint Khalifa Mohammad Zaman founded
Saharanpur Gharana.
z He was a veena, rabab and sitar player and a famous
singer. Nirmal Shah, the descendant of Tansen, got the
title of Shah by the Nawab of Ayodhya.
z Important vocalists of this Gharana are Bande Ali
Khan, Bahram Khan, Zakiruddin Khan, Masiruddin
Khan, Rahimuddin Khan, Naseer Moinuddin Dagar,
Naseer Aminuddin Dagar, Naseer Zahiruddin
Dagar, Naseer Faiyyazuddin Dagar, etc.
Fatehpur Sikri Gharana
z This Gharana was started during the period of the
Mughal emperor Jahangir by two brothers named
Jainu Khan and Jorawar Khan.
z Important singers of this Gharana are Ghasit Khan,
Chhote Khan, Ghulam Rasool Khan, Madar Khan,
Sayyed Khan, etc. Ghasit Khan is very famous in this
Gharana.
Lucknow Gharana
z This Gharana was developed in Lucknow, the capital
of Awadh. It was famous for Khayal and Dhrupad
singing styles.
z Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was a music and art lover. His
period was known as the Golden Age of Art of Awadh.
z Lucknow gharana is far ahead of other gharanas
in decency and strong acting. The credit for
creating the real identity of this gharana is given
to ‘Padmavibhushan’ Pandit Birju Maharaj
(1938-2022). He has made the traditional form of
Kathak meaningful by showcasing his talent at the
international level many times.
z Other exponents are Shambu Maharaj, Lacchu Maharaj
and Shovana Narayan.
Allahabad Gharana
z It is not a Gharana, but it remains a place of
many famous music personalities of national and
international importance.
z Prayag Sangeet Samiti of Allahabad is one of the
important music academies in the country.
z Karamatullah Khan is a famous Sarod player, Yusuf
Khan and Prof Lalji and Yusuf Khan are famous
Sarangi players, and Raghunath Seth and Hari Prasad
Chaurasia are famous Bansuri players.
z Important singers of this Gharana are Janakibai or
Chhappan Chhuri, Kesari Bai, Krishna Devi, Muneer
Khatoon Begum, Pandit Ram Sevak Mishra, Shivsevak
Mishra, Shiv Narayan Mishra, Ramdas Mishra, Sitara
Devi, Kishan Maharaj etc.

Sangeet Natak Akademi, the apex body in the field of

performing arts in the country, was set up in 1953 for
the preservation and promotion of the vast intangible
heritage of India’s diverse culture expressed in forms
of music, dance and drama–the management of the
Akademi vests in its General Council. The President
of India appoints the Chairman of the Akademi for a
term of five years.

Famous Folk Songs of Uttar Pradesh

z This song originates in Mirzapur and is sung during the season of Rain.
z Areas (Akhada): Bairagi Akhada, Pandit Shivdas Malvi Akhada, Jahangir Akhada, and Akkhad
Akhada.
Kajri
z Regions: Varanasi, Gorakhpur, Allahabad and Awadh
z Singers: Malini Awasthi, Usha Gupta, Urmila Shrivastava and Ajita Shrivastava are the famous
Kajri Singers.
z This is specifically sung during the Chaitra month of the Hindu calendar.
Chaiti z The themes revolve around the playful fights and arguments between beloved lovers.
z The theme is the lament of separation, but it is less sensual than Birha.

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 Kaharwa z It is a famous song of the Kahar caste during their marriage times.

Nauka z This is very popular in the barber community.

Jhakkad
Banjara z This music is Famous for Teli Community at Night.
and Njava
z It is Famous music in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Birha z This is a mood-based genre where newlyweds lament the separation from their husbands who travel
to distant places to earn their livelihood.
z Rasiya is popular in the Braj region of Uttar Pradesh.
z The theme of this folk genre revolves predominantly around Lord Krishna’s love for his consort
Rasiya
Radha and other milkmaids.
z This is generally sung during the festival of Holi in Braj.
Nakta z Mainly associated with the Awadh region.
z Marsiya is the term used to refer to the martyrdom of Prophet Muhammad’s grandson, Imam Hussain.
Marsiya
z It is very solemn, and the sad content of its lyrics and music is popular among Shia Muslims.
Ragini and z It is Famous in the region of western Uttar Pradesh.
Dhola
z The ghazal was a popular singing style performed only in the royal courts of the Awadh region.
z It is a system of uniting various verses in a prescribed format of meter and weight.
Ghazal z When it came amidst the masses, it became unsurpassable in popularity.
z Today it has left the confines of the princely courts and is more accessible to the common masses.
It is a mellifluous singing style, basically uniting verses in prescribed formats.
z These are poems of Sufi saints sung by two or more people while other people are dancing around
Qawwali the tomb of Sufi Saint in a Circle.
z The music and dance of qawwali lead to a trance-like state.
Nirguna z These are devotional songs which saints sing.

The folk songs of Bundelkhand region of Uttar
Pradesh includes:
z Bundeli Lok Geet: These are traditional folk songs of
Bundelkhand, sung in the local Bundeli dialect. Bundeli
Lok Geet often narrate stories of rural life, love, and daily
experiences. They are accompanied by simple musical
instruments like the dholak, harmonium, and flutes.
z Jhoola Geet: Jhoola Geet or swing songs are sung
during the festival of Teej, particularly by women.
These songs are associated with the swinging of idols
of deities on beautifully decorated swings. The lyrics
express joy and devotion.
z Sohar: Sohar is a traditional folk song sung during
childbirth and to celebrate the birth of a child. These
songs are meant to bring joy and blessings to the new
mother and the newborn.
z Alha Udal: The Alha Udal ballads are epic folk
narratives that recount the heroic tales of Alha and
Udal, legendary warriors from the Bundelkhand
region. These ballads are known for their vivid
storytelling and often involve battles and valor.
z Birha: Birha is a form of folk song that expresses the
pain of separation and longing for a loved one. It often
features themes of love and heartbreak.
The folk songs of Purvanchal region of Uttar Pradesh
are characterized by the following:
z They are mostly sung in Bhojpuri language, but some
are also sung in Awadhi and Hindi.
z They are simple and melodic, with a strong emphasis
on rhythm.
z The lyrics are often about everyday life, love, loss, and
nature.
z They are often accompanied by traditional instruments
such as the dholak, harmonium, and manjira.

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z They are passed down orally from generation to
generation.
Some of the most popular folk songs of Purvanchal
region include:
z Kaharwa: This song is sung by the Kahar community
during the Diwali festival. It is a celebration of the
victory of good over evil.
z Alha: This song is a narrative ballad about the heroic
exploits of Alha and Udal, two warriors from the 12th
century.
z Kajri: This song is sung by women during the monsoon
season. It expresses the longing for a beloved
z Phaag: This song is sung during the Holi festival. It is a
celebration of spring and the victory of good over evil.
z Barahmasi: This song is sung during the winter
months. It describes the hardships of life in the cold
weather.
The folk songs of Purvanchal region are an important
part of the cultural heritage of the region. They reflect the
v v
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lives and experiences of the people, and they continue to
be enjoyed by people of all ages.
Previous Year Questions
1. Mention the characteristics of folk songs of Purvanchal
region of Uttar Pradesh.
Expected Questions
1. What are the important similarities and differences
between the Hindustani and the Carnatic styles of
classical music?
2. Discuss the evolution of Indian music.
3. What are the fundamental characteristics of Hindustani
music? Give an example of Hindustani music from
Uttar Pradesh.
4. D i s c u s s a b o u t fa m o u s U t t a r P ra d e s h m u s i c
Gharana.
5. O n what instrument does Ustad Bismillah Khan
play?
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75
 7 Indian Puppetry

Puppets are an age-old part of India’s folk heritage.
India has long been fascinated with puppetry, both for
entertainment and education. Puppets with sockets
attached have been discovered at the Mohenjo-daro
and Harappa excavation sites, indicating that
puppetry was still practised as a form of art at that
time. The art of puppetry finds mention in the Tamil
classic–Silappadikaram composed around the 1st–2nd
Century. The plots of puppet shows are mainly inspired
by religious texts such as Mahabharata, Ramayana, and
the Puranic texts. Through narration, music, and dance,
puppets are a unique form of storytelling. Over the years,
the art form has evolved and taken many forms varying
from region to region.

7.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PUPPETRY

Puppetry in India can be classified into 4 broad categories:

String Shadow Glove Rod

Puppet Puppet Puppet Puppet

Kathputli Tholu
Bommalata Pavakoothu Yampuri
Kundhei
Ravanchhaya
Putul Nach
Gombeyatta
Togalu
Bommalattam Gombeyatta

Classification of Puppetry in India

String Puppets Visually colorful and adorned with costumes and

String puppets or marionettes are forms of puppets
whose movements are controlled by strings. Their
shows are interactive and entertaining with expressions
through movements of hands and the body of the puppet
dolls. Few forms of string puppets that are widely
popular are:
Kathputli, Rajasthan
headgears, Kathputlis of Rajasthan entertain their
audience with folk music and dance of the region. These
are carved out of wood and their costumes represent the
traditional outfits of Rajasthan.
Kundhei, Odisha
Made out of light wood, Kundheis wear long flowy skirts
and attires resembling costumes worn by performers of
the traditional Jatra theaters. These puppets have more
joints as compared to Kathputlis and are controlled by a
triangular instrument held by the puppeteer to control
the puppets.

Gombeyatta, Karnataka
The Gombeyaata puppets of Karnataka are ideated to
resemble the characters from Yakshagana, the regional
theater. Unlike the Kathputlis and Kundheis, these
puppets have legs. These are controlled with five to
seven strings and might take two to three puppeteers at
a time to maneuver the movements.
Bommalattam, Tamil Nadu
The Bommalattam puppets are the heaviest, largest,
and most eloquent of all the puppets in India
and include the techniques of both string and rod
puppets. What is unique about them is that the strings
that are used to control the movements are tied to an
iron ring which is then worn by the puppeteer on his
head.
Shadow Puppets
Shadow puppets are flat and translucent cut out
from treated leather. They are pressed against the
screen with the light source reflecting light from
the back to create mesmerizing artistic silhouettes for
the viewers who witness the play of colorful shadows.
Few forms of string puppets that are widely popular are:
Togalu Gombeyatta, Karnataka
The puppets of Togalu Gombeyaata theater vary in
size depending upon the figure they are depicting. For
instance, someone with higher social status is depicted
through bigger puppets and the common folk through
smaller ones.
Tholu Bommalata, Andhra Pradesh
One of the richest traditions in puppetry, the puppets of
this theater are colored on both sides reflecting colorful
shadows on the screen. The themes are mainly inspired
by regional music and puranic texts.
Ravana Chhaya, Orissa
Perhaps one of the most engaging and interactive
forms of puppetry, Ravana Chhaya puppets are
different from other shadow puppets. These puppets
are made from deerskin and are not colored. Hence,
the shadows are opaque. The movements of these are
difficult to maneuver and require great expertise and
precision.
Glove Puppets
As the name suggests, the puppets are worn on the
hand like a glove. The head is usually crafted from
papier mache or wood and for the body, there is a flowy
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dress. The hands emerge just below the neck of the
puppet. The narratives vary from region to region–in
Uttar Pradesh, the themes are more society centric
whereas, in Odisha, the story of Radha and Krishna is
narrated.
Pavakoothu
Traditionally this puppetry is from Kerala in south-
west India. The oldest tradition of string puppetry in
Kerala, nool pavakoothu (pavakoothu: puppet dance
and nool: string), older than pava kathakali, flourished
up to the 20th century in the region of Ernakulum and
especially around the temple of Tripunithura, where
the puppeteer-showmen performed every year during
religious festivals.
Two categories of puppets were seen side by side in a
performance. Smaller puppets, measuring no more than
25 centimeters, represented the classical characters
from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Rod Puppets
This form of puppetry is like glove puppets with
the major distinction in the use of rods to control
the movements of the puppet and these are larger in
size.
Putul Nautch, West Bengal: Putul Nautch puppets are
one of the most theatrical ones. Carved out of wood, the
dolls vary in size and stylization from region to region.
What makes them interesting is the technique through
which the movement is controlled by the puppeteer.
A bamboo hub is tied to the rod attached to the waist
of the puppet and the puppeteer dances and moves
behind the curtains in coordination with the dancing
puppets.
Yampuri: It is the traditional rod puppet of Bihar.
The puppets are generally made of wood and are
without any joints. They are carved out of a single
piece of wood and then painted and dressed in bright
colours.
77
7.2 PUPPETRY IN UTTAR PRADESH dressed in colourful, shiny clothes and trinkets, are
named after the two heroines who are represented in
Gulabo Sitabo the show: Sitabo, the worn out, overworked spouse; and
Gulabo, the scintillating mistress of the same man. The
a capella narration, rendered in the spoken-sung style
by the puppeteer seated on the floor, constructs a semi-
improvised plot which is a mixture of salacious jokes,
caustic reflections, laced with local humour, and songs
relating to shared incidents and the vicissitudes of daily
life. The puppeteer is accompanied by a dholak (drum)
and manjira (cymbals).
In the city of Lucknow during festival time a few
puppeteers travel from suburb to suburb performing
their shows. But this art, which traces its roots back to
the 17th century, is on its way to becoming extinct.

Expected Questions
Traditional glove puppet theatre from Uttar Pradesh 1. Write a note on Puppetry in India.
in north India. These puppets made of papier-mâché, 2. Discuss various forms of puppets in India.

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 8 Indian Theaters
Living traditions occupy a prominent place in the Indian
social system. Any living tradition has a natural flow.
There can be no doubt about the fact that traditional art
forms reflect the ideals of the society, its determination
to survive, its ethos, emotions, fellow-feelings, and so
on. Drama in itself is a complete form of art. It includes
framework acting, dialogue, poetry, music, etc.
In all the traditional theatre - forms, songs and the art
of singing have an important role to play. Traditional
music of the theatre is an expression of the feelings of
the community.
Traditionally the language of ordinary people has an
element of creativity, though not based on classical or
grammatical roots. This kind of creativity is spontaneous,
emerging from the circumstances. When there is
intensity of emotions, there is a natural kind of rhythm
in the expressions. It is this natural rhythm from which
emerges the traditional theatre-form. In this art form,
sorrow, joy, frustration, hatred and love have their role
and place.
In traditional theatre forms there are special styles of
dance portraying the entry on to the stage or platform,
narrative and descriptive roles. The best example of this
acting is the Bidapat naach. In this traditional theatre
form, emphasis is not on beauty but on acting itself and
narrative and descriptive skills. Dance as a narrative
art is the basis of theatre form which can be seen in
the traditional theatre form of Bhavai of Gujarat. In
this form, quick or slow foot movement is a means of
narration. The art of making the entry by dancing has
been perfected in the traditional Kashmiri theatre form,
Bhand Jashn. The way each character walks and enters
the platform, identifies him. In Koodiyattam and Ankia
Naat, the entry by dancing itself is complicated and
artistic. In the forms, the tempo and basic posture and
gesture identifies the role of the character.
8.1 TRADITIONAL THEATRE
Bhand Pather, the traditional theatre form of Kashmir, is
a unique combination of dance, music and acting. Satire,
wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter. In
this theatre form, music is provided with surnai, nagaara
and dhol. Since the actors of Bhand Pather are mainly
from the farming community, the impact of their way of
living, ideals and sensitivity is discernible.
Originally the theatre form Swang, was mainly music-
based. Gradually, prose too, played its role in the
dialogues. The softness of emotions, accomplishment of
rasa alongwith the development of character can be seen
in this theatre form. The two important styles of Swang
are from Rohtak and Hathras. In the style belonging to
Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in
Hathras, it is Brajbhasha.
Nautanki is usually associated with Uttar Pradesh. The
most popular centres of this traditional theatre form are
Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras. The meters used in the
verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel.
There was a time when only men acted in Nautanki but
nowadays, women have also started taking part in the
performances. Among those remembered with reverence
is Gulab Bai of Kanpur. She gave a new dimension to this
old theatre form.
Raasleela is based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends;
it is believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays based
on the life of Krishna. In this theatre form the dialogues
in prose combined beautifully with songs and scenes
from Krishna’s pranks.
Bhavai is the traditional theatre form of Gujarat. The
centers of this form are Kutch and Kathiawar. The
instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute,
pakhawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera, etc. In Bhavai,
there is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic
sentiments.
Fairs in honor of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies
have within their framework musical plays are known as
Jatra. This form was born and nurtured in Bengal. Krishna
Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya’s influence. Later,
however, worldly love stories too, found a place in Jatra.
The earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues
were added at a later stage. The actors themselves
describe the change of scene, the place of action, etc.
Maach is the traditional theatre form of Madhya Pradesh.
The term Mach is used for the stage itself as also for the
play. In this theatre form songs are given prominence
in between the dialogues. The term for dialogue in this
form is bol and rhyme in narration is termed vanag. The
tunes of this theatre form are known as rangat.
Bhaona is a presentation of the Ankia Naat of Assam.
In Bhaona cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa,
Mathura and Brindavan can be seen. The Sutradhaar, or
narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit and then in
either Brajboli or Assamese.
Tamasha is a traditional folk theatre form of
Maharashtra. It has evolved from the folk forms such as
Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan. Unlike other theatre forms,
in Tamaasha the female actress is the chief exponent of
dance movements in the play. She is known as Murki.
Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid
gestures make it possible to portray all the emotions
through dance.
Tamasha
Dashavatar is the most developed theatre form of the
Konkan and Goa regions. The performers personify the
ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation
and creativity. The ten incarnations are Matsya (fish),
Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lion-man),
Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna (or Balram),
Buddha and Kalki. Apart from stylized make-up, the
Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood and papier
mache.
Krishnattam, folk theatre of Kerala, came into existence
in the middle of the 17th century A.D. under the
patronage of King Manavada of Calicut. Krishnattam is
a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive
days. The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida,
80
kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida
Vadham, and Swargarohana. The episodes are based on
the theme of Lord Krishna–his birth, childhood pranks
and various deeds depicting victory of good over evil.
Mudiyettu, traditional folk theatre form of Kerala is
celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-
December). It is usually performed only in the Kali
temples of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess. It
depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the
asura Darika. The seven characters in Mudiyettu-Shiva,
Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli and
Koimbidar (Nandikeshvara) are all heavily made-up.
Koodiyaattam, one of the oldest traditional theatre
forms of Kerala, is based on Sanskrit theatre traditions.
The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or
actor, Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and Naangyaar,
those taking on women’s roles. The Sutradhar or narrator
and the Vidushak or jesters are the protagonists. It is
Vidushak alone who delivers the dialogues. Emphasis on
hand gestures and eye movements makes this dance and
theatre form unique.
Yakshagaana, traditional theatre form of Karnataka, is
based on mythological stories and Puranas. The most
popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi
swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-
Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek,
Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati.
Therukoothu, the most popular form of folk drama of
Tamil Nadu, literally means “street play”. It is mostly
performed at the time of annual temple festivals of
Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve a rich harvest. At
the core of the extensive repertoire of Therukoothu there
is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of Draupadi.
Kattiakaran, the Sutradhara of the Therukoothu
performance, gives the gist of the play to the audience
and Komali entertains the audience with his buffoonery.
Theater under British India
Under British colonial rule, modern Indian theatre
began when a theatre was started in Belgachia. One
of the earliest plays composed and staged during this
period was Buro Shaliker Ghare Roa (1860) by Michael
Madhusudan Dutt, both in Bengali. Around the same
time, Nil Darpan (1858–59, first commercial production
in 1872, by Girish Chandra Ghosh at the national theatre in
Calcutta) a Bengali play by Dinabandhu Mitra garnered
both accolades and controversy for depicting the horror
and tragedy of indigo cultivation in rural Bengal, and
played a major role in the indigo revolt. Rabindranath
Tagore was a pioneering modern playwright who wrote
plays noted for their exploration and questioning of
nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed.
His plays are written in Bengali and include Chitra
(Chitrangada, 1892), The King of the Dark Chamber
(Raja, 1910), The Post Office (Dakghar, 1913), and
Red Oleander (Raktakarabi, 1924).
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Kalyanam Raghuramaiah, a recipient of the Sangeet Natak The majority of Uttar Pradesh’s folk and traditional
Akademi Award, and the Padma Shri, was known for the theater performances are vocal or narrative.
roles of Krishna or Dushyantha, Bhavanisankar, Narada
etc. in Telugu theatre. He has acted in various dramas
and gave more than 20,000 stage performances. He was
called the “Nightingale of the Stage” by Rabindranath
Tagore.

8.2 THEATRE OF UTTAR PRADESH

Classical Theatre of Uttar Pradesh

z The founder of Modern Hindi literature and Classical
Hindi theatre in Uttar Pradesh is considered as
Bharatendu Harishchandra of Varanasi.
z First is Radha Kanhayya ka Kissa by Nawab of
Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah and second is Indrasabha by
Sayyed Agha Hassan Lakhnavi under the patronage
of Nawab.
z ‘Nahush’ is the first drama written in ‘Vishudh Natak
Reeti’. It was written by Babu Gopal Chandra, Father
of Bharatendu.
z “Janaki Mangal” is the first drama which was staged
in modern technique in 1868. It was written by Shital
Prasad Tripathi.
Folk Theater of Uttar Pradesh
The performing arts have a very long history in Uttar
Pradesh, which is home to these traditions. According
to historical records, Uttar Pradesh was a significant hub
for innovative entertainment. The folk theater traditions
of the area include Nautanki, Ramlila, which involves
acting out the full Ramayana, and Raslila.
Two major subgenres of Indian folk theater are performed
by Theatre Personalities of Uttar Pradesh. Folk theater,
both religious and secular, coexists and positively inspires
one another. The leaders of the area presented their
creative ideas for advancing Indian folk theater traditions
and enhancing all the characteristics of a classical theater.
Theatre Personalities of Uttar Pradesh
Languages for the Theatres of Uttar Pradesh are mostly
local language or Hindi language. Theatre Personalities
of Uttar Pradesh show their talent in Ramlila, Rasleela
and Nautanki.
The pattern of Nautanki is divided into three parts.
The proficiency of the personalities is represented in
the three major parts: the doha which is sung free,
without beat; choubola and the last one is chalti or
daur or udhan which is sung at a great speed as its
name signifies. The reputation and popularity of the
Nautanki depends heavily on the voice and expressions
of the Theatre Personalities.
Expected Questions
1. What efforts have been made to develop theater in
India? Name any two important persons associated
with the development of this art.
2. Write a brief note on the oldest continuing theater
form of Uttar Pradesh.

v v v

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 9 Religion in India
“I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the
world tolerance and universal acceptance. We believe not
only in universal toleration, but we accept all religions as
true.”
 Swami Vivekananda (at World Parliament of Religions
 in Chicago in 1893)
Religion in India is a multifaceted and deeply ingrained
aspect of the country’s identity, culture, and society.
India is often referred to as the birthplace of several
major world religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, and Sikhism, and it has also been a melting
pot of various other faiths throughout its history. The
religious diversity in India is a remarkable feature, with
adherents of numerous religions coexisting, practicing
their beliefs, and contributing to the rich tapestry of
Indian life.
This becomes obvious when one considers the different
locations that are regarded as sacred and holy. ‘Ashrams’
(monasteries or congregation locations), which are vast
communities of scholars or monks, temples (mandir),
shrines, and particular landscapes like the Ganges river
are a few examples. There is a strong religious heritage
present in the architecture, and it is not unusual to find a
Hindu temple, a Muslim mosque, and a Christian church
all close to one another.
The 2011 Indian census indicated that 79.8% of Indians
identified as Hindu, 14.2% identified as Muslim and 2.3%
identified as Christian. A further 1.7% of the population
identified as Sikh, 0.7% identified as Buddhist and 0.37%
identified as Jain. Due to the massive population size of
India, religious minorities still represent a significant
number of people. For example, although only 0.37% of
India may identify with Jainism, that still equates to over
4 million people. While not all religions in India can be
discussed in detail, the following provides an overview
of the major religions in the country as well as sizable
religions that originated in India.
9.1 HINDUISM
Hinduism is among the most widely practiced religions
in the country, however, it includes a large number of
cults and sects. Hinduism derives from the word “Hindu,”
which originally refers to people living around the Indus
River. At its most basic levels, Hinduism derives core
ideas from pre-Vedic and Vedic religious beliefs.
Some core beliefs of Hinduism were derived from the
Vedic religion, also known as Brahmanism, which
thrived in the Indian subcontinent around 2500 BCE. Its
core doctrine was derived from the Vedas and from the
derivative knowledge of the Vedas, of which the Rigveda
is considered the oldest. It is a work, which is divided
into ten books or large sections (mandalas), and which
may have been composed in its present form over many
centuries.
Early Vedic people reside in the northwestern parts of
the Indian subcontinent. It appears that Vedism thrived
along with the Indus Valley civilization for a time being
and continued to thrive following the decline of the
latter. Subsequently, Vedic people migrated from the
Sindhu-Saraswati region (modern Thar desert) to the
plains of northern and central India.
The earliest hymns of the Rigveda suggest that Vedic
religion is very ancient. Their social order consisted
of four distinct groups namely priests, warriors,
merchants and workers, based upon color, occupation
or birth.
At some point, these social divisions became rigid,
resulting in the emergence of birth-based caste systems.
The knowledge of the Vedas remained confined to
the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas. The Brahmanas
specialized in ritual knowledge, while the Kshatriyas
specialized in spiritual knowledge. Many social and
economic privileges were denied to the remaining two
groups. Belief in karma and rebirth shows the divisions,
upholding the idea that fate and destiny of people were
shaped by their own actions.
The Vedas are considered revelatory scriptures by
Hindus. Vedic hymns are products of a very ancient
wisdom. Ancient seers (rishis) who claimed Manu,
reputedly the first man on earth or the ancestor of all
humans, as their progenitor claimed to have written
them in meditative and intuitive states. With the aid of
a committed priestly class and loyal warriors, the Vedic
seers wisely applied their religious knowledge to uphold
and advance dharma, bringing in new followers through
royal patronage and the aura created by magical rites
and mystic practices. To appease new royal sponsors or
to enhance the faith and extend their appeal in order
to draw in more adherents, they also incorporated a
number of competing traditions from the subcontinent.
Folk Traditions of Hinduism z Swami Vivekananda was an influential Indian spiritual
leader and philosopher who played a key role in the
Since the earliest times, India has been home to diverse
revival of Hinduism in the late 19th century. He was a
groups of people. Historically, people from various
disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, a mystic and
parts migrated to India in search of good life, riches,
saint. Swami Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna
farmlands or green pastures. It is now widely accepted
Mission as a spiritual and philanthropic organization
that the Indus Valley people were also heterogeneous
to propagate the teachings of his guru and work for
and belonged to diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. the welfare of humanity.
The diversity of the Indian population remained intact
throughout its long history.

Sects of Hinduism
Shaivism
z Shaivism is devoted to Lord Shiva as the supreme
deity.
z Followers, known as Shaivas or Shaivites, worship
Shiva in various forms and consider him the
destroyer and transformer of the universe.
z Shaivism encompasses a wide range of philosophical
and devotional traditions.
Vaishnavism z Swami Vivekananda’s movement aimed to combine
z Vaishnavism centers around devotion to Lord spirituality with social service and foster a sense of
Vishnu, particularly in his various incarnations universal brotherhood. He believed in the essential
such as Lord Krishna and Lord Rama. unity of all religions and emphasized the importance
of realizing one’s inner divinity.
z Devotees, known as Vaishnavas, believe in the
preservation and maintenance of the universe by z He presented Hinduism as a universal religion that
Lord Vishnu. could address the needs of modern society and
Shaktism promote harmony among different faiths.
z Shaktism worships the divine feminine as the z The mission runs educational institutions, hospitals,
supreme power, often represented as Goddess and rural development centers, providing free
Durga, Kali, or other goddesses. education, healthcare, and relief work to the needy.
z Followers, known as Shaktas, believe in the dynamic Brahmo Samaj
and creative force of the feminine energy (Shakti). z The Brahmo movement refers to a religious and social
z Shaktism emphasizes rituals and worship of the reform movement that emerged in 1828 in Bengal,
goddess in her various forms. India.
Smartism z It was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and later
z Smartism is a sect that recognizes multiple deities, led by figures like Debendranath Tagore and Keshub
including Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, and Chandra Sen.
Surya, as various forms of the same ultimate reality
(Brahman).
z Smartas believe in the oneness of all deities
and often perform worship based on personal
preference.

Movements of Hinduism
Ramakrishna Mission
z The Ramakrishna Mission, established in 1897, is a
monastic organization based on the principles and
teachings of Swami Vivekananda.
z Its primary objective is to serve humanity through
various educational, cultural, and humanitarian
activities.

UPPSC Religion in India 83

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z The movement aimed to reform Hindu society,
challenge orthodox practices, and promote a
monotheistic form of worship.
z Debendranath Tagore was active follower of the
Brahmo Samaj which was founded by Raja Ram
Mohan Roy. He established the Adi Brahmo Samaj
(Original Brahmo Society) in 1866, which aimed to
promote monotheistic worship and moral values.
Tagore’s emphasis on meditation, prayer, and devotion
in worship drew inspiration from both Hindu and
Islamic traditions.
z Raja Ram Mohan Roy, often considered the father of
the Brahmo movement, sought to eradicate social
evils such as the caste system, sati (the practice of
widows self-immolating on their husband’s funeral
pyres), and child marriage.
z Keshub Chandra Sen, a prominent disciple of
Debendranath Tagore, later formed the Brahmo
Samaj of India in 1866 after a split within the Brahmo
movement. Under Sen’s leadership, the movement
adopted a more inclusive and universalistic approach,
drawing inspiration from various religious traditions.
Sen sought to establish a new religious order that
combined elements of Hinduism, Christianity, Islam,
and other faiths, emphasizing the unity of all religions.
Arya Samaj
z The Arya Samaj played a crucial role in the revival
and preservation of Vedic knowledge and rituals.
It emphasized the importance of Vedic education and
the study of Sanskrit. The movement aimed to counter
what it perceived as the negative influence of other
religious traditions and the erosion of Hindu values.
Additional Information
Recently, The Prime Minister paid tribute to
Dayanand Saraswati on his 200th birth anniversary.
Significance of Dayanand Teachings:
z Promoted Nationalist Sentiment: Dayanand
Saraswati’s legacy has had an enduring influence.
First, his message was particularly important at
a time when nationalist sentiment in India was
rising.
z Towards Swaraj (Self-rule): He is credited to have
first used the term swaraj (self-rule) in 1875, which
would later be picked up by the likes of Lokmanya
Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi.
z Shaping nationalist Discourse: His criticism of
the British from a religious point of view (chapter
13 of Satyarth Prakash is completely dedicated to
his criticism of Christianity) as well as providing
an ancient Indian alternative was crucial to the
nationalist discourse of the time.
z Consolidation of Hindus: His work was also
important for the consolidation of Hindus. Through
the organization of Arya Samaj, he was among the
first to advocate ‘conversion’ into the Hindu fold–
he supported the idea of shuddhi, to bring back
Islamic or Christian converts into Hinduism.
z Maker of Modern India: Sarvapalli
Radhakrishnan, India’s second President and an
influential educationist, called Dayanand Saraswati
“a maker of modern India”. unquestionable.

z The Arya Samaj is a Hindu reform movement that was

founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875. He set up
He set up
The movement emerged as a response to the social, Ramakrishna
Mission. Brahmo
He set up Arya
Samaj.
cultural, and religious challenges faced by Hindu Swami Samaj. He treated all
The movement
society during the colonial era in India. The Arya Vivekananda's
movement aimed to
the religions
are false and
Samaj sought to promote Vedic teachings, reject idol aimed to Monothism
practices.
gave a call to
worship, and advocate for social reforms. Universal
Brotherhood. He asked
"Go Back to
Vedas".
people to have
z His teachings aimed at “Go Back to Vedas”. He believed in
the essential faith in only
He opposes
Murti worship.
z Swami Dayananda Saraswati, the founder of the unity of all one god.
religions.
Arya Samaj, emphasized the authority of the Vedas,
the ancient Hindu scriptures, as the ultimate source
of knowledge and truth. He sought to revive the
Vedic principles and practices, rejecting what he 9.2 ISLAMISM
saw as corruptions and distortions that had crept
into Hinduism over time. The Arya Samaj focused Islam was introduced to the Indian subcontinent in the
on the principles of monotheism, truth, purity, and 7th century CE through trade and cultural exchange.
social welfare. Arab merchants and traders established contacts with

84 Art and Culture UPPSC

WALLAH
the western coast of India, which led to the gradual
spread of Islam in the region.
Muslims arrived in India during the life of Muhammad
the Prophet, establishing mosques and organizing
missionary endeavors. Those missionary efforts proved
successful, rooting Islam firmly into Indian life. As often
happens with missionary movements from all religions,
merchant and trade endeavors went hand in hand with
missionary work.
Role of Muslims in India’s
Independence Movement
z The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and
writers in India’s struggle against the British has been
documented, foremost among them Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai.
z Muhammad Ashfaq Ullah Khan of Shahjehanpur
conspired to loot the British treasury at Kakori
(Lucknow).
z Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (popularly known as
Frontier Gandhi), emerged as a great nationalist who
spent forty five of his 95 years in jail. Barakatullah of
Bhopal, one of the founders of the Ghadar party, helped
to create a network of anti-British organizations.
z Syed Rahmat Shah of the Ghadar party worked as
an underground revolutionary in France and suffered
execution by hanging for his part in the unsuccessful
Ghadar (mutiny) uprising in 1915.
z Prominent Muslim leaders like Mohammad Ali
Jinnah and Allama Iqbal were instrumental in
articulating the demands for Muslim political rights
and self-determination. Jinnah, in particular, played
a key role in the creation of Pakistan as a separate
nation for Muslims.
z Vakkom Abdul Khadar of Kerala participated in
the “Quit India” struggle in 1942, also hanged for his
role. Umar Subhani, an industrialist and millionaire of
Bombay, provided Gandhi with congress expenses and
ultimately gave his life for the cause of independence.
z Ali Ahmad Siddiqui of Faizabad (UP) planned the
Indian Mutiny in Malaya and Burma along with Syed
Mujtaba Hussain of Jaunpur, suffering execution by
hanging in 1917.
z In the late 1920s, recognizing the different perspectives
of the Indian National Congress and that of the All
India Muslim League, Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad
Iqbal presented the concept of a separate Muslim
homeland in India in the 1930s.
z Consequently, the All India Muslim League raised
the demand for a separate Muslim homeland. That
demand, raised in Lahore in 1940, became known as
the Pakistan Resolution. Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad
Iqbal had passed away by then, and Muhammad Ali
Jinnah, Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan, Huseyn Shaheed
Suhrawardy, and many others led the Pakistan
Movement.
z Among Muslim women, Hazrat Mahal, Asghari
Begum, Bi Amma contributed to the struggle for
freedom from the British.

It was founded in the

19th century by Mirza
Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan It was founded in the
Ghulam Ahmad. The
propagated modern 19th century by
Ahmadis believe that
education for the Muhammad Qasim
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
Muslims, which would Nanautavi and Rashid
was the promised
allow them to work with Ahmad Gangohi.It is a
messiah and mahdi,
the British, and in turn revivalist movement
and they reject the
the Muslims will also that seeks to return to
traditional Islamic
prosper. the original teachings
belief that Muhammad
of Islam.
was the last prophet.

UPPSC Religion in India 85

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9.3 SIKHISM
“Sikh” means “Seeker of Truth.” During the time of the
Sikh Gurus, the community of believers was diverse,
multi-cultural and interreligious. It was only later that
the term “Sikh” began to refer to a specific group of
people. At its origin, Sikh Dharma meant “the spiritual
practice of one who is looking for truth.”
Sikhism was founded in the 15th century by Guru
Nanak, a man who was born a Hindu but left his
religion at a young age in search of his own path. Guru
Nanak’s teachings are the source of Sikhism today.
The outcome was Sikhism, which is currently the fifth-
largest organized religion in the world. The Indian
Subcontinent’s Punjab Province, which is today partially
in Pakistan and partially in India, is where the religion
first emerged. It is still the main religion in the Indian
state of Punjab. Adi Granth or the Guru Granth Sahib
is the cornerstone of Sikhism. It is the Sikhs’ sacred text
and is made up of a sizable collection of hymns, a number
of Hindu scriptures, and the works of Sikh Gurus.
Sikhism is affirmatively monotheistic and acknowledges
a single supreme universal God who has no form, no
particular name, and no second. God the one Supreme
Reality is symbolized by Omkar. Hence he is also known
as Ek Omkar, which is interpreted by some scholars as
ekk Oankar, meaning one God (Omkar Brahman)
without form. The Guru Granth Sahib begins with this
phrase as part of the seed mantra (mul mantra), which
is reproduced below. It portrays the view of God as
envisioned in Sikhism.
About Guru Nanak
Guru Nanak is the first Sikh Guru. He lived for
70 years. He was born in Talwandi, Pakistan and
left his physical body in Kartarpur Ravi, Pakistan.
His father’s name was Mehta Kalyan Chand, but was
known as Kalu Ji. His mother’s name was Mata Tripta
Ji. His wife’s name was Mata Sulakhni Ji. He had two
sons. His elder son was Baba Sri Chand Ji and his
second son was Baba Lakshmi Das Ji.
Guru Nanak
achieved his
state of
enlightenment,
or realization,
sometime
around the age
of 30. After
disappearing
into a river and
meditating in the
water for three days, Guru Nanak emerged having had
a powerful vision of the nature of reality, Divinity and
human existence.
86
Sikh Gurus
z The era of the ten gurus of Sikhism spans from
Nanak Dev’s birth in 1469 until Guru Gobind
Singh’s passing.
z Guru Gobind Singh gave the Sikh text, Guru Granth,
the title of Guru at the time of his passing in 1708,
when he died away.
1. Guru Nanak Dev (1469 to 1539)
2. Guru Angad Dev (1539 to 1552)
3. Guru Amardas Sahib (1552 to 1574)
4. Guru Ram Das (1574 to 1581)
5. Guru Arjan Dev (1581 to 1606)
6. Guru Har Gobind Sahib (1606 to 1644)
7. Guru Har Rai Sahib (1644 to 1661)
8. Guru Har Krishan Sahib (1661 to 1664)
9. Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib (1665 to 1675)
10. Guru Gobind Singh Sahib (1675 to 1708)
All ten of the Sikh Gurus clearly stated that they were
human beings. They were simply blessed with the
capacity to hear, channel and share the Sound of that
Universal Teacher for others to hear.
Eight Sikh Gurus propagated gender equality 500 years
ago. They propagated the idea that no group of people
was superior to any other group. And they asserted
that the highest truth was the shared brotherhood and
sisterhood of humanity. Their teachings gave people
the tools they needed to end the caste system, get
rid of bad social behaviors that hurt women, become
financially independent, and build a tolerant society
based on everyone’s shared humanity.
Guru Arjan Dev was captured by Mughal Emperor
Jahangir in 1606 and imprisoned in Lahore Fort
because of his increasing influence among people and
also the spread of Sikhism.
Akbar donated the land to Guru Ramdas for the
Golden temple in Amritsar.
9.4 CHRISTIANS
z Christianity is believed to have been introduced to
India in the 1st century CE, shortly after the crucifixion
of Jesus Christ. According to tradition, St. Thomas the
Apostle arrived in the southern Indian state of Kerala
and established Christian communities along the
Malabar Coast. He is often referred to as “Doubting
Thomas” and is considered the patron saint of India.
z Christianity stands as India’s third largest religion,
following Hinduism and Islam. Abrahamic religions on
the whole date back about 2500 years with the arrival
of Judaism, followed by the arrival of Christianity
around 2000 years ago. Vasco da Gama, seeking
Art and Culture UPPSC
WALLAH
 preexisting Christian nations in India who discovered
a sea route to India.
z The basic philosophy of Christianity is the existence
of one God who created the Universe. God sends
messengers or Messiah(s) when necessary, to help
his creation.
z Jesus was a messenger who wanted to help people to
find God and become their ‘saviour’. They also believe
that after Jesus left earth, God’s presence was retained
on Earth in the form of the Holy ghost or Holy spirit. In
fact, Christians worship the Holy Trinity: the father
(God), the son (Jesus) and the Holy ghost.
z India is home to various Christian denominations,
including Roman Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, and
independent churches. The Roman Catholic Church is
one of the largest Christian denominations in India,
with millions of adherents.
z Christian organizations and churches in India
are actively involved in social work, charity, and
advocacy for the underprivileged and marginalized
communities. They run orphanages, schools, and
hospitals, providing essential services to the needy.
z Christians make up a minority of India’s population,
constituting around 2-3% of the total population.
However, the Christian community is diverse and
includes people from various linguistic and ethnic
backgrounds.
9.5 ZOROASTRIANISM
The history of Zoroastrianism began during the Bronze
Age, when, as scholars now estimate, the Prophet
Zarathushtra first revealed and taught “the Good
Religion.” In about 1750 BCE, Zarathushtra brought
his message of ethical monotheism to ancient Persia and
Central Asia; while he drew a small group of dedicated
men and women, he also experienced great resistance
from local priests and princes. According to legend,
Zarathushtra was invited to present his teachings
before King Vishtasp, who became one of the first of
many rulers in Central Asia to embrace this new and
revolutionary faith.
UPPSC Religion in India
WALLAH
Their sacred text called Zend Avesta is written in
Old Avestan and consists of 17 sacred songs (gathas)
and the Athuna Vairyo (sacred chant), which was
supposedly written by Zarathustra himself. The
translations of these texts and compiled glossaries
are called Zend.
This collection is divided into five parts:
z Yasna: Worship with ceremony and offerings
z Videvdat: Laws against the demons
z Yashts: to worship through praise Khordeh
z Avesta: Book on Daily prayers
z Gathas: These are further divided into five parts
called the Ahunavaiti, Ushtavaiti, Spenta-Mainyu,
Vohu-Khshathra and Vashishta-Ishti.
9.6 JUDAISM
It is one of the oldest religions and yet it has been
prosecuted the most. The followers of Judaism are
called Jews and several empires had targeted them.
The worst case was by Hitler who systematically killed
and tortured several millions of Jews in Germany. This
is also a monotheistic religion that believes in one God.
Their religion predates Christianity and Islam, in fact,
these two religions have borrowed a lot from Judaic
philosophies.
Judaism has a long history in India, dating back over
2,000 years. Jewish communities have lived on the
Indian subcontinent for centuries and have contributed
to the country’s cultural and religious diversity. Here are
some key points about Judaism in India:
z There is evidence of Jewish settlements in India
as early as the time of King Solomon (around
10th century BCE). Jewish merchants and traders
established communities along the western coast
of India, particularly in the regions of Kerala and
Maharashtra.
87
z The Cochin Jews, also known as Malabar Jews, are
one of the oldest Jewish communities in India. They
claim to have arrived in Kerala around the time of King
Solomon. The Cochin Jews maintained their distinct
religious and cultural practices, living harmoniously
alongside other communities in Kerala.
z Indian Jews celebrate traditional Jewish festivals
such as Passover, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, and
Hanukkah. They have also adopted certain Indian
cultural elements in their customs and traditions.
z The Jewish population in India has decreased
over the years due to emigration to Israel and
other countries. However, there are still Jewish
communities and synagogues in cities like Mumbai,
Kolkata, and Kochi.
Today, while the Jewish population in India is relatively
small, the legacy and contributions of Indian Jews to the
country’s history and culture continue to be recognized
and celebrated.
9.7 BUDDHISM
Buddhism, or the spiritual tradition of the awakened
one, Buddha, (Buddha-dharma) is regarded as one
of the three most widespread major world religions.
Buddhism was founded by the historical Buddha
Shakyamuni or Gautama, in the 5th or the 6th
centuries B.C.E.
The basic teachings of the Buddha can be recapitulated
in the Tripitaka–the three collections of: Vinaya-pitaka
(the collection of discipline), Sutta-pitaka (collection
of discourses), and Abhidhamma-pitaka (collection of
abhidharma or metaphysics). The main subject matter
or the purpose of these teachings is, respectively, the
development of the three higher trainings of discipline,
concentration and transcendental knowledge, while
their function is to remedy the three poisons of desire,
anger and delusion.
Recently, India hosted a conference on ‘Shared
Buddhist Heritage’ under the ambit of the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation (SCO).
z Aim: To re-establish transcultural links, seek out
commonalities between Buddhist art of Central
Asia, art styles, archaeological sites and antiquity in
various museums’ collections of the SCO countries.
z Nodal Agency: The Ministry of Culture, The
Ministry of External Affairs.
88
Early Development of Buddhism in India
In brief, the historical development of Buddhism can
mainly be classified in four phases:
1. The Phase of Early Buddhism: The historic Buddha
expounded the teachings and his disciples preserved
the teachings. Siddhartha Gautama, known as the
Buddha, attained enlightenment around 528 BCE
under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India. This event
marked the beginning of his role as the “Awakened
One” or the “Buddha.”
2. 
The Phase of Interpretations of the Teachings:
The second phase’s criterion saw the commencement
of divisions into numerous (Hinayana) schools based
on diverse interpretations of the Buddha’s (Councils’)
teachings. This occurred roughly between the fourth
and the first centuries CE. Between the Buddha’s
mahaparinirvana (death) and the end of the first
century B.C.E., the Hinayana Schools emerged. After
the third council, Hinayana Buddhism was split
into its initial 18 sub-schools, creating the first
split into schools. It is asserted that its theories are
fundamentally based on the sutras imparted by the
Buddha, its discipline on Vinaya, and its examination
of the teachings of the Abhidharma. The Pratimoksha,
or individual salvation or liberation, is the main theme
of Hinayana.
3. 
The Phase of the Rise of Mahayana Buddhism:
The rise of Mahayana Buddhism with its two sub-
schools named Chitamattra (or the Yogacharya)
and Madhyamaka was the third historical phase of
Buddhism. This occurred approximately from 1st to
the 7th century C.E. Mahayana Schools developed
especially during the time of Asanga, Vasubandhu,
Nagarjuna, and other great masters.
4. 
The Phase of Buddhist Tantra: After the 7th
century, the Buddhist Tantras in Tibet began to be
revealed. Tantric Buddhism was not made public
or available to other Buddhist practitioners at that
time and existed in India only in a very obscure or
secret form. With the help of Guru Padmasambhava,
Marpa the Great Translator, and numerous other
outstanding Indian and Tibetan masters, it finally
reached Tibet in its entirety after expanding much
more during the times of Saraha, Nagarjuna, and
other great mahasiddhas.
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 About Gautam Buddha
z Gautam Buddha, also known as Siddhartha Gautama, was a spiritual teacher and the founder of Buddhism.
z He was born in Lumbini, present-day Nepal, in the 6th century BCE. Buddha’s teachings and philosophy have
had a profound impact on millions of people around the world.

z Siddhartha Gautama was born into a royal family, but he renounced his luxurious life and embarked on a spiritual
quest to seek the truth and end suffering. He was deeply disturbed by the human condition of old age, sickness,
and death, and he sought to find a path to liberation from suffering.
z After years of intense meditation and spiritual practice, Gautama achieved enlightenment at the age of 35. This
event, known as the “Bodhi” or awakening, took place under a Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India. From that point
forward, he became known as Gautam Buddha, meaning “Awakened One” or “Enlightened One.”
z Throughout his life, Gautam Buddha traveled extensively, teaching and spreading his message. He established a
community of monks and nuns, known as the Sangha, who dedicated themselves to the practice and propagation of
Buddhism. Buddha’s teachings gained a significant following in India and later spread throughout Asia and beyond.
z Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (Malla Mahajanapada) in Uttar Pradesh at the age of 80 in
483 BC. He is said to be contemporary for major part of his life to King Bimbisara and for the last few years to
Ajatashatru of Haryanka Dynasty.
The four Noble Truths are:
z The truth of the unsatisfactoriness (dukkha sacca)
z The truth of the cause of the unsatisfactoriness (dukkha-samudāya sacca)
z The truth of the cessation the unsatisfactoriness (dukkha-nirodha sacca)
z The truth of the way leading to the cessation of unsatisfactoriness (dukkha- nirodha- gamini-paṭipadā sacca).
Eight-Fold Paths: It consists of several entwined intellectual, ethical, and meditative practices.
1. Right view
2. Right intention
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right mindfulness
7. Right effort
8. Right concentration

Buddhism has various sects or schools that have evolved over time, each with its own unique interpretations,
practices, and philosophical perspectives. While there are numerous sects within Buddhism, these are:

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Personalities Associated with Buddhism
Buddhism has been shaped by the teachings and
contributions of numerous individuals throughout its
history. Here are some key personalities associated with
Buddhism:
z Gautam Buddha: Siddhartha Gautama, the historical
Buddha, is the central figure in Buddhism. He is
revered as the founder of the religion and is known
for his teachings on the Four Noble Truths, the
Eightfold Path, and the attainment of enlightenment
or nirvana.
z Bodhidharma: Bodhidharma is considered the
founder of Zen Buddhism (Chan in China). He is
said to have brought the teachings of Zen from
India to China and is credited with emphasizing
direct experience and meditation as the means to
enlightenment.
z Nagarjuna: Nagarjuna was a prominent Indian
philosopher and a key figure in the development of
Mahayana Buddhism. He is known for his profound
writings on Madhyamaka philosophy, which
emphasized the concept of emptiness (shunyata) and
the Middle Way.
z Dogen: Dogen Zenji was a Japanese Zen master and
the founder of the Soto school of Zen Buddhism. He
is known for his influential writings, including the
90
Shobogenzo, which explore the nature of reality,
meditation, and the integration of Zen practice into
daily life.
z Milarepa: Milarepa was a Tibetan Buddhist yogi
and poet. He is revered as one of the greatest
spiritual figures in Tibetan Buddhism. His life
story and teachings, recorded in his songs and
poems, inspire practitioners with his example of
perseverance, renunciation, and the attainment of
enlightenment.
z Dalai Lama: The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader
of Tibetan Buddhism. The title has been held by a
succession of individuals believed to be manifestations
of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion.
The current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, is widely
known for his efforts in promoting peace, compassion,
and human rights.
These are just a few examples of the many individuals
who have contributed to the development, spread,
and practice of Buddhism throughout its history.
Buddhism has a rich tapestry of personalities, each
with their own unique teachings, insights, and spiritual
accomplishments.
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Four Buddhist Councils
Buddhist Councils Place Chairman King
First (483 BC) Rajgriha Mahakasyapa Ajatshatru
Second (383 BC) Vaishali Sabakami Kalashoka
Third (250 BC) Patliputra Moggaliputta Tissa Ashoka
Fourth (72 AD) Kundalvan, Kashmir Vasumitra Kanishka

Although Jainism is an atheistic religion, followers of

Recently, The Prime Minister addressed the inaugural
session of the Global Buddhist Summit in Delhi.
About Global Buddhist Summit:
z Organized by: The Ministry of Culture and
International Buddhist Confederation
z Theme: “Responses to Contemporary Challenges:
Philosophy to Praxis.”
Jainism worship the statues, icons, images and symbols
of the Tirthankaras in temples and homes seeking their
blessings and intervention for liberation.
A tirthankara is not a god, but an enlightened and
perfect being who has been rendered by his previous
karma to be a source of knowledge and enlightenment
to others. He is higher than the gods of Jainism.

Buddhist Pilgrimages in Uttar Pradesh Tirthankar Symbol

z There are a total 6 Buddhist religious destinations I. Lord Rishabha Bull or ox
in Uttar Pradesh that are of the utmost importance. (Adinath)
Kaushambi, Sankisa, Kushinagar, and Sravasti
are the other 4 pilgrimage places that are included II. Ajitnath Elephant
in almost every Buddhist Circuit Tour in the state.
III. Sambhavanath Horse
z Each of these Buddhist pilgrimages have the
archaeological ruins, artifacts, and pillars that either IV. Abhinandannath Monkey
date back to the time of Buddha or to the time when
V. Sumatinath Curlew or red goose
the religion was flourishing in India. This offers
devotees and tourists a chance to relish a detailed VI. Padmaprabha Lotus
history tour along with a spiritual one.
z Buddhism in Uttar Pradesh has strong roots and VII. Suparshvanath Swastika
eminent religious significance that contribute in making VIII. Chandraprabha Moon
it an important Budhhist pilgrimage destination in the
world. The state’s tourism outlines a convenient and IX. Pushpadanta Crocodile
well-sorted travel itinerary for the Buddhist Circuit
Tour. It ensures that all the important destinations X. Sheetalnath Kalpavriksha or ficus religiosa
along with Sarnath and Kushinagar are also included XI. Shreyansanath Rhinoceros
in the pilgrimage tour of the Buddhist devotees.
XII. Vasupujya Female buffalo
9.8 JAINISM
XIII. Vimalnath Pig
One of the world’s oldest religions, Jainism has its roots in
India and dates back at least 2,500 years. The liberation XIV. Anantnath Porcupine
from the never-ending cycle of rebirth and the attainment
of the all-knowing condition known as moksha are the XV. Dharmanath Vajra
two spiritual pursuits of Jainism. This can be accomplished
through leading a life of ahimsa, or nonviolence, with the XVI. Shantinath Deer
least amount of harm to other living things. XVII. Kunthunath Goat
One of the 24 tirthankaras, or instructors, who
followed, most notably Vardhamana Mahavira, the last of XVIII. Aranath Fish or pisces
the tirthankaras and probably a contemporary of Gautama
Buddha, continued the traditions of Jainism in major part. XIX. Mallinath Jar or kalasa
The necessity of self-control, meditation, and an ascetic
lifestyle as the means to redemption was stressed by XX. Munisuvrata Tortoise
both Mahavira and Buddha. Their doctrine frequently ran XXI. Nami Natha Blue water-lily or blue lotus
counter to that of the Vedic priests of the day.

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 XXII. Neminatha Conch Sects of Jainism
z The two major sects of Jainism are the Digambara and
XXIII. Parshva Snake the Svetambara. The word “Digambara” means “sky-
XXIV. Mahavira Lion clad” or “naked,” while the word “Svetambara” means
“white-clad.”
Jains adhere to five ethical principles known as the z The Digambara sect believes that monks should
Mahavratas or “Great Vows.” These include non- not wear any clothes, as this would be a form of
violence (Ahimsa), truthfulness (Satya), non-stealing attachment to material possessions. They believe that
(Asteya), chastity (Brahmacharya), and non-possession the naked body is a natural state and that it should not
(Aparigraha) . be hidden. The Svetambara sect, on the other hand,
believes that monks should wear white clothes as a
Triratna (three jewels) of Jainism: To obtain Moksha sign of purity.
(salvation), Jainism offers a three-fold routes are: z The two sects also differ in their views on the spiritual
1. Right faith (Samyag Darsana). status of women. The Digambara sect believes that
women cannot achieve moksha (liberation) in this
2. Right knowledge (Samyag Jnana).
lifetime, while the Svetambara sect believes that
3. Right conduct (Samyag Caritra). women can achieve moksha just like men.

Councils of Jainism
Council Place Presided by Outcome
1st Patliputra Sthulabhadra Jainism was split into two sects, Svetambara
and Dighambara.
2nd Vallabhi and Mathura Devaradhi Kshama Ramana Compilation of the twelve Angas and Upangas
3rd Vallabhi Devarddhigani To reduce the writings in the sacred texts
Kshamashramana (Agamas)

Jain Pilgrimage Sites

Dating back to the 8th-17th
century, the fort complex consists
of 31 Jain temples housing around
2,000 sculptures which is in fact
the largest such collection in the
world. The Shantinath temple,
which dates back to a time before
862 AD, is the most well-known
of the fort’s Jain temples. In
Uttar Pradesh, it is also regarded
as the most significant Jain
religious place. The state of Uttar JAIN TEMPLE LUCKNOW
Pradesh also has Jain pilgrimage
sites in Meerut, Varanasi,
Muzaffarnagar, Baghpat,
Bateshwar, Kampil, Sarnath,
and Khukhundoo in addition
to Deogarh. On the other hand,
Hastinapur is home to a number
of Jain sacred sites, making
it one of the top destinations
for Jain pilgrims on a tour of
Uttar Pradesh.

DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE MEERUT

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9.9 BHAKTISM It was for the first time in South India between the
7th and the 10th century that bhakti emerged from
Bhaktism in India is a religious and spiritual tradition a mere religious doctrine into a popular movement
that emphasizes devotion and love towards a personal based on religious equality and broad-based social
deity, often seen as the path to spiritual realization and participation. The movement which was spearheaded
by popular saint-poets reached its apex in the 10th
salvation. Bhakti, which means “devotion,” is central century after which it began to decline. However, it was
to this tradition, and it has played a significant role revamped as a philosophical and ideological movement
in shaping various religions and cultural practices in by a series of ambulatory scholars or acharyas, beginning
India. with Ramanuja in the 11th century.
Saguna Vs Nirguna
Feature Saguna Nirguna
Meaning Saguna stood for poet-saints who praised gods in Nirguna represented the poet-saints who
their poetry based on their qualities or physical glorified God above all attributes or forms.
attributes.
Worship Idol worship (With Form) Without form
Path to God Through prayer, meditation, and other spiritual Through meditation, contemplation, and
practices. inner reflection.
Caste-System Favoured Caste-System Condemned Caste-System
Saints Prominent saints of the Sagun Bhakti- Surdas, The famous saints of Nirgun Bhakti- Guru
Chaitanya, Meerabai, Tulsi Das. Nanak, Kabir, Eknath.

10. Preaching through local or regional languages and

travelling from place to place for spreading the
religious message.

Bhakti Movement in South India

Main Features of the Bhakti Movement
1. Unity of God or one God though known by different
names.
2. Bhakti, intense love and devotion, the only way to
salvation.
3. Repetition of the True Name.
4. Self-Surrender.
5. Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
6. Rejection of idol worship by many saints.
7. Open- mindedness about deciding religious matters.
8. No distinction of different castes, higher or low.
9. Need of a guru for guidance advocated by some.
z The saiva Nayanar saints and vaisnava Alvar saints
of South India spread the concept of bhakti among
different sections of the society irrespective of caste
and sex during the period between the 7th and the
10th century.
z Some of these saints hailed from the lower castes and
some were women. The saint poets preached bhakti
in an intense emotional manner and tried to promote
religious egalitarianism. They ignored rituals and
traversed the region several times singing, dancing
and advocating bhakti.
z When preaching and writing devotional hymns, the
Alvar and Nayanar saints used Tamil rather than
Sanskrit. So, the movement might win over a large
number of people.
z The South Indian bhakti saints used to criticize the
Jains and Buddhists who enjoyed a privileged status
at the courts of South Indian monarchs during that
period. They won over many adherents of Buddhism
and Jainism both of which by then became rigid and
formal religions.
z By opening up bhakti to everyone without regard
to caste or gender, these saint-poets simultaneously
fought the dominance of the orthodox Brahmins. The

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 South Indian bhakti movement, however, was not
without flaws.
z The ideological and social foundations of the caste
system were not challenged by the South Indian saint
poets. As a result, the bhakti movement of the south
in the long run strengthened that hierarchical system
rather than weakening it.
Some other important Bhakti saints in India are
mentioned below:
z Ramanuja: Ramanuja was a philosopher and
theologian from South India, particularly associated
with the Sri Vaishnavism tradition. He emphasized the
doctrine of Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism)
and emphasized devotion to Lord Vishnu as the means
to attain salvation.
z Namdev: Namdev was a saint and poet from
Maharashtra, known for his devotional songs to Lord
Vithoba (a form of Lord Krishna) and his emphasis
on the importance of devotion and humility.
z Guru Nanak: The founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak,
preached the importance of devotion to one God and
the equality of all humans. He traveled extensively,
spreading his teachings of love, compassion, and
selfless service (seva).
z Tukaram: Tukaram, a saint from Maharashtra, was
a devotee of Lord Vithoba. He expressed his devotion
through abhang, devotional songs in Marathi, and is
considered one of the greatest Bhakti poets in the region.
z Eknath: Eknath was another prominent Bhakti saint
from Maharashtra, known for his devotional poetry
and commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. He advocated
for ethical living and devotion to Lord Vithoba.
The advent of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu marked a
significant re-orientation in the landscape of Bhakti
literature and practice. Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu,
also known as Gauranga Mahaprabhu, was a 16th-
century Indian saint, mystic, and social reformer,
best known for his role in promoting Bhakti (devotion)
as the path to spiritual liberation. His teachings and
activities led to a transformation of Bhakti literature
and practice in several key ways:
z Personalized Devotion (Bhakti): Sri Chaitanya
emphasized the concept of “pure love of God’’ or
“Krishna-prema” as the ultimate goal of human
life. He stressed the idea of cultivating an intense
and personal relationship with the divine, focusing
on the devotional aspect rather than ritualistic
practices. This reorientation placed the emphasis
on the emotional and experiential aspects of Bhakti,
which was reflected in the Bhakti literature of the
time.
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z Popularization of Congregational Chanting
(Sankirtan): Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
popularized the practice of congregational
chanting of the holy names of God, particularly the
Hare Krishna mantra. This form of group chanting,
known as “sankirtan,” became a central aspect of
his teachings and movement. This practice not only
helped spread the message of devotion but also
inspired new forms of Bhakti literature, including
devotional songs and poetry dedicated to the
glorification of God’s names and qualities.
z Integration of Regional Languages: Prior to
Sri Chaitanya, much of the Bhakti literature was
in classical Sanskrit, limiting its accessibility to
the educated elite. Sri Chaitanya’s movement
emphasized the use of regional languages,
such as Bengali, for expressing devotion. This
shift made Bhakti literature more accessible
to a wider audience, fostering a sense of
inclusivity and reaching people across
different social and linguistic backgrounds.
z Experiential Spirituality: Sri Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu’s teachings emphasized the
experiential aspect of spirituality. He taught that
true devotion is not a mere intellectual exercise but
a deeply felt emotional connection with the divine.
This emphasis on personal experience influenced
Bhakti literature, as poets and writers started
to depict their intense emotions and personal
experiences of devotion in their works.
Loving Service (Seva) : The concept of “seva”
(selfless service) gained prominence in Sri
Chaitanya’s teachings. He encouraged his followers
to engage in devotional activities with an attitude
of loving service. This principle of seva became a
central theme in Bhakti literature, leading to the
creation of narratives and poems that highlighted
the devotion and selfless service of saints and
devotees.
Some of the Famous Personalities
from Uttar Pradesh
z Kabir: Kabir is one of the most renowned Bhakti saints
in India, and he lived in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. His
verses, known as “Dohas,” convey profound spiritual
insights and promote the concept of monotheism,
social harmony, and inner devotion.
z Tulsidas: Tulsidas was born in Rajapur (modern-
day Uttar Pradesh) and is celebrated for his epic
poem “Ramcharitmanas,” which retells the story of
Lord Rama in Awadhi language. His work has had a
profound impact on Hindu culture and devotion.
z Surdas: Surdas, though born in Braj (which is now in
Uttar Pradesh), is often associated with North Indian
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 culture. He composed devotional songs in praise of
Lord Krishna and is considered one of the leading
poets of the Bhakti Movement.
z Goswami Tulsidas: Tulsidas was a philosopher, poet,
and saint renowned for his devotion to Lord Rama.
His work “Ramcharitmanas,” written in the Awadhi
language, is a significant contribution to the Bhakti
movement.
z Sankardev: Although Sankardev was born in Assam,
he traveled and spread his teachings in various
regions, including parts of Uttar Pradesh. His
teachings focused on devotion to Lord Krishna and
social reforms.
z Ravidas: Sant Ravidas, also known as Guru Ravidas,
was born in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. He advocated for
social equality, rejected caste-based discrimination,
and emphasized devotion to one divine reality.
z Meerabai: She was the first to introduce the Bhajan
in Bhakti movement as well as the Giridhara Gopala
worship of Vrindavan. Her bhajans were written in
the Braj Bhasha language.
9.10 SUFISM
Sufism in India is a significant spiritual and mystical
dimension of Islam that has had a profound influence on
the country’s cultural, religious, and social fabric. Sufism
emphasizes the inward search for God, spiritual closeness,
and the cultivation of a loving and direct relationship with
the divine.
Characteristics of the Sufi movement:
z The essential characteristics of Sufism are:
 Fana: Spiritual merger of devotee with Allah
 Insan-e-kamil: Perfect human with all good
virtues,
 Zikr-tauba: remembrance of god all the time
(zikr),
 Wahdatul-wajood: one god for the entire universe;
unity of god and being.
 Sama: spiritual dance and music to promote their
concepts, though music is un-Islamic.
z Mystical Experience: Sufism places a strong emphasis
on the direct experience of God’s presence. Sufis seek
to attain a state of spiritual closeness (nearness) to
God through intense devotion, meditation, and inner
contemplation.
z Love and Devotion: Love for the Divine (God’s love
for humanity and humanity’s love for God) is a central
theme in Sufism. Sufis often describe their spiritual
journey as a journey of love and longing for God,
characterized by deep emotional attachment.
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z Inner Journey: Sufism focuses on the inner dimension
of faith and practice. Sufis believe that the inner state
of the heart and soul is more important than outward
rituals. The goal is to purify the soul and achieve
spiritual enlightenment.
z Asceticism and Renunciation: Many Sufis adopt
ascetic practices, including voluntary poverty,
self-discipline, and detachment from material
possessions. This is done to cultivate a detachment
from worldly distractions and to focus on the
spiritual realm.
z Whirling Dervishes: Some Sufi orders, such as the
Mevlevi Order (known as the Whirling Dervishes),
are known for their unique devotional practice of
spinning in repetitive circles as a form of meditation
and connection with the divine.
z Spiritual Teacher-Disciple Relationship: Sufism
often involves a strong bond between a spiritual
teacher (shaykh or murshid) and a disciple (murid).
The teacher imparts spiritual guidance, knowledge,
and wisdom to help the disciple progress on the path
of spiritual enlightenment.
z Poetry and Music: Sufis frequently express their
spiritual experiences through poetry and music. Sufi
poetry, known as “qawwali,” often speaks of love,
longing, and the search for God. Music and chanting
are used as tools for spiritual upliftment.
z Unity of Being: Many Sufis advocate the concept
of the “Unity of Being” (Wahdat al-Wujud), which
suggests that all creation is an expression of God’s
divine essence. This concept underscores the
idea that the material and spiritual realms are
interconnected.
z Tolerance and Universalism: Sufism often
emphasizes the universality of spiritual truths and the
essential unity of all religions. Sufi teachings promote
tolerance, compassion, and respect for all individuals,
regardless of their religious background.
z Ecstasy and Divine Intoxication: Some Sufis
experience states of ecstasy and intense spiritual joy
during their devotional practices. This ecstatic state is
seen as a union with the Divine and a manifestation
of divine presence.
z Sufi Orders (Tariqas): Sufism is organized into
various Sufi orders or tariqas, each with its own
practices, teachings, and rituals. These orders provide
a structured path for seekers to progress on their
spiritual journey.
The Sufi movement has had a profound impact on Islamic
spirituality, philosophy, literature, and culture across
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different parts of the Islamic world. Sufi teachings have local body elections, applying for government jobs or
inspired countless individuals to seek a deeper connection receiving any government subsidy.
with the Divine and to strive for inner transformation and
enlightenment. Religious Circuit of Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh attracts domestic and foreign tourists
Different Sufi orders in India from its religious and cultural point of view, in
z Chishti Silsila: The Chishti Order is one of the oldest which Ayodhya, Prayagraj, Varanasi, Naimisharanya,
and most influential Sufi orders in India. It was Vidhyachal, Chitrakoot, Mathura, Vrindavan, Shravasti,
founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who settled Kushinagar, Sarnath are prominent places. In the new
in Ajmer, Rajasthan. The Chishti Order emphasizes tourism policy of UP, religious circuits are:
love, humility, and service to humanity. Ajmer Sharif Ramayana Circuit: All places associated with Lord Ram
Dargah is a famous shrine associated with this order. include Ayodhya, Chitrakoot, Bithoor and other religious
z Qadiriyya Order: The Qadiriyya Order was founded places. These locations are regarded as representations
by Abdul-Qadir Gilani and is widely followed in of Lord Rama and Mother Sita.
India. The order emphasizes the importance of the
spiritual guide (pir) and places strong emphasis on
Bundelkhand Circuit
the inner purification of the heart. Dara Shikoh was
the prominent follower.
z Naqshbandi Order: The Naqshbandi Order was
known for its focus on silent meditation (dhikr) and
inner reflection, and is practiced in India. The order
was founded by Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari.
Aurangjeb was the follower.
z Suhrawardi Order: The Suhrawardi Order was
founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi and has a
presence in India. The order places emphasis on strict
adherence to Islamic law, ethics, and practices.
z Firdausi Order: The Firdausi Order traces its lineage z The romance and magic of Bundelkhand are still alive
back to the famous Persian poet Ferdowsi. The order today.
combines elements of Sufism with the reverence of z Rugged palaces and forts, tough, valiant and courageous
people make a visit to this land a magical experience.
Persian culture and literature.
z Tales of chivalry and valour bear a silent testimony to
the splendor of an era long gone by.
9.11 RELIGION OF UTTAR PRADESH z The prominent religious places are Bithoor, Chitrakoot,
z According to the 2011 census, Hindus make up the Jhansi, Kalinjar and Mahoba.
majority of the population of Uttar Pradesh.
Braj Circuit
z Muslims are a minority in Uttar Pradesh, accounting
for 19.26% of the total population.
z Muslim Population in Uttar Pradesh is 3.85 Crore
(19.26 percent) of total 19.98 Crore.
z Christian Population in Uttar Pradesh is 3.56 Lakhs
(0.18 percent) of total 19.98 Crore.

Uttar Pradesh New Population Policy

(2021-30)
z In the new population policy, a target has been set to
bring the birth rate to 2.1 per thousand population
z This ancient land is an integral part of the life of Lord
by 2026 and to 1.9 by 2030. Krishna.
z It also promotes a two-child policy, violation of which z Melody, harmony and art reign supreme in this region
would mean people will be debarred from contesting steeped in history and legends.

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z A visit to the temples and monuments in Braj is a trip
straight into history.
z It is also the seat of the erstwhile great empire of the
Mughal kings.
z The sites are Mathura, Vrindavan, Gokul, Govardhan,
Barsana, Nandgaon, Baldev and other religious
places.
Buddhist Circuit
z Thousands of years ago, a large part of the life of
Gautam Buddha was spent in this area. The Buddha
attained enlightenment, traveled widely, spread his
message and towards the end, attained mahaparinirvan
in this region.
z The circuit has places having grand Stupas, ancient
monasteries, Buddhist chants and a steady stream
of Buddhist pilgrims and monks who come here for
meditation and worship.
z What a devout can perceive of the entire life of
Lord Buddha in Uttar Pradesh, cannot be replicated
anywhere else. If you are looking for enlightenment
in your life, this is the Circuit to visit.
z The places include Kapilvastu, Sarnath, Kushinagar,
Kaushambi, Shravasti, Ramgram.
Vindhya-Varanasi Circuit
z Varanasi is among the most ancient living cities in the
world.
z Located along the Ganga, it is a sacred place for all
Hindus, Jains and Buddhists.
z The Vindhya ranges of mountains straddle the states
of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
z The region not only has religious and spiritual significance
but is also among the richest in mineral wealth.
Shaktipeeth Circuit: Under this circuit Vindhyavasini
Devi, taking from Ashtabhuja to Devipatan,
Naimisharanya, Maa Lalit Devi, Maa Jwala Devi,
Shakumbhari Devi from Saharanpur to Shivani Devi
Chitrakoot and Sheetla Mata Mau.
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Mahabharata Circuit: The places like Hastinapur,
Kampilya, Echhatra, Barnawa, Mathura, Kaushambi,
Gonda, Lakshagriha have been selected under it.
Benefits
z Spiritual and Religious Experience: The Religious
Circuit of Uttar Pradesh is home to several renowned
religious sites, including Varanasi (Kashi), Ayodhya,
Mathura, and Allahabad (Prayagraj). Pilgrims and
visitors can experience a profound sense of spirituality
and connection to their faith.
z Cultural Heritage: The circuit showcases India’s
diverse cultural heritage, with each city offering its
own unique traditions, festivals, and customs. Visitors
can immerse themselves in the rich tapestry of Indian
culture and witness various rituals and ceremonies.
z Tourism and Economic Growth: The Religious Circuit
drives tourism in the region, contributing significantly
to the local economy. Tourists bring revenue
through accommodation, dining, transportation,
and the purchase of religious items, handicrafts, and
souvenirs. This, in turn, creates job opportunities and
stimulates economic development.
z Preservation of Historical and Architectural Gems:
Many temples, mosques, ghats, and other historical
structures in this circuit are of immense architectural
and historical significance. The continuous flow of
tourists ensures that these sites are well-maintained
and preserved for future generations.
z Promotion of Religious and Cultural Tolerance:
Uttar Pradesh’s Religious Circuit welcomes people
of various faiths and beliefs. It serves as a model
for religious and cultural tolerance, where different
communities peacefully coexist and celebrate their
respective traditions.
z Festivals and Celebrations: The region hosts several
major festivals and events, such as the Kumbh Mela,
Diwali, Holi, and Ram Navami, which attract millions
97
 of visitors. These festivals are not only spiritually
uplifting but also provide a unique cultural experience.
z Educational and Research Opportunities: The circuit
also offers educational and research opportunities in
fields such as religious studies, history, architecture,
and anthropology. Scholars and researchers from
around the world visit these sites to study their
significance and impact on society.
z Infrastructure Development: The influx of tourists
has led to improved infrastructure, including better
roads, transportation facilities, and accommodation
options. This benefits both tourists and local
residents.
z Promotion of Sustainable Tourism: Efforts are being
made to promote sustainable tourism in the Religious
Circuit to preserve the environment and the sanctity
of these religious sites. This includes initiatives for
waste management and eco-friendly practices.
The Religious Circuit of Uttar Pradesh serves as a
cultural and spiritual treasure trove that not only fulfills
v v
98
the spiritual needs of millions but also drives economic
growth, fosters cultural tolerance, and promotes India’s
rich heritage to the world. It’s a testament to the power
of faith and culture in bringing together people from all
walks of life.
Expected Questions
1. Trace the rise and growth of socio-religious reform
movements with special reference to Young Bengal
and Brahmo Samaj.
2. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs
and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals.
Elucidate.
3. Write about Buddhist pilgrimages in Uttar Pradesh.
4. What distinguishes Nirguna from Saguna Bhakti? Give
an example from the Nirguna and Saguna of prominent
saints from Uttar Pradesh.
5. Write about the religious circuit of Uttar Pradesh.
v
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 10
A calendar is a fundamental tool that humanity has
developed to organize, measure, and track time. It
serves as a structured system for dividing time into days,
weeks, months, and years, facilitating our ability to plan,
schedule events, and coordinate activities.
The history of calendars in India is a remarkably complex
subject owing to the continuity of Indian civilization and
to the diversity of cultural influences. When the Calendar
Reform Committee conducted their assessment in the
middle of the 1950s, there were roughly 30 calendars in
use for scheduling Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain events. A
few of these were also employed in civil relationships.
These calendars had local peculiarities based on long-
standing traditions and the astronomical practices of
the local calendar builders, but they were founded on
universal principles. The Indian government utilized
the Gregorian calendar for official purposes whereas
Muslims in India followed the Islamic calendar.
The hymns from the Rig Veda, which date from the
second millennium B.C.E., contain the earliest references
to a lunisolar calendar with intercalated months. The
literature from 1300 BCE to 300 CE contains more
detailed information. A five-year lunisolar calendar
synchronizes synodic and sidereal lunar months with
solar years.
10.1 INDIAN CALENDAR FORMS
Vikram Samvat
z Vikram Samvat (VS) or Bikram Sambat (BS) is a
Hindu calendar historically used in the South Asian
Calendar
subcontinent. It is generally 57 years ahead of the
Gregorian calendar, except during January to April,
when it is ahead by 56 years.
z The Vikram Samvat has two systems. It began in
56 BCE in the southern Hindu calendar system
(amaanta) and 57–56 BCE in the northern system
(purnimanta). The Shukla Paksha, when most
festivals occur, coincides in both systems.
z The year 2080 BS starts in the middle of April 2023
CE and finishes in the middle of April 2024 CE on
the lunisolar Vikram Samvat calendar, which is
56.7 years ahead of the solar Gregorian calendar.
In 1901 CE, which started as 1958 BS, the Rana
dynasty of Nepal established the Bikram Sambat, the
recognized Hindu calendar.
z The Vikram Samvat is named after King Vikramaditya,
a legendary king of Ujjain. The legend says that
Vikramaditya defeated the Sakas, a foreign tribe that
had invaded Ujjain. To commemorate this victory,
Vikramaditya started a new calendar, the Vikram
Samvat.
Saka Calendar
z The Saka calendar, also known as the Shalivahana
Shaka calendar, is an Indian calendar system
commonly used in India. It serves as the official civil
calendar of the country and is recognized by the
Government of India for official purposes.
z The Saka calendar takes its name from the Saka Era,
which marks the victory of the Saka king over the
Kushan Empire in 78 CE. This event is considered
the starting point of the Saka Era. The Saka calendar
follows a lunisolar system, incorporating both lunar
and solar movements.
z The Saka calendar starts with Chaitra followed by
Vaisakha, Jyeshtha, Ashadha, Shravana, Bhadrapada,
Ashwina, Kartika, Margshisha, Pausha, Magha and
Phalguna. The number of days in a saka year is 365.
z The month of Chaitra generally has 30 days but there
are 31 days during leap years.
Hijri Calendar
z The Hijri calendar is based on the Islamic lunar calendar
and is primarily used by the Muslim community in India
for religious and cultural purposes. It dates back to the
migration of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to
Medina in 622 CE.
z The Hijri calendar begins with the migration (Hijra) of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in
622 CE. This event marked a significant turning point in Islamic history and is considered the starting point of the
Hijri calendar. The year of the migration, known as 1 AH
(After Hijra), corresponds to 622 CE in the Gregorian The Hindu Calendar & Seasons
calendar.
z The Hijri calendar consists of 12 months, including
(and how it relates to the calendar we use today)
Muharram, Safar, Rabi’ al-Awwal, Rabi’ al-Thani, Jumada
al-Ula, Jumada al-Akhirah, Rajab, Sha’ban, Ramadan, n) Chaitra
Fagu
Shawwal, Dhu al-Qi’dah, and Dhu al-Hijjah. These months F a l g un (
have religious significance and are associated with March Va
ish
ak
April
various Islamic events and observances. h

a)
ah
Feb.

M
The Hijri calendar is based on the phases of the moon.

h(
z Vasant

ag
(Spring)

M
It follows a 354 or 355-day lunar year, consisting of May

12 lunar months. Each month starts with the sighting of

leth
Jan.
Shishira Grishma
the new moon, and the length of the months alternates (Summer)

Posh
(Winter)
between 29 and 30 days. This results in the Hijri year
June
being shorter than the Gregorian year. SEASONS
Dec.
Varsha
Gregorian Calendar

dh
Hemant

Asha
(Monsoon)
(Winter)
The Gregorian calendar, also known as the Western

Mag
z Sharad July

hsha
or Christian calendar, is the calendar system most Nov.

r
commonly used today worldwide. It is named after Pope 20th-22nd of

an
the month
Gregory XIII, as a reform of the Julian calendar.

rav
August

Sh
Oct.
The Gregorian calendar was designed to correct

Ka
z

rti
Sept.

k
inaccuracies in the Julian calendar, primarily regarding repad
Bhad rvo)
the calculation of leap years. Aso
(Bha
da

z The Gregorian calendar divides the year into seven-day New Year’s Day of
Vikram Samval
weeks. It is a solar calendar, meaning it is based on the (Kartik Sud 1)
Earth’s rotation around the sun.

10.2 NATIONAL CALENDAR OF INDIA

The National Calendar of a country is designated with deference to the cultural impact that the calendar or its system
represents. It almost always is tied in with the country’s history and reminds of a certain golden period therein. The
national calendar of India is based on the Saka Calendar which has been adopted as the official civil calendar besides
the Gregorian calendar.
The Saka Calendar was first made available in 1957 as a part of the Indian Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac by the
Calendar Reform Committee. The eminent astronomer Dr. Meghnad Saha served as chairman of the Calendar Reform
Committee, which was established to find a reliable calendar that would be used in government offices nationwide.
The first Prime Minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, recognized the necessity for a unified calendar: “They
(different calendars) represent past political divisions in the country.” Since we now enjoy our independence, it
is clearly desired that the calendar be consistent for our civic, social, and other purposes. This should be done using
a scientific approach to the issue.
The requirements for such a calendar were laid down, and they included being devoid of any religious or regional
strife, understandable, and suitable for adoption as the country’s calendar. The Saka Calendar was chosen as the top
candidate for the national calendar after the committee looked at a variety of calendaring systems used in various
regions of the nation. Starting from March 22, 1957, or Chaitra 1, 1879 in terms of the Saka Era or Sakabda, the Saka
Calendar was to be used officially.

Expected Questions
1. Write a short note on the National Calendar of India.

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 11 Indian Languages
India is a land of linguistic diversity, boasting a rich
tapestry of languages that reflects its multifaceted culture,
history, and social fabric. India is home to thousands
of languages and dialects, making it one of the most
linguistically diverse nations in the world. Languages
in India are not merely modes of communication; they
are repositories of tradition, identity, and heritage.
Understanding the linguistic landscape of India is key to
comprehending the nation’s unity in diversity.
11.1 CLASSICAL LANGUAGE OF INDIA
Classical languages in India are those languages that have
a rich literary and cultural heritage and are recognized
for their historical significance.
Criteria for Classical Language
The criteria provided by the Ministry of Culture in the
Rajya Sabha in 2014 to determine the eligibility of a
language for granting classical language status, are as
under:
z High antiquity of its early written or recorded texts,
which date back between 1500 and 2000 years;
z A body of prehistoric literature or works that have
been cherished by speakers for millennia;
z The literary heritage must be unique and uninspired
by literature from another speaking group;
z There may be a break between classical language and
its later forms or offshoots since classical language
and literature are unique from modern.
Currently, there are six languages that enjoy the
‘Classical’ status in India:
z Sanskrit (2005): Sanskrit is one of the oldest
classical languages in the world and has a rich
literary tradition dating back over 3,000 years. It is
the language of ancient Indian texts such as the Vedas,
Upanishads, and classical epics like the Mahabharata
and Ramayana. Sanskrit continues to be studied and
used for scholarly and religious purposes.
z Tamil (2004): Tamil is another ancient classical
language with a vibrant literary tradition. Tamil
literature dates back over 2,000 years and includes
Sangam poetry, which is highly regarded. Tamil Nadu,
in southern India, is the primary region where Tamil
is spoken and celebrated.
z Telugu (2008): Telugu is a Dravidian language with
a rich literary heritage. It has classical roots dating
back over a thousand years. Telugu literature includes
works of poetry, drama, and philosophy. Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana are the primary regions
where Telugu is spoken.
z Kannada (2008): Kannada is the classical language of
the southern state of Karnataka. It has a long literary
history that spans over a thousand years. Kannada
literature encompasses various genres, including
poetry, prose, and drama.
z Malayalam (2013): Malayalam, spoken in the southern
state of Kerala, is another Dravidian language with
classical status. Malayalam literature has a history of
more than a thousand years and includes works of
poetry, prose, and drama.
z Odia (2014): Odia is the classical language of the
eastern state of Odisha. Odia literature has a rich
heritage dating back over a thousand years. It includes
ancient texts, poetry, and religious literature.
Languages in the Indian Constitution
According to Article 343 (1) of the Indian Constitution,
“Hindi written in Devanagari shall be the Official
Language of the Union Government.” The use of English
for official purposes was to end 15 years after the
Constitution took effect, or on January 26, 1965, unless
Parliament voted otherwise.
According to the Eighth Schedule of the Indian
Constitution, there are 22 officially recognized
languages in India. These include:
Assamese Kashmiri Oriya Urdu
Bengali Konkani Punjabi Kannada
Bodo Malayalam Sanskrit Nepali
Dogri Manipuri Sindhi Telugu
Gujarati Marathi Santhali
Hindi Maithili Tamil
In addition to these languages, English is also used
extensively for official and administrative purposes at
the national level, as well as for communication between
states that have different official languages.
It’s important to note that individual states and union
territories within India can have their own official
languages as well, based on the linguistic demographics
and cultural diversity of each region. The linguistic
diversity of India reflects its rich cultural heritage and
the coexistence of numerous languages throughout the
country.
1950: 14 were initially included in the Constitution.
1967: Sindhi was added by the 21st Constitutional
Amendment Act.
1992: Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were added by the
71st Constitutional Amendment Act.
2003: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santali were added by
the 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act.
2011: The spelling Oriya was replaced by Odia by the
96th Constitutional Amendment Act.
Hindi is one of the oldest languages in the country.
It is an Indo-Aryan language and has its roots in
Sanskrit, an ancient language of India. The earliest
forms of Hindi can be traced back to around 1000 AD,
Hindi is one of the most widely spoken languages in
India.
Hence, there is no National Language of India.

Scripts of India
India has been the cradle of various ancient scripts, many of which have played a significant role in the development
of its rich literary and historical heritage. Some of the notable ancient scripts of India include:
z Brahmi Script: Brahmi is one of the oldest known scripts in India and served as the precursor to several scripts in
the Indian subcontinent. It was used primarily for writing inscriptions on rocks and pillars during the Mauryan
Empire (c. 322–185 BCE). The Ashoka Pillars and inscriptions are some of the famous examples of Brahmi script.
z Kharosthi Script: Kharosthi was an ancient script used in the northwestern regions of India, particularly in the
areas of Gandhara and Taxila (now in Pakistan and Afghanistan). It was employed for various inscriptions and
documents during the Kushan Empire and later periods.

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 z Devanagari Script: Devanagari is a script that developed from Brahmi and is widely used today. It is the script
for Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, and several other Indian languages. Devanagari is known for its distinctive
characters and is used for both religious and secular texts.
z Tamil Script: The Tamil script is one of the oldest Dravidian scripts and is used primarily for the Tamil language
in the southern state of Tamil Nadu. It has a rich literary tradition and has been used for classical Tamil literature
for over two thousand years.
z Pali Script: Pali, the language of Buddhist scriptures, was written in a script known as “Pali script,” which was
derived from Brahmi. It is used for the Tripitaka (Buddhist scriptures) and other Buddhist texts.
z Gurmukhi Script: Gurmukhi is the script used for writing the Punjabi language, particularly in the Sikh holy
scriptures known as the Guru Granth Sahib. It was developed by Guru Angad, the second Sikh Guru.
z Odia Script: The Odia script, also known as “Odia Lipi,” is used for writing the Odia language in the eastern state
of Odisha. It has a long history and is used for classical Odia literature.
z Bengali Script: The Bengali script, also known as “Bangla Lipi,” is used for writing the Bengali language
in West Bengal, Bangladesh, and other Bengali-speaking regions. It has been used for Bengali literature for
centuries.
These ancient scripts of India have not only preserved the knowledge and culture of the past but also continue
to be an integral part of the country’s linguistic and literary heritage. Many of them are still in use today for
religious, literary, and administrative purposes.

11.2 LANGUAGES OF UTTAR PRADESH

Uttar Pradesh is a linguistically diverse state in India, with several languages spoken across its various regions and
communities. The languages spoken here are mainly known by linguist analytics into two specific zones, the Central
and the Eastern, under the main umbrella of the Indo-Aryan languages. The influence is derived from the Prakrits
of the Old Indo-Aryan sect, added during the medieval era. Here are the major languages spoken in Uttar Pradesh:

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Hindi
z The official state language and the main one for
administrative usage, Hindi in Uttar Pradesh is
deemed to be the standard accent at a national level.
z Hindi is the most widely spoken language in Uttar Pradesh.
z It serves as the state’s official language and is used
for administrative, educational, and official purposes.
z Hindi, based on the Devanagari script, is the primary
variant spoken, understood, and taught in schools and
Universities.
z Braj, Khadi boli and Awadhi are the dialects of Hindi.
z Some of the Famous writers are Munshi Premchand,
Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Harivansh Rai Bachchan,
Mahadevi Verma, and Bharatendu Harishchandra,
who worked for the development of Hindi literature
and language.
Urdu
z It was added to the state Official Language Act, 1951,
through an amendment to the Act in 1989.
z The wide usage of the Nastaliq Script in written
Hindustani gave rise to Urdu as a spoken and written
sub-sect on par with Hindi.
z Urdu is written in the Persian-Arabic script and is
used for literary, cultural, and religious purposes.
z The ‘Lakhnavi’ way of speaking Urdu is considered the
highest and most important literary form and value.
z Urdu is another prominent language in Uttar Pradesh,
especially in cities like Lucknow and Aligarh.
z It has a significant influence from Persian and Arabic
and is associated with the Muslim community.
Bhojpuri
104
English
z English is the common mode of communication in
work-related areas, in teaching and training etc.
z Although there is a strong patriotic streak in the Hindi
heartland for use of Hindi as the prime language in as
many areas as possible, the benefits of learning and
communicating in English is not lost upon the vast
multitudes of people.
z Even though Hindi may frequently be the primary
language of communication at home, younger and
newer generations are accustomed to attending
schools and universities where English is the primary
language.
Major Dialects of Uttar Pradesh
Awadhi
z Awadhi is a regional language primarily spoken in the
Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh, which includes cities
like Lucknow, Faizabad, and Ayodhya.
z Once majorly in use by Sufi saints of the past like
Amir Khusrau, Awadhi, which is a mix of Urdu
and Khari Boli Hindi, is now the language of the
masses, especially the rural folk in and around Awadh
(Lucknow).
z It is known for its rich literary heritage and was the
language of the famous poet Goswami Tulsidas, who
wrote the epic Ramcharitmanas.
z Awadhi has its distinct dialects and is closely related
to Hindi.
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z Bhojpuri is maintaining its position as the second
most widely spoken language after Hindi.
z Mostly confined to the eastern districts of Uttar
Pradesh, it has a major cultural base, and its music,
dance and cinema are in a genre dedicated to
promoting the language.
z Bhikhari Thakur was known as Shakespeare of the
Bhojpuri language.
Brajbhasha
z This language, as the name suggests, is the premium
language used in Brajbhoomi, which is the land of
Lord Radha-Krishna.
z This lyrical and almost musical language is distinctive
to people from the Mathura-Vrindavan belt.
z Amir Khurau was the famous poet of this dialect.
Bundeli
z It is an Indo-Aryan language in the Bundelkhand
region of Uttar Pradesh. It belongs to the Central
Indo-Aryan languages and is part of the Western Hindi
subgroup.
z It is almost similar to Braj Bhasha and spoken in
Jhansi and Hamirpur Region.
Kannauji
z It is mainly spoken in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
z It is also an Indo-Aryan language.
z It is a regional dialect with its own unique
characteristics and vocabulary.
z Kannauji is influenced by both Awadhi and Braj
Bhasha and has its own distinct identity.
The National Translation Mission (NTM) is a
government initiative in India aimed at promoting
translation and multilingualism. The mission was
launched by the Department of Higher Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development (now
Ministry of Education), Government of India in 2008.
The primary objective of the National Translation
Mission is to facilitate the translation of knowledge
texts and other materials from English to various
Indian languages and vice versa, thereby promoting
the availability of quality educational resources in
different languages.
Key goals and objectives of the National Translation
Mission include:
z Bridging Language Divides: The mission aims to
bridge the linguistic gap by making educational
content available in regional languages, ensuring
access to knowledge and learning opportunities
for people who are more comfortable in languages
other than English.
z Translation of Educational Materials: The NTM
focuses on the translation of educational materials
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such as textbooks, reference books, research
papers, and digital learning resources. It aims to
improve the availability and quality of translated
materials across subjects, including science, social
sciences, humanities, and technical fields.
z Capacity Building: The mission emphasizes
capacity building by providing training programs
and resources to translators, editors, and language
professionals. It aims to develop a pool of skilled
translators and language experts to enhance the
translation ecosystem in India.
z Technology Integration: The NTM encourages
the use of technology in translation processes,
including machine translation, computer-aided
translation tools, and digital publishing platforms.
This helps streamline the translation process,
improve efficiency, and reduce costs.
z Collaboration and Networking: The mission
promotes collaboration among various stakeholders,
including government agencies, educational
institutions, publishers, translators, and language
experts. It encourages networking and partnerships
to facilitate knowledge sharing, resource exchange,
and best practices in translation.
The National Translation Mission has made
significant efforts in promoting multilingualism and
translation in India. By increasing the availability
of educational materials in multiple languages,
the mission aims to promote inclusive education,
empower linguistic minorities, and preserve the
linguistic diversity of the country.
The linguistic diversity of India is a testament to its
vibrant cultural mosaic. The nation’s languages, whether
widely spoken or endangered, represent the voices of its
people and their unique narratives. As India continues
to evolve and modernize, preserving and celebrating this
linguistic wealth becomes not only a matter of cultural
importance but also a means of fostering inclusivity
and unity. The diverse languages of India are a source of
pride and strength, reflecting the country’s commitment
to embracing its rich heritage while moving forward into
an increasingly interconnected world.
Expected Question
1. What are the criteria for the selection of a language
as a “Classical Language” of India?
2. Write about the various major scripts of India.
3. Describe the main dialects of Uttar Pradesh?
4. U nderstanding the linguistic landscape of Uttar
Pradesh is key to comprehending the unity in diversity.
Explain.
5. Uttar Pradesh is a linguistically diverse state in India,
with some prominent languages spoken across its
various regions and communities. Discuss.
105
 12 Indian Literature
The world has looked up to Indian literature, one of the
oldest forms of literature. The phrase alludes to ancient
literary works written in several Indian languages. Oral
transmission of literary works was common in antiquity.
The first ever ancient Indian literature was Sanskrit
literature composed of Rig Veda, the Ramayana and
Mahabharata which were written in the first millennium
BCE. Then, throughout the Middle Ages, Kannada and
Telugu literature emerged. Marathi, Bengali, and Urdu
literature came after them.
Bengali author Rabindra Nath Tagore stands out among
the Indian literary community the most. He became the
first Indian to receive the Nobel Prize for his literary
genius. There are two Indian awards for Literature –
Jnanpith Award and Sahitya Fellow Academy Award.
Hindu drama, poetry and songs are more than thousand
years old. Among the best known works in Sanskrit
literature include Kalidasa’s Shakuntala and Meghduta,
Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, Sudraka’s Mirchkatikaand
Sri Harsha’s Ratnavali. Jaydev’s Geet Govinda and
Vatsayana’s Kamasutra are some of the popular works
of ancient Indian literature.
A sizable portion of Indian culture is also dominated
by Muslim literary traditions. India was primarily
ruled by Muslims throughout the Middle Ages. Muslim
sultans supported literature, architecture, and the arts.
Important pieces of Indian literature include the poetry
of Ghalib and Amir Khusrau in Persian and Urdu.
Indian literature flourished in regional languages as well.
Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay were great
Bengali writers.
The literary traditions of the subcontinent from the
middle of the 19th century to the present are broadly
represented in modern Indian literature. The work is
available in Hindi, practically all regional dialects, as
well as a number of other languages.
12.1 LITERATURE IN ANCIENT TIMES
Mahabharata
z The Pandavas and Kauravas are two branches of a
dynasty that fight for control of Hastinapura during
the Kurukshetra War in the ancient Indian epic, the
Mahabharata. Numerous shorter stories about real or
imagined persons, as well as philosophical discussions,
are weaved throughout this narrative.
z It was written by Krishna-Dwaipayan Vyasa, who
is himself a character in the epic; according to
mythology, he spoke the lyrics as Ganesha recorded
them. It is the longest epic poem ever written, with
100,000 shlokas, and is widely regarded as having
been penned in the 4th century BCE or before.
z The Indian subcontinent and its neighboring regions
serve as the backdrop for the epic’s events. The story
was first told by a disciple of Vyasa at the sacrifice
of a snake for the great-grandson of one of the main
characters. The Mahabharata is one of the most
significant works of ancient Indian, and even world,
literature since it contains the Bhagavad Gita.
Ramayan
z The Ramayana is an old Indian epic about the exile and
subsequent homecoming of Rama, ruler of Ayodhya,
that was written somewhere in the 5th century BCE.
The sage Valmiki wrote it in Sanskrit and imparted it
to Rama’s twin sons, Lava and Kush. It is traditionally
referred to as the Adi Kavya (adi = original, first;
kavya = poem) and has roughly 24000 verses.
z Although the story’s primary focus is on palace politics
and battles with demon tribes, there are also passages
that touch on issues of philosophy, ethics, and duty.
z The characters in that other Indian epic, the
Mahabharata, are shown with all of their human
follies and failings, whereas the Ramayana tends to
portray things as they should be: Rama is the ideal
son and king, Sita is the ideal wife, Hanuman is the
ideal devotee, Lakshman and Bharat are the ideal
brothers, and even the demonic antagonist Ravana is
not completely despicable.
z Sanskrit was used to write the Ramayana. Many
vernacular versions of the story have been created
over the years of retellings, adding regional details,
embellishments, and reasons for the passages that
cast the hero, Rama, in a less than heroic light. In
the southern regions of India, the Ramavataram is
a well-known poem that was written by the Tamil
poet Kamban in the 12th century CE. The Ram Charit
Manas, written by the Awadhi poet Tulsidas, is very
well-liked in the north. Bengali, Malayalam, Telugu,
Kannada, and other Indian languages all have
additional variations.
Vedas
The Vedas are believed to have originated in ancient India,
with their composition dating back to approximately
1500-1000 BCE, although the exact dates are debated
among scholars. They were transmitted orally for
centuries before being eventually written down.
The Vedas are divided into four main texts:
z Rig Veda: The Rig Veda is the oldest of the works
comprising 10 books (known as mandalas) of 1,028
hymns of 10,600 verses. The Rigveda is the oldest
and most precious Veda. It consists of a collection of
hymns (suktas) addressed to various deities. These
hymns contain prayers, praises, and philosophical
speculations.Through hymns to a number of deities,
most notably Agni, Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Soma,
who would later be recognized as avatars of the
Supreme Over Soul, First Cause, and source of
existence, Brahman, the Rig Veda encourages these
kinds of inquiries.
z Sama Veda: The Sama Veda (“Melody Knowledge”
or “Song Knowledge”) is a work of liturgical songs,
chants, and texts meant to be sung. The Rig Veda
serves as the lyrics to the Sama Veda’s melodies, and
as some historians have noted, the material of the
Sama Veda is virtually entirely taken from the Rig
Veda. There are 1,549 verses total, which are split
into two parts: the gana (melodies) and the arcika
(verses). It is said that the melodies inspire dancing,
which when coupled with the lyrics, lifts the soul.
z Yajur Veda: The Yajur Veda, also known as “Worship
Knowledge” or “Ritual Knowledge,” is made up
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of chants, mantras, and recitations that are used in
worship ceremonies. Its substance, like that of the
Sama Veda, is derived from the Rig Veda, but the
1,875 verses’ primary subject is the liturgy of religious
observances. It is typically thought of as having two
“sections” that are actually aspects of the total rather
than separate pieces. The verses that are less clear
and awkwardly organized are referred to as the
“dark Yajur Veda,” whereas the verses that are more
understandable and well-organized are called the
“light Yajur Veda.”
z Atharva Veda: In contrast to the other three, the
Atharva Veda (“knowledge of Atharvan”) focuses on
magical spells to fend off bad spirits or danger,
chants, hymns, prayers, initiation rituals, marriage
and funeral ceremonies, and observations on daily
life. The priest Atharvan, who is reputed to have been
well-known as a healer and a religious innovator, is
supposed to be the source of the name. The text is
believed to have been written by a single person
(perhaps Atharvan, but this is unlikely) or group
of people about the same period as the Sama Veda
and Yajur Veda (c. 1200-1000 BCE). There are 730
hymns in 20 volumes, some of which are based on
the Rig Veda.
Puranas
z The Puranas are a group of literary works that were
all composed between the fourth century BCE and
roughly the year 1,000 AD. They are all written in
Sanskrit verse.
z Although occasionally the Mahabharata, which is
typically categorized as a work of itihas (history),
is also referred to as a purana, the word “Purana”
means “old” and they are typically thought to have
come after the epics chronologically.
z Some academics, like van Buitenen, are inclined to
believe that the Puranas began around the time that
the Mahabharata’s composition came to an end, or
around 300 A.D. Certainly, the Mahabharata exhibits
puranic characteristics in its final form, and the
Harivamsa, an addendum to the Mahabharata that
discusses the life of Krishna or Hari in some detail,
has occasionally been regarded as a purana.
z The special subject of the puranas is the powers
and works of the gods, and one ancient Sanskrit
lexicographer, Amarasinha, writing in the fifth or
sixth century A.D., defined a purana as having five
characteristic topics, or panca laksana:
1. The creation of the universe;
2. Its destruction and renovation;
3. The genealogy of gods and patriarchs;
4. The reigns of the Manus, forming the periods
called Manvantaras;
5.  The history of the Solar and Lunar races of
kings.”
107
There are similar numbers of minor or subordinate
puranas in addition to the eighteen major puranas. A
conventional three-part separation of the gunas–or
qualities – that lean toward purity (sattva), impurity
or ignorance (tamas), and passion (rajas) is used in
one technique of classifying puranas. Thus, there are
six puranas that have been identified as having a sattvic
predominance: Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata, Garuda,
Padma, and Varaha. According to another scheme of
classification, these are also the puranas in which Vishnu
appears as the Supreme Being.
A second set of puranas, also six in number, are
described as exhibiting qualities of ignorance or
impurity (tamas), and in these Shiva is the God to whom
devotion is rendered: Matsya; Kurma; Linga; Shiva;
Skanda; and Agni. In the third set of six puranas, the
quality of rajas or blind passion supposedly prevails:
Brahma; Brahmanda; Brahmavaivarta; Markandeya;
Bhavishya; and Vamana.
Upanishad
z The word ‘Upanishad’ has been derived from the root
Sad (to sit), to which are added two prefixes: Upa and
Ni. The prefix Upa denotes nearness and Ni totality.
Thus, this word means ‘sitting nearby devotedly’.
z This refers to the pupil sitting down near his teacher
at the time of instruction. The word in course of
time gathered round it the sense of secret teaching
or secret doctrine (Rahasya) which was imparted at
such sittings. Upanishads are frequently spoken of as
Rahasya (secret) or Guhya (mystery) also.
z We find in Upanishads, that due to secrecy and
mystery of the teachings, a teacher refuses to
impart instruction to a pupil who has not proved his
worthiness to receive the instruction.
z Through another definition, the word primarily
signifies knowledge, yet by implication it also refers
to the book that contains that knowledge. Satyamev
jayate is taken from Mundaka Upnishad.
z It is difficult to ascertain the exact number that should
be regarded as authentic Upanishads. A religious
system is considered valid in India only when it is
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supported by Shruti, hence the founders of religious
sects have sometimes written books and called them
Upanishads in order to give their views scriptural
authority. The Allah Upanishad, for instance, was
composed in the sixteenth century, at the time of
emperor Akbar.
z One hundred and eight Upanishads are enumerated
in the Muktikopanishad and a popular edition
contains them. However, among these Upanishads, ten
Upanishads, the names of which have been mentioned
in the Muktikopanishad, are considered the most
important Upanishads from the point of view of
Vedantic Philosophy.
z Ten Principal Upanishads known as
‘Dashopanishad’ are Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna,
Munda, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya
and Brihadaranyaka Besides, Shvetashvatara,
Kaushitaki and Maitrayaniya Upanishads are often
listed in old Upanishads.
12.2 SANSKRIT LITERATURE
Kalidasa (Classical Malavikagnimitra (The love story
Sanskrit Writer in of Malavika a maiden of Queen and
Gupta Period) Agnimitra the son of Pushyamitra
Shunga)
Abhigyana Shakuntala
Raghuvamsha
Kumarasambhava
Meghaduta
Vishakhadatta Mudra Rakshasa
Kautilya Arthashastra
Harshavardhan Priyadarshika, Nagananda, and
Ratnavali (in short PNR)
Varahamihira Pancha-Siddhantika
Brihat Samhita
12.3 PRAKRIT & PALI LITERATURE
It was used in the production of various literary texts
across the subcontinent from about the second or
third century. It has been used in various inscriptions
of ruling dynasties across South Asia over the first four
or five centuries. Prakrit reflects regional subtypes. The
scholarly developments in Sanskrit had put Prakrit
under pressure and grammars, dictionaries and various
treatises came to be written in Prakrit. Both Sanskrit
and Prakrit coexisted, but they occupied diverse spaces.
Inscriptions of pre-Gupta times, especially the Ashokan
edicts, are in Prakrit. Various secular literatures were
composed in Prakrit. Prakrits were much simpler than
Sanskrit both in sound and grammar.
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The ‘Triptikas’, or ‘baskets (of knowledge),’ of Buddhist
literature. The Vinaya Pitaka, which outlines the
guidelines that Buddhist monks must abide by, is one
of the three Tripitakas. The Buddha’s discourses and
lectures on morality and upright dharma are found in
the Sutta Pitaka. The Abhidhamma Pitaka, which
focuses on philosophy and metaphysics, comes last. It
also includes talks on a variety of subjects, including
psychology, knowledge theory, and ethics.
This language contains within itself local variants and
subscribing to a particular region is difficult. Like the
Buddhists, the Jainas chose Ardhamagadhi for their
literature instead of Sanskrit. However, Buddhist treatises
in north India and a large portion of South Asia, excluding
the peninsula, were composed in Sanskrit around
the second century. But it is unclear why, after a half-
millennium, the Buddhists decided to acquire Sanskrit.
It has also been argued that adoption of Sanskrit language
was the result of penetration of Buddhism westwards
into Mathura and the core region of Aryavarta which
was the main region of vaidika culture. Other important
Prakrits were Surasena, spoken originally in the western
part of modern Uttar Pradesh; and Maharastri, spoken
in the north-western Deccan. Like the Buddhists, the
Jainas chose Ardhamagadhi for their literature instead of
Sanskrit. However, Buddhist treatises in north India and
a large portion of South Asia, excluding the peninsula,
were composed in Sanskrit around the second century.
But it is unclear why, after a half-millennium, the
Buddhists decided to acquire Sanskrit.

Sangam Literature
Indeed, the Sangam literature provides invaluable insights into the social and economic conditions of ancient
South India. While it may not offer a connected political history, these literary works offer a detailed and vivid
portrayal of the society, culture, economy, and daily life during the Sangam period (circa 300 BCE to 300 CE).
The Sangam literature consists of Tamil poems and texts composed by various poets, and it is divided into two
main collections: the Ten Idylls (Pattupattu) and the Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai).
Importance of Sangam Literature in Understanding Social and Economic Conditions:
z Social Structure: The Sangam literature provides a comprehensive picture of the social structure of ancient South
India. It discusses various societal divisions, such as the nobility, warrior class, merchants, artisans, and agricultural
communities. It highlights the roles and responsibilities of different sections of society and the interactions between
them.
z Economy and Trade: The poems in Sangam literature shed light on the economic activities prevalent during
that time. It describes trade and commerce, both within the region and with other parts of the world. The ports
and trade centers of ancient South India were hubs of activity, and the literature mentions the trade of valuable
commodities like spices, pearls, and textiles.
z Agriculture and Land Usage: The poems of Sangam literature extensively refer to agriculture, irrigation practices,
and the significance of land and crops in the lives of people. It offers valuable information about agricultural
techniques, seasonal cycles, and the importance of irrigation for enhancing agricultural productivity.
z Role of Women: The Sangam literature provides a unique perspective on the role and status of women in ancient
South Indian society. It portrays women as educated, influential, and involved in various fields such as literature,
arts, and politics.
z Religious Practices: The literature reflects the religious beliefs and practices prevalent during the Sangam period.
It mentions the worship of various deities, including gods and goddesses associated with nature, fertility, and war.
z Education and Learning: The Sangam literature reveals insights into the educational system and the importance
of learning in ancient South India. It emphasizes the significance of scholars, poets, and academies in the society
of that era.
z Cultural Practices: The poems provide glimpses into the cultural practices, festivals, music, dance, and
entertainment enjoyed by people during the Sangam period. It showcases the rich cultural heritage of ancient
South India.
The Sangam literature’s portrayal of social and economic conditions is vivid and authentic because it was composed
by poets and authors who were part of the society they described. Their observations and experiences offer a
unique window into the past, allowing historians and researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the social
fabric, economic activities, and way of life during the Sangam period in South India.

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12.4 LITERATURE OF UTTAR PRADESH z Urdu literature includes ghazals, Nazm and poetry.
z Major Sanskrit philosophers are Vyas, Banabhatta,
Uttar Pradesh has a long language and literature history.
The wide variety and richness of the astonishing Diwakar and Ashwaghosh.
contribution of literary sources from Uttar Pradesh date z Centers of Sanskrit literature are Varanasi, Prayagraj,
back to ancient times. Mathura and Gorakhpur.
A prominent hub of the ancient world for gathering z Hindi literature is mentioned in four broad
luminaries in education and religious thought, Varanasi classifications-Vir Gathas, Riti poems, bhakti poems
has always, in successive centuries, drawn thinkers to and Adhunik literature.
participate in debates on various subjects and promote
philosophical dialectics. z Hinduism’s twin Sanskrit epics are Ramayana and
the Mahabharata.
Its propensity for such rich learning has placed it in
high regard in the ancient texts of the Hindu epics Writers/Poets Contributions
in Sanskrit (which were written in the state) and the Tulsidas Ramcharitmanas,
Puranas (some of which were also written in the region), Gitawali, Kavitawali,
along with many venerable texts of Hindu and Buddhist Vinay Patrika
literature.
z Uttar Pradesh is the land of Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas Surdas Sursagar, Sursarawali,
and Keshavdas. Sahitya Lahari
z Other luminaries were fabled for their rich excavation Malik Muhammad Jayasi Padmavat
scholars, such as Ashwaghosh, Banabhatta,
Kabirdas Dohe, Bijak
Mayur, Diwakar, Vakpati, Bhavbhuti, Rajshekhar,
Laxmidhar, Sri Harsh and Krishna Misra, who were Bhartendu Harishchandra Bharat Durdasha, Satya
prominent leaders at the courts of the kings of the Harish chandra
time. Jaishankar Prasad Kamayani, Skandgupta
z Varanasi was the major centre of literature in old Mahadevi Verma Neeraja, Rashmi
times.
Harivansh Rai Bachhan Madhushala
z Allahabad, Braj region, Awadh, and Bundelkhand are
Maithilisharan Gupt Saket, Bharat-Bharti
other regions.
z Uttar Pradesh is rich in language tradition. Hindi, Munshi Premchand 800 stories, 13 novels
Urdu, Sanskrit, Hindustani, Braj Bhasha, English, Dharmveer Bharti Gunaho ka Dewata
Awadhi, Bagheli, Bhojpuri, Bundeli and Kannauji
are the major languages and dialects of the State. Institutes to Promote the Literature and Language of
Uttar Pradesh-
z Nagri Pracharini Sabha and the Hindi Sahitya
Sammelan have played vital roles in encouraging z Uttar Pradesh Hindi Sansthan
literary traditions. z Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan
z The leading luminaries in the field of Urdu poetry read z Uttar Pradesh Sindhi Academy
like a slice of the Who’s-Who list of Uttar Pradesh’s
z Uttar Pradesh Urdu Academy
cultural heritage–Firaq Gorakhpuri, Josh Malihabadi,
Akbar Allahabadi, Mazaz Lakhnavi, Kaifi Azmi, Ali z Hindustani Academy
Sardar Jafri, Shakeel Badayuni and Nida Fazili. z Uttar Pradesh Language Institute
Important Obituary in Literature 2023
Name of the
Awards Contribution
Personality
Jayanta Mahapatra Sahitya He was the first Indian poet to win a Sahitya Akademi award for English
Akademi Award poetry.
Kandlakunta Alaha Padam Shri His passion towards Sanskrit literature and Education
Singaracharyulu

K. V. Tirumalesh Sahitya He was an Indian poet, writer and critic in the Kannada and English
Akademi Award languages, and a retired professor.

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 Name of the
Awards
Personality
Nilmani Phookan Jnanpith Award He was an Assamese writer, poet, freedom fighter and politician
popularly known as Bagmibor
Kenzaburo Oe Nobel Prize A prominent dissident and writer with a cult following in post-war
Japan.
Importance of Literature
Language plays a crucial role in human communication,
culture, and identity. Importance are as follows:
z Communication: Language is the primary tool for
communication between individuals and communities.
It enables us to express our thoughts, feelings, ideas,
and needs, facilitating social interaction, cooperation,
and understanding. Effective communication is
essential for building relationships, resolving conflicts,
and sharing knowledge and information.
z Culture and Identity: Language is closely tied to
culture and serves as a vehicle for preserving and
transmitting cultural values, traditions, and heritage.
It carries a community’s collective memory and
wisdom, reflecting its unique customs, rituals, beliefs,
and worldview. Language is integral to individual and
group identity, shaping how we perceive ourselves
and others.
z Cognitive Development: Language plays a crucial
role in cognitive development, particularly in the early
years of life. Language acquisition and proficiency
enhance memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and
critical thinking abilities. It facilitates learning,
intellectual growth, and knowledge acquisition across
various domains.
z Education: Language is the medium through which
education is imparted. It enables the transmission
v v
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Contribution
of knowledge, facilitates learning, and empowers
individuals to participate actively in the social,
economic, and political spheres. Proficiency in the
language of instruction is essential for academic
success and accessing opportunities for personal and
professional development.
z Economic Opportunities: Language proficiency
opens up economic opportunities by enabling
individuals integral to commerce and employment.
In a globalized world, multilingual individuals have
an advantage in international business, diplomacy,
tourism, and other sectors that require cross-cultural
communication.
Expected Questions
1. Though not very useful from the point of view of a
connected political history of south India the sangam
literature portrays the social and economic conditions
of its time with remarkable vividness. Comment.
2. Describe the role of Buddhist literature in the creation
of world peace.
3. What is the significance of the Uttar Pradesh literature?
4. T he wide variety and richness of the astonishing
contribution of literary sources from Uttar Pradesh
date back to ancient times. Explain.
5. Write about the most famous Sanskrit sages of
Maharshi Valmiki.
v
111
 13 Indian School of Philosophy
Indian philosophy is a rich and diverse tradition that
has been developed over thousands of years. There
are several major schools of philosophy in India,
each with its own unique perspective on fundamental
questions about the nature of reality, ethics, and the
purpose of life.
Four Major Goals of Indian Philosophy
Dharma (Duty and Ethics): One of the primary goals
of Indian philosophy is to understand and uphold
dharma, which refers to one’s moral and ethical
duties in life. Dharma helps individuals navigate
their societal roles and responsibilities, fostering
harmony in personal and social life.
Artha (Economic Means): Artha refers to the pursuit
of material well-being, wealth, and prosperity.
Indian philosophy recognizes that material wealth
and resources are essential for leading a balanced
and fulfilling life.
Kama (Desire and Pleasure): Indian philosophy
recognizes that human beings have desires and seek
various forms of pleasure and satisfaction in life.
Different philosophical traditions offer guidance on
how to balance desires and pleasures with ethical and
spiritual goals.
Moksha (Salvation): Moksha, also known as Nirvana
or liberation, is the ultimate goal of many Indian
philosophical traditions. It represents liberation from
the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) and
the realization of one’s true nature or union with the
divine (Brahman or Atman).
These four goals–dharma, artha, kama, and
moksha–form the foundation of the Purusharthas,
which are the four fold aims of human life in Indian
philosophy. It’s important to note that the emphasis
on these goals may vary across different Indian
philosophical schools and traditions.
13.1 MAJOR SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY
Orthodox (Astika) School
This school held that the Vedas were the ultimate
revealed scriptures that contained the keys to salvation.
The authority of the Vedas was not questioned. Their six
sub-schools included: Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, and Mimamsa.
Nyaya School
Nyaya is primarily concerned with logic and
epistemology. It seeks to establish valid means of
knowledge (pramana) and uses rigorous logical analysis
to arrive at conclusions. The founder of this school of
thought was supposedly Gautama, who is also credited
with authoring the Nyaya Sutra.
z According to the Nyaya Sutras, verbal testimony,
comparison, inference, and perception are the four
ways to obtain reliable knowledge.
Vaisheshika School
Vaisheshika is another of the classical schools and focuses
on metaphysics and atomism. It classifies the world into
different categories and investigates the nature of reality
through the study of atoms and their combinations. The
Sanskrit philosopher Kanada Kashyapa is considered
the founder of this school of philosophy.
z The Vaisheshika philosophy of the universe is regarded
as realistic and impartial.
z The reality has numerous bases or categories, including
substance, attribute, action, genus, distinguishing
quality, and inherence, according to this philosophy.
z The five elements of earth, water, air, fire, and ether,
according to Vaisheshika philosophers, make up all
items in the universe.
Samkhya School
The oldest of the traditional philosophical schools,
Samkhya believes that everything, in reality, originates
from the union of two forces, Purusha (self, soul, or
intellect) and Prakriti (matter, creative power, energy).
It explores the nature of the self, the material world, and
the path to liberation. The Samkhya Sutra is considered
to have been written by Kapil Muni, who founded the
Samkhya school of philosophy.
Yoga School
Yoga philosophy, as expounded by Patanjali in the
Yoga Sutras, offers a systematic approach to spiritual
development and self-realization through the practice
of meditation, ethical principles, and physical postures.
z To achieve this freedom, one must practice self-control
(yama), rule-observance (niyama), fixed postures
(asana), breath control (pranayama), object choice
(pratyahara), mind fixation (dharna), concentration on
the selected object (dhyana), and complete dissolution
of self (Samadhi).
z In yoga, God is acknowledged as a teacher and a guide.
Mimamsa School
Also known as Purva Mimamsa, this school of thought
is primarily concerned with the interpretation of the
Vedas, ritual, and religious duties. It emphasizes the
importance of proper ritual performance for attaining
desired outcomes and liberation. Jaimini is considered
the founder of Mimamsa/Purva Mimamsa school of
Indian Philosophy.
Vedanta School
Vedanta is one of the most influential schools of Indian
philosophy and is based on the Upanishads. It explores
v v v
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the nature of reality (Brahman), the self (Atman), and
the relationship between them. This school of thought
was supposed to be founded by Vyasa.
z There are different sub-schools within Vedanta,
including Advaita (non-dualism), Dvaita (dualism),
and Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism).
Heterodox School
They questioned the presence of God and did not
accept the originality of Vedas. Buddhism, Jainism, and
Lokayata are their three main sub-schools.
Buddhism School
Although it originated in India, Buddhism is often
considered a separate tradition. It was founded by
Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) and encompasses
various schools of thought, such as Theravada, Mahayana,
and Vajrayana. Buddhism addresses the nature of suffering,
the path to liberation (Nirvana), and ethical principles.
Jainism School
Jain philosophy, founded by Mahavira, emphasizes non-
violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), and self-discipline.
It explores the concept of karma, the eternal soul (jiva),
and the path to spiritual liberation (moksha).
Carvaka
Also known as Lokayata, this is a materialist and
atheistic school of thought that rejects the authority of
scriptures and focuses on sensory perception as the only
valid means of knowledge.
Atheistic Schools: In addition to Carvaka, there were
other atheistic schools like Ajivika and Charvaka that
rejected the idea of a creator God and offered alternative
cosmological and ethical views.
These Indian philosophical schools have significantly
influenced the intellectual and spiritual landscape
of India and continue to be subjects of study and
contemplation to this day. Each school offers its own
unique perspective on the fundamental questions of
human existence and the nature of reality.
Expected Questions
1. 
Indian philosophy is a rich and diverse tradition.
Explain the schools of Philosophy to justify the
statement.
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 14 Indian Cinema
One of the biggest film industries in Asia is found in
India. Numerous thousands of individuals work as
extras, spot guys, etc. in addition to being actors and
music directors. The Indian film industry is renowned
for making the most movies in the entire world. Films in
Hindi, Telugu, Tamil, Bhojpuri, etc. are produced by the
company. According to a 2014 survey, India produces
close to 3000 celluloid films, of which about 1000 are
short films and the remaining 1969 are features.
Silent Era Golden Era
(1896 to 1930) (1931 to 1950) (1950 to 1960)
Introduction of
Talkies and Color
14.1 EVOLUTION IN INDIA
The history of Indian cinema is a rich and fascinating
journey that spans over a century, marked by significant
milestones, artistic achievements, and cultural influence.
Following is a brief overview of the history of Indian
cinema:
Early Years (1896-1913): The inception of Indian
cinema is often traced back to 1896 when the
Lumière brothers’ Cinématographe was introduced in
Bombay (now Mumbai). The first Indian short film,
“Raja Harishchandra” by Dadasaheb Phalke, was
released in 1913, marking the beginning of the Indian
film industry.
India has one of the oldest and largest film industries
in the world. It was in early 1913 that an Indian
film received a public screening. The film was Raja
Harischandra. Its director, Dadasaheb Phalke is now
remembered through a life-time achievement award
bestowed by the film industry in his name. At that
point of time it was really hard to arrange somebody
to portray the role of females.
Studio System
&
Big Budgets
(1961 to 1980) (1981 to 2000) (2000 to Now)
Masala Movies Contemporary
&
Parallel Cinema
Silent Era (1913-1930s): The early years of Indian
cinema were characterized by silent films. Dadasaheb
Phalke’s “Raja Harishchandra” and “Lanka Dahan”
were pioneering works. Other notable filmmakers of
this era included R.G. Torney and Ardeshir Irani. Music
was often provided live during screenings.
Sound Era (1930s-1940s): The introduction of sound
in Indian cinema, with the film “Alam Ara” in 1931,
marked a major turning point. Playback singing became
popular, and actors like K.L. Saigal and Devika Rani rose
to fame. Social and mythological themes dominated the
industry.
Golden Age (1950s-1960s): The 1950s and 1960s
are often considered the golden age of Indian cinema.
This period saw the emergence of iconic actors like Raj
Kapoor, Dilip Kumar, and Dev Anand. Filmmakers like
Raj Kapoor and Guru Dutt produced classics such as
“Shree 420,” “Pyaasa,” and “Awaara.”
Parallel Cinema (1950s-1970s): Alongside mainstream
cinema, the parallel cinema movement emerged,
characterized by artistic and socially relevant films.
Filmmakers like Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, and Mrinal
Sen gained international recognition for their work.
Color and Masala Films (1970s-1980s): The 1970s
witnessed a shift towards colorful, action-packed
“masala” films. Amitabh Bachchan became a superstar
with films like “Sholay” and “Deewar.” The era also saw
the rise of the “angry young man” archetype.
New Wave Cinema (1980s-1990s): Directors like
Shyam Benegal, Govind Nihalani, and Aparna Sen
continued the tradition of meaningful cinema. Films like
“Manthan” and “Arth” explored societal issues.
Global Recognition (2000s-Present): Indian
cinema gained international recognition with films
like “Lagaan,” which was nominated for an Academy
Award, and “Slumdog Millionaire,” which won several
Oscars. Bollywood became a global phenomenon, and
Indian films reached wider audiences.
The Indian film industry, famously known as Bollywood,
is the largest in the world, and has major film studios
in Mumbai (Bombay), Calcutta, Chennai, Bangalore
and Hyderabad. They produce more than a thousand
films annually for incredibly enthusiastic audiences all
across the world. Indian cinema has been the primary
source of entertainment in India for about 50 years,
and with its growing popularity and success abroad, it
won’t be long until the Indian film industry is prepared
to compete with Hollywood on a global scale. However,
mainstream commercial releases continue to rule the
industry, not just in India but also everywhere else where
there is a sizable fan base for Indian cinema, including
the British Caribbean, Fiji, East and South Africa, the
United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and the
Middle East.
The Cinematograph Act, 1952 (hereinafter referred
to as The Act) was enacted by the Parliament to ensure
that films are exhibited in accordance with the limits
of tolerance of Indian society i.e. within the walls of
Article 19(1)(a) and 19(2) of the Indian Constitution.
To grant certification (or rejection, as the case may be)
and regulate the public exhibition of films by means
of cinematograph, section 3 the Act provides for the
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establishment of Central Board of Film Certification
(CBFC, popularly known as the censor board) which
is a regulatory body (guardian of Victorian morality
and decency) consisting of a chairman and twelve
to twenty-five members appointed by the Central
Government to sanction and certify films under four
different categories which are as follows:
1. 
Universal (U)
This certificate is granted to films which are suitable
for unrestricted public exhibition. In other words, the
film with ‘U’ certificate can be watched by a family
including children with no age bar.
2. 
Parental Guidance (UA)
This certificate is granted if, in the opinion of the
Board, the film contains such material that an advisory
to the parent or guardian becomes necessary so as to
decide whether a child below the age of twelve should
be allowed to watch the film or not.
3. 
Adults only (A)
This certificate signifies that the film is restricted
to adults only i.e. people above the age of 18 as per
the Indian Majority Act, 1857. These films are not
considered appropriate for the mental health of the
children as they can get negatively influenced or
affected by the content.
4. 
Restricted to special class of persons (S)
This certificate is issued when, in the opinion of
the Board, the theme, nature or content of the film
is suitable only for a specific class of persons or
profession.
14.2 CINEMA OF UTTAR PRADESH
New Film Policy 2023
z The Uttar Pradesh government has approved the
state Film Policy 2023.
z The new film policy would also be applicable to the
films that may be made in the film city coming up at
Noida.
z A subsidy of 25% or a maximum of Rs 50 lakh would
be given for setting up of studios or labs, among
others, in the state.
z If the studios or labs are opened in Purvanchal,
Vindhyachal and Bundelkhand, the amount would be
35% or a maximum of Rs 50 lakh.
z For films having more than half of shoot days in the
state, the amount of subsidy would be subject to a
maximum of Rs 1 crore.
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Noida Film City
z Noida Film City houses the Asian Academy of Film &
Television and Marwah Films & Video Studios along
with prominent news channels from India. It is located
in Sector 16-A Noida, India.
z It was established over two decades ago and houses
numerous film studios, apart from several media
houses. However, despite the presence of a number
of studios, the film city is more of an office complex,
with many media and other companies having offices
there.
z Apart from Noida Film City, the Uttar Pradesh
government is planning to develop more film city
projects within the State to promote and provide
facilities required for making films.
v v
116
z Sandeep Marwah has been the founder of Noida
Film City.
z Owing to its proximity to Doordarshan (the Prasar
Bharti transmission headquarters in New Delhi) and a
large number of private broadcasting and transmitting
stations that have moved to the NCR region, the Film
City has become a first choice for shooting television
serials, news and other entertainment-cum-education
programs.
Expected Questions
1. How to evolve Indian cinema? Comments.
2. What is the New Film Policy 2023? Explain Noida
Film City.
v
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 15 Fairs and Festivals of India
India is a country with diversities of religion, regions and
language. India is known for celebrating a wide range of
festivals the entire year. This is the only country where
people celebrate each festival with great grandeur no
matter what your religion is or which community you
belong to.
There are many cultural festivals, which have different
rituals, traditions and beliefs and many religious
festivals which hold great significance and these festivals
are celebrated widely across the country with zeal and
enthusiasm.
15.1 NATIONAL FESTIVALS OF INDIA
Republic Day
z India became a free nation on August 15, 1947, it
declared itself a Sovereign, Democratic and Republic
state with the adoption of the Constitution on January
26, 1950.
z A salute of 21 guns and the unfurling of the Indian
National Flag by Dr. Rajendra Prasad heralded the
historic birth of the Indian Republic.
z Awards such as the Paramvir Chakra, Ashok Chakra
and Vir Chakra are presented to gallantry award
winners. This parade is presided over by the President
of India. One of the main functions of the Republic
Day Parade is to pay tribute to the martyrs who have
sacrificed their lives for the country and to confer
bravery awards on military persons, citizenry and
children for showing courage in the face of adversity.
z The parade begins with winners of gallantry awards
saluting the President in open military jeeps, followed
by the display of various tanks, missiles and other
equipment added to the arsenal of the military. After
this, is the march-past of different regiments of the
armed forces, police, Home Guards and National
Cadet Corps. The President of India, being the
Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Armed Forces,
takes the salute. This is followed by a vibrant parade
comprising tableaux from different States and cultural
dances by patriotic school children.
Republic Day 2023:
z President Droupadi Murmu led the nation in
celebrating Republic Day, and Egypt’s President
Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was the chief guest at the
ceremonial event. This is the first time an Egyptian
head of state has been invited to the ceremony.
The invite also marks 75 years of diplomatic ties
between Cairo and New Delhi.
z This year, the Republic Day celebration is themed
around ‘Jan-Bhagidari (participation of people)’.
z A total of 23 tableaux – 17 from States and Union
Territories and six from various Ministries and
departments depicting India’s vibrant cultural
heritage, and economic and social progress were
a part of the parade on the Kartavya Path.
India Independence Day
The Independence Day of India, which is celebrated
religiously throughout the Country on the 15th of
August every year, holds tremendous ground in the list
of national days, since it reminds every Indian about
the dawn of a new beginning, the beginning of an era of
deliverance from the clutches of British colonialism of
more than 200 years. It was on 15th August 1947 that
India was declared independent from British colonialism,
and the reins of control were handed over to the leaders
of the Country. India’s gaining of independence was a
tryst with destiny, as the struggle for freedom was a
long and tiresome one, witnessing the sacrifices of many
freedom fighters, who laid down their lives on the line.
 Independence Day 2023
z In 2023, India celebrated 76 years as an
independent nation on 77th Independence day.
z The theme for the 77th Independence Day in
India is ‘Nation First, Always First,’ which will
be held as part of the events under ‘Azadi ka
Amrit Mohatsav.
z On August 15, the Uttar Pradesh government
completed the Jal Jeevan Mission’s goal of providing
tap water to 1.5 crore rural communities.

Gandhi Jayanti z Gandhi’s system consisted of resisting oppression

z Gandhi Jayanti is celebrated on 2nd October every
year to honor the birth of Mahatma Gandhi called
‘Bapu’. Organizing mass movements through non-
violent means in the pursuit of freedom, justice and
social change is part of Gandhi’s philosophy.
through peaceful means using the pillars of strong will
and truth. He showed strength in mass movements
such as the non-cooperation movement in 1922,
Dandi March in 1930 and Quit India Movement in
1942.

Contribution in Freedom Struggle of India

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, played an instrumental role in India’s struggle for independence from British
colonial rule. His contributions to the freedom movement were profound and transformative, and he is often
regarded as the Father of the Nation (Bapu) in India. Gandhi’s leadership and philosophy of nonviolent resistance,
or “Satyagraha,” were central to the success of the Indian independence movement. Following are some key
contributions of Mahatma Gandhi to the freedom movement:
z Champion of Nonviolence: Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolent resistance was at the core of his approach
to the freedom movement. He believed in the power of truth (satya) and nonviolence (ahimsa) as the
most potent weapons against oppression. Through peaceful protests, civil disobedience, and mass
mobilization, he demonstrated that it was possible to achieve political change without resorting to violence.
z Civil Disobedience Movements: Gandhi led several civil disobedience movements, including the famous Salt
March (Dandi March) in 1930. During this march, he and a group of followers walked over 240 miles to the Arabian
Sea to protest the British monopoly on salt production and sales. This event galvanized millions of Indians and
garnered international attention.
z Boycott of British Goods: Gandhi promoted the boycott of British goods as a means of economic resistance
to colonial rule. He encouraged Indians to spin their own cloth (khadi) rather than buy British-made textiles,
emphasizing the importance of self-reliance and economic independence.
z Promotion of Swadeshi: Gandhi advocated for “Swadeshi,” which means supporting and promoting Indian-made
products and industries. This concept aimed to reduce economic dependence on British goods and boost local
economies.
z Role in the Indian National Congress: Gandhi became a prominent leader within the Indian National Congress
(INC), the political party at the forefront of the independence movement. His influence within the INC helped
shape its strategies and policies.
z Promotion of Religious Harmony: Gandhi worked tirelessly to promote religious harmony and unity among
India’s diverse religious communities. His efforts to bridge religious divides helped maintain communal peace
during turbulent times.
z Negotiations with British Authorities: Gandhi engaged in dialogues and negotiations with British authorities,
advocating for India’s independence through peaceful means. His interactions with British officials and leaders
of the time contributed to the eventual granting of independence.
z Inspiration for Other Movements: Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolent resistance and his successful methods of
protest inspired civil rights movements and leaders worldwide, including Martin Luther King Jr. in the United
States and Nelson Mandela in South Africa.
Mahatma Gandhi’s contributions to the Indian freedom movement not only paved the way for India’s independence
in 1947 but also left an enduring legacy of nonviolent resistance and moral leadership that continues to inspire
people in their struggles for justice and freedom around the world.

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15.2 HINDU FESTIVALS
Diwali
z Diwali is primarily a Hindu festival that celebrates
the victory of light over darkness, good over evil
and the dispelling of ignorance and darkness. It
marks the return of Lord Rama, along with his wife
Sita and brother Lakshmana, to the city of Ayodhya
after defeating the demon king Ravana.
z Diwali, the festival of lights, is India’s most awaited
and celebrated festival. This festival is a celebration of
five days. On the third day of the celebratory occasion,
the key rituals of the Diwali festival take place.
z Diwali is the festival of Laxmi, the Goddess of
prosperity and wealth. Goddess Laxmi is believed
to visit everyone during Diwali, bringing peace and
prosperity. On the night of Diwali, “Lakshmi-Puja”
is performed in the evenings. A traditional Puja is
performed after sunset in all the homes.
z The lighting of Diyas and candles all around the
house, worshiping the Laxmi Ganesha to summon
health and wealth and bursting crackers are the chief
rituals of the festival.
z Friends, families, and colleagues share Diwali gifts to
show love and affection.
z Also, a unique and grand feast with delicious food
that mandatorily includes different varieties of
sweets is the special attraction of the occasion.
z This festival is celebrated for 5 days, first as Dhanteras,
second as choti diwali, then diwali is the main day,
after diwali -Govardhan puja and on the last day,
Bhai dooj is celebrated.
News related to Diwali
Breaking its own record, Ayodhya bagged the
Guinness World record for the ‘largest display of
oil lamps’ by lighting more than 15.76 lakh earthen
lamps at Ram ki Paidi during the last day of the
Deepotsav celebrations.
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This festival is celebrated with grandeur and
enthusiasm and has cultural, religious, and historical
significance. Here are some key aspects of the
significance of Deepotsav celebration in Ayodhya:
z Ramayana Connection: Ayodhya is believed
to be the birthplace of Lord Rama, a revered
deity in Hinduism and the central character in
the epic Ramayana. Deepotsav is celebrated to
commemorate Lord Rama’s return to Ayodhya after
defeating the demon king Ravana and completing
14 years of exile. It marks the beginning of his reign
as the king of Ayodhya.
z The Triumph of Light over Darkness: Deepotsav
symbolizes the victory of light (knowledge,
righteousness) over darkness (ignorance, evil).
People light thousands of earthen lamps or diyas to
illuminate their homes, temples, and public spaces,
creating a mesmerizing spectacle that represents
the triumph of good over evil.
z Tourism and Promotion: Deepotsav is a significant
tourism event for Ayodhya and the state of Uttar
Pradesh. It promotes tourism and showcases
Ayodhya’s cultural and historical heritage on a
global stage.
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 dumplings), malpua (pancakes), and thandai (a milk-
z Religious Observance: Deepotsav includes
based drink infused with nuts and spices), are prepared
various religious rituals, including the lighting
and shared among family and friends.
of lamps and aarti (offering of prayers) to Lord
z Holi has deep cultural and mythological significance.
Rama and other deities. Devotees and pilgrims visit
It is associated with various legends, including the
Ayodhya’s temples and offer their prayers during
divine love between Radha and Krishna, the victory
this auspicious time.
of Prahlada over the demon king Hiranyakashipu,
z Tourist Attractions: Ayodhya is home to various and the burning of Holika. It is a time for reflection,
historical and religious sites associated with renewal, and spiritual awakening.
Lord Rama and the Ramayana, including the Ram
Janmabhoomi Temple, Hanuman Garhi, and more. Lathmar Holi
Deepotsav encourages visitors to explore these z ‘Lathmar’ Holi is celebrated at Barsana, 48 km from
sites and learn about their significance. Mathura.
z Promotion of Ayodhya: The festival serves as a
platform to promote Ayodhya as a key religious
and cultural destination. It showcases the city’s
potential for tourism and heritage preservation.
Deepotsav in Ayodhya is a captivating and spiritually
uplifting celebration that not only honors the legacy
of Lord Rama but also serves as a symbol of hope,
light, and unity. It continues to draw pilgrims, tourists,
and admirers of Indian culture to Ayodhya, making it
a cherished and internationally recognized festival.
z It is believed that Lord Krishna used to visit Barsana
Holi with his friends (Gopas) to play Holi with Radha and
z Holi, also known as the Festival of Colors, is a popular her friends (Gopis).
Hindu festival celebrated predominantly in India and z While playing, the Gopas were chased by the gopis
Nepal. It is a vibrant and joyous festival that marks the with ‘Lathis’ (bamboo) in their hands, giving rise to
arrival of spring and the victory of good over evil. the ‘Lathmar Holi’ of Barsana.
z Holi is celebrated on the full moon day (Purnima) in z The festival is celebrated with coloured powder and
the Hindu month of Phalguna, which usually falls in coloured water at the Ladli Ji temple, dedicated to
February or March. The festival is typically celebrated Sri Radha Rani.
for two days, with different rituals and customs z Following Barsana, Holi is also celebrated in Nandgaon
associated with each day. (7 km from Barsana) and Baldeo (the Balram-named
town, 20 miles from Mathura).

Makar Sankranti
z According to Vedas, Sankranti deciphers the movement
of the Sun from one Rashi (zodiac) to the next. Hence,
there are 12 Sankranthi in a year. The Makar Sankranti
is considered as ‘Poush Sankranti’, which is most
auspicious.
z It is the festival which is aligned with the solar cycle.

z The first evening of Holi is popular as Holika Dahan

or Chhoti Holi. Bonfires are lit to commemorate the
burning of the demoness Holika, who symbolizes evil.
People gather around the bonfire, perform prayers,
sing and dance, and seek blessings for happiness and
prosperity.
z Holi is also a time to indulge in special festive delicacies.
Traditional sweets and snacks, such as gujiya (sweet

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z Makar Sankranti is a time to consume freshly harvested
food grains offered to the Gods and then eaten by the
person. Ayurveda believed in eating Khichdi on this
day since it is a light and easily digestible dish.
Maha Shivratri
z The 14th day of every lunar month, or the day before
the new moon, is known as Shivratri.
z Among all the Shivaratri (12) that occur in a calendar
year, Mahashivratri, which occurs in February-March,
is of the most holy and spiritual significance.
z On this night, the planet’s northern hemisphere is
visible in such a way that there is a natural upsurge
of energy in a human being.
Dussehra
z Vijayadashami is also named as Dussehra which is an
important Hindu festival celebrated in Uttar Pradesh.
z Vijayadashami a festival that indicates the victory of
good over evil.
z The name Vijayadashami is taken from the Sanskrit
term ‘Vijaya-Dashami’, which means victory on the
day of Dashami.
z Dashami is the tenth lunar day of a Hindu calendar
month.
z It is celebrated after the nine days of worship of
Goddess Durga.
z The tenth-day festivities, known as Kullu Dussehra,
commemorate Lord Rama’s arrival in Ayodhya. The
enormously well-liked Festival of Kullu Valley serves
as a marker.
Navratri
z The Hindu festival of Navratri, where nav means nine,
and ratri means night. So, In Sanskrit, it is celebrated
over nine consecutive nights during the autumn.
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z The celebrations vary across regions, according to
local customs and traditions, but the festival’s main
theme is the victory of good over evil.
z Although Navratri is devoted to the goddess Durga,
some states in South India also dedicate it to
other Hindu deities like Saraswati, the goddess of
knowledge.
z During Navratri, i.e. nine nights, Goddess Durga
is adorned in her different forms and avatars like
Mahishasura Mardhini, Bala Tripura Sundari,
Raja Rajeshwari, Annapoorna, Kali, Kanaka Durga,
Lakshmi, Saraswati and Gayatri Devi.
z The celebrations on the tenth day are known as Kullu
Dussehra.
Raksha Bandhan
z The sea seems to have tired after the roaring activity
of the last couple of months and is comparatively calm
now. The atmosphere is fresh and filled with romantic
aromas.
z This festival is celebrated by brothers and sisters.
z There is everywhere the charm of creation and
the promise of prosperity. Small wonder then that
one should feel like celebrating these long-awaited
moments. Shravan, the fifth month in the Hindu
calendar, opens up a number of avenues for such
celebrations. But the ‘coconut festival’ is truly one of
its kinds.
Teej
z Teej refers to all the monsoon festivals observed
particularly in the western and northern states of
India.
z The festivals celebrate the bounty of nature, arrival of
the monsoon, greenery and birds with social activities,
rituals & customs.
z The festival is mainly for women, and includes dancing,
singing, getting together with friends and narrating
stories, applying henna on hands and feet, wearing
brightly Green leheriya sarees/clothes, sharing
festive foods and playing under trees on swings on
Hariyali Teej.
z The traditional sweet Ghewar is closely associated
with the festival and enjoyed heartily over its duration.
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Ganesh Chaturthi
z Ganesh Chaturthi, one of the most-loved festivals
in India, is replete with divinity, celebrations, and
flamboyance. It is a festival that cuts across all
religions, castes, and creeds.
z Think Ganesh Chaturthi, and the beautiful idol of Lord
Ganesh comes to mind – the excitement, the crowds,
the aroma of His favorite modaks and chants just fill
the air! Lord Ganesh is seen as a God for all. He is
regarded as the God of new beginnings, fresh starts,
remover of obstacles, and a patron of learning.
Chhath Puja
z India is a land of festivals where each festival is
celebrated with sheer enthusiasm and devotion and
Chhath Puja is the most important festival.
z Chhath Puja is a Hindu Vedic festival celebrated
prominently in the North Indian states. The festival
is dedicated to the Sun God and is celebrated
twice every year during the months of Chaitra
(March -April) Kartika (October-November).
z Chhath Puja festivities span across four days and it
is believed that worshiping the sun and taking dips
into the holy waters of river Ganga offers longevity,
prosperity and well being. This grand festival
encourages frugality and abstinence from food and
water.
.
z The 4-day long festival witnesses different rituals
every day i.e.
 Nahay Khay (Chaturthi)
 Lohanda or Kharna
 Sandhya Arghya
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 Usha Arghyaoffers full support, as all the ghats of
the rivers and roads need to be kept spotlessly
clean while the whole city is illuminated.
15.3 MUSLIMS FESTIVALS
Ed ul Fitr
z Eid al-Fitr marks the end of the holy month of
Ramadan, during which Muslims fast from dawn to
sunset.
z It means Festival of the Breaking of the Fast and
is considered a time for gratitude, forgiveness and
making amends.
z Eid al-Fitr begins with the first sighting of the new
crescent moon, which means that the dates vary
slightly from year to year and from country to country,
depending on geographical location.
z Eid al-Fitr is also known as ‘sweet Eid’, and each
country has its traditional sweet treats prepared
especially for the celebrations.
z Eid-Ul-Fitr is a joyous occasion and one of the most
significant festivals in the Islamic religion. On this day,
Muslims end their Roza, thank Allah for offering them
health and resistance during Ramadan, wear new
clothes, prepare special delicacies, do charity, and get
together with their loved ones.
Eid ul Adha
z Eid al-Adha is an important festival according to the
Islamic calendar of religious observances. It literally
means into the Festival of Sacrifice. It is also called
Bakra Eid or Bakri-Eid in India because of the
connotation of the sacrifice of ‘bakri’ or goat.
z Just as Eid-Al-Fitr occurs following the end of the
month of fasting during Ramadan, Eid al-Adha begins
after the culmination of the holy pilgrimage ‘Hajj’ at
Mecca in Saudi Arabia.
z Eid al Adha festival is associated with the story of
Prophet Ibrahim as mentioned in the Quran.
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15.4 SIKH FESTIVALS
Gurunanak Jayanti
z Guru Nanak Jayanti is also known as Guru Nanak’s
Prakash Utsav
z It celebrates the birth of the first Sikh guru, Guru Nanak.
z It is one of the most sacred festivals in Sikhism.
z In the Sikh faith, this festival revolves around the
anniversaries of the 10 Sikh gurus.
z These gurus were responsible for shaping the beliefs of
the Sikhs. Their birthdays, known as ‘Gurpurab’, are
occasions for celebration and prayer among the community.
z Guru Nanak Jayanti is marked with prayer processions,
hymns, free sweets, martial arts (‘Gatka’), and
community services.
Lohri Festival
z Lohri, is a festival known for its feisty celebrations
among the Punjabi community. It is, in essence, a deep
veneration of nature gods for a bountiful harvest. Most
popular in the agricultural belt of India namely, the
Punjab, it has spread its wings to neighboring regions
such as Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Delhi.
z Lohri festival in India celebrates the harvesting of
rabi crops with a major ceremonial ritual of bonfire.
Falling in mid-January, the auspicious occasion of
Lohri coincides with the onset of ‘Magh’ month, which
commences just a day after Lohri.
Hola Mohalla
z It is dedicated to the Sikh community, especially the
armed order called Nihang. It is an annual fair where
Nihangs known for their brave acts going back to the
days of Ranjit Singh, display their skills in martial arts
in a unique yet traditional style.
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z As part of an old tradition started by the tenth Guru,
Guru Gobind Singh Ji at Anandpur Sahib, this fair
shows the prowess of a dedicated army initiated by
him called the Khalsa Panth.
Baisakhi
z Known as ‘Khalsa Sirjana Diwas’ (the birth of khalsa),
Baisakhi today is celebrated not only by Sikhs
and Punjabis, but by all communities with equal
enthusiasm. Many Punjabis and Sikhs celebrate
Baisakhi in their own way. These are different
from the rituals of harvest festivals practiced in the
villages.
z Celebrated when the Rabi crop ripens, Baisakhi is not
confined to villages and fields only, but now has an
urban presence.
15.5 CHRISTIAN FESTIVALS
Three distinct elements make up the Good Friday service
in the Roman Catholic Church. It consists of readings
and prayers, the reverence of the cross, a Latin ritual
that entails kissing the foot of the crucifix, and Holy
Communion, which involves receiving the body of Jesus
as bread.
Christmas
z Christmas is a modernized version of the old English
phrase “Cristes Maesse,” which denotes the Christ
Mass. Christmas Day is observed on December 25
to commemorate the birth of the baby Jesus and
to spread his message of love and soul-eternal life.
Jesus’ baptism is related to the twelve days between
Christmas and the Epiphany.
z While the whole season is imbued with the
infectious spirit of conviviality and verve, Christmas
day celebrations are quite unlike any other.
Christmas shares some of its customs with the
harvest festivals of Ancient Rome. Some of the
traditions that are still practiced today include
singing uproarious songs, attending midnight mass,
hosting parties and feasts, and decorating the home
with evergreens.
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15.6 BUDDHIST AND JAIN FESTIVALS
Buddha Jayanti
z Buddha Purnima is also popular as Birthday of Buddha,
Buddha Jayanti, Vaishakh Purnima and Vesak Day.
z Buddha Purnima, the most important day for the
followers of Buddhism, commemorates Lord Buddha’s
enlightenment in 588 B.C and also his attainment
of the highest of spiritual goals, ‘Nirvana’ in Bodh
Gaya and ‘Parinirvana’ (or “final cessation”) in
Kushinagara. Alternatively called Buddha Jayanti, this
day consecrates the birth anniversary of Lord Buddha
who was born in Lumbini, Nepal.
Mahavir Jayanti
z Mahavir Jayanti, observed by the community to
commemorate the birth anniversary of the founder
of Jainism or Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, the 24th
Tirthankara of Jainism, is observed by the
community. According to Jains, Jainism is an eternal
(sanatan) religion (dharma) with the tirthankaras
leading every cycle of the Jain cosmology.
z Mahavir was born in Kundalagrama, Bihar, on the
thirteenth day of the Chaitra month or the thirteenth
day of the waxing moon in the Chaitra month of the
Hindu calendar.
Parsi Festival
Jamshedi Navroz
z Jamshedi Navroz, also known as Navroz or Nowruz,
is the Persian New Year, celebrated by various
communities and cultures around the world,
particularly those with historical ties to Persia
(modern-day Iran).
z The term “Jamshedi Navroz” is often used to emphasize
its association with the legendary King Jamshid, who
is credited with the creation of the Persian solar
calendar.
124
The President of India greeted people
on the eve of the Parsi New Year.
z The Parsi community in India
celebrates Navroz nearly 200 days
Navroz
after the rest of the world as it follows
Festival
the Shahenshahi calendar.
z Navroz for India falls in July or August
and this year in 2023 Parsi New Year
is observed on August 16.
15.7 FESTIVAL OF NORTH EASTERN
STATES
Losar
z Arunachal Pradesh celebrates the Tibetan New Year
with a festival. The Mahayana sect of Buddhism is
practiced by tribes including the Monpa, Sherdukpens,
Memba, Khamba, and Nah, who lavishly celebrate this
holiday. On the first day of the festival, the priests make
offerings to the highest priest called the Dharmapala
or Palden Lhamo, whereas the masses visit friends
and family and wish them Tashi Delek (best wishes).
z Additionally, in accordance with local custom, to
guarantee a successful harvest, home altars are
adorned with sprouted barley seeds, buckets of
tsampa (roasted barley flour with butter), and other
grains. The festival’s second day, also known as
Gyalpo Losar, is dedicated to honoring kings and
national leaders.
Saga Dawa
z Saga Dawa is one of the major Buddhist festivals
in Sikkim and is celebrated in the Tibetan lunar
month.
z The “Month of Merits” or Saga Dawa is observed
between May and June. The festival honors the
Buddha’s Birth, enlightenment & death.
Dree Festival
z Dree is the festival of the Apatani Tribe, it has gained
in popularity amongst other tribes in Arunachal
Pradesh too.
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z The festival takes place on July 5 each year; however
celebrations associated with the festival begin from
July 4 itself.
z It is held to ensure a bountiful crop and is the greatest
event in the Ziru Valley. People pray to the four Gods
Tamu, Harniang, Metii, and Danyi during the event.
Moatsu Mong
z This festival of the Ao tribe in Nagaland marks the
completion of the sowing season.
z It is a 3-day festival that is celebrated from May 1 to
3 each year. It is Held in Mokokchung district, Moatsu
Festival begins with the cleaning of wells and the
brewing of beer.
Bihu Festival
z Three times a year, the Assamese celebrate Bihu: once
on Bohag or Rongali Bihu, then on Kaati or Kongali
Bihu, and on Maagh or Bhogali Bihu.
z Each year, the Bohag Bihu calls for a massive
celebration to start on April 14. Despite the holiday
only lasting seven days, it is celebrated for almost a
month.
z Bohag Bihu’s first day is known as Goru Bihu, during
which time cows and bulls are cleansed and fed. On
the second day of the main festival, people greet one
another and give their relatives gamosas, or hand-
woven cotton towels.
Hornbill Festival
z Taking its name from a bird, Nagaland’s Hornbill
Festival is a significant celebration. The Hornbill
Festival is connected to agriculture, just like many
other events in the state. It is a 7 to 10 day event that
kicks off on December 1 every year with great fervor.
z Hornbill is an excellent time to experience cultural
vibrancy and offers the chance to form connections
with other communities.
Losoong
z The Sikkimese New Year, or Losoong, is observed in
December each year.
z Additionally, this is the time of year when farmers
rejoice over their crop. Although the Bhutia tribe
celebrates Losoong traditionally, the Lepchas do so
with just as much fervor and devotion.
Kharchi Puja
z Kharchi is a popular festival in Tripura.
z This Puja (worship) was once performed only by
the royal households, however with passing times,
Kharchi became common to all the houses in the state.
z It is a 10-day long festival that is marked by animal
sacrifice and worshiping 14 gods as instructed by
Lord Shiva.
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z The festival takes place in the month of July each
year in Old Agartala or Purani Haveli, where there is
a temple that houses 14 deities.
Chapchar Kut
z Chapchar Kut is the festival in Mizoram.
z Every year In the month of March, Chapar Kut marks
the time for planting in the state. The highlight of this
festival is the bamboo dance called Cheraw.
z Apart from the special dance, different styles of dances
like Khuallam, Chheihlam, Chai and Sarlamkai are also
performed during the festival.
Yaoshang Festival
z Yaoshang festival begins in Manipur
z The thabal chongba is a traditional dance of the Meitei,
where boys and girls gather in an open ground and
dance in a circle.
Orange Festival
z Nagaland is celebrating the Orange Festival for 2 days.
Nagaland Fruit Festival is being organised in the state
to praise the hard work of orange growers. Recently,
Revenue from oranges in the state almost doubled.
15.8 SECULAR FESTIVALS
New Year
z New Year, often referred to as “New Year’s Day” or
simply “January 1st,” marks the beginning of the
calendar year in most parts of the world.
z It is a widely celebrated holiday that signifies a fresh
start and the transition from the old year to the new one.
z New Year’s Day is associated with various customs,
traditions, and celebrations that vary from one culture
to another, but it generally involves joyous festivities,
reflection, and a sense of hope for the future.
z New Year’s is often a time for people to reflect on the
past year’s experiences, both joys and challenges, and
to express hope and optimism for the year ahead.
Aranmula Boat Race
z The Aranmula Boat Race has a history that dates back
several centuries. It is said to have originated as a way to
honor the deity of the Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple.
The snake boats, also known as “palliyodams,” are an
integral part of the festivities and are believed to symbolize
the divine vessel that carries the deity during a ritual.
z The highlight of the Aranmula Boat Race is the
participation of majestic snake boats. These boats,
known as “palliyodams,” are long and slender vessels
with raised ends that resemble the hood of a cobra.
They can be over 100 feet in length and are manned
by a large crew of rowers.
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Onam
z Onam, Kerala’s harvest festival, is a time for
competitions, parties, and ceremonial celebrations.
z According to tradition, Kerala was formerly ruled by
the brave, noble, and generous demon king Mahabali,
who had legitimately conquered the kingdom of
heaven. However, Indra and other gods sought the
assistance of Lord Vishnu as usual, and He once more
promised them the kingdom of Heaven.
Khajuraho Dance Festival
z The famous temples of Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh
are famous for their archaeological excellence. The
temples were built during the Chandela Dynasty
between 250 and 1050 AD.
z The Temples of Khajuraho strike a perfect balance
between architecture and sculpture. In 1986,
UNESCO designated this group of temples as a world
heritage site.
Sunburn
z The largest electronic dance music festival in Asia is
the Sunburn Festival of Goa. With some of the top
DJs hosting the event each year, it highlights both
international and Indian talent.
z It is designed in line with the international festivals of
Europe and the UK. Held between the Christmas and
the New Year celebrations, it is a huge draw every
year as music lovers make their way to the shores
of Batagor, Goa for this four-day extravaganza that
features world-class music.
Pongal
z Pongal is a traditional harvest festival celebrated in
the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu and in some
parts of the neighboring state of Andhra Pradesh.
z It is one of the most important and popular festivals
in the region, marking the harvest season and giving
thanks to the sun god for a bountiful crop.
z Pongal typically falls in mid-January and coincides
with the Makar Sankranti festival celebrated in other
parts of India.
z Pongal is a four-day festival, with each day having its
own significance and rituals. The four days are known
as Bhogi Pongal, Thai Pongal, Mattu Pongal, and
Kaanum Pongal.
Sair-e-Gul Faroshan
z This festival is celebrated in the capital Delhi.
The festival is also known as “Phool Walon Ki Sair”
z
which is the third annual Flower Day celebration to
be held in Delhi.
z A palm leaf fan or a fan with flowers carried in a
large procession to the Yogmaya temple in Mehrauli
from the tomb of Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki serves as a
public emblem.
z The Mughal Emperor Akbar II (19th century) gave
the celebration its first official recognition. The British
had it outlawed, but JL Nehru restored it in 1962.

Festivals in news
Lavender Festival
India’s First Lavender festival was inaugurated in Jammu’s Bhaderwah.
z Bhaderwah is hailed as the Lavender capital of India.

About Lavender
z It is a fragrant flowering plant known for its aromatic purple flowers and soothing scent.
z It is widely cultivated for its essential oil, which has various uses in aromatherapy, cosmetics, and culinary applications.

Lavender/Purple Revolution
z It was launched in 2016 by the Union Ministry of Science & Technology through the Council of Scientific &
Industrial Research (CSIR) Aroma Mission.
z Under the mission, first-time farmers were given free lavender saplings, while those who had cultivated lavender
before were charged Rs. 5-6 per sapling.

Pushkaralu festival
z The Pushkaralu festival of Telugu-speaking people began on April 22 in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
z It is being organized in Kashi (Varanasi) after a gap of 12 years due to a special combination of planetary transits.
z The legend behind Pushkaralu involves the devotee Pushkara being blessed by Lord Shiva to live in water and
purify holy rivers.
z On a request from Bṛihaspati (Jupiter), Pushkara decided to enter one of the 12 sacred rivers – Ganga, Yamuna,
Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Bhima, Tapti, Narmada, Saraswati, Tungbhadra, Sindhu, and Pranhita.

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 z Each river has its zodiac sign. The river for each year’s festival is decided in accordance with Brihaspati
travel from one zodiac sign to another.

Kalinjar Festival
z CM Yogi Adityanath inaugurated the Kalinjar Festival organized every year in Banda.
z The historical Kalinjar festival will last for three days.
z On this occasion, the CM also unveiled the statue of Maharana Pratap and the statue of Maharaja Khet Singh
Khangar.
z People from different districts of Bundelkhand come to this fair and offer prayers to Lord Neelkantheshwar.
z It is said that Kalinjar has been the center of cultural fairs and pilgrimage since ancient times.
 Kalinjar Mahotsav is described in the play Rupak Shatakam composed by famous playwright Vatsaraj.
 During the time of Madanavarman, the mention of a dancer named Padmavati is found in the history related
to Kalinjar.
 It is said that the dance of Padmavati was the main attraction of the Kalinjar festival at that time. This
one thousand year old tradition is still present in the form of Katki fair.
z It is organized by the Taj Mahotsav Committee under
15.9 FESTIVALS OF UTTAR PRADESH
the supervision of the Presentation Commissioner,
Uttar Pradesh, a culturally rich state in northern India, Agra Division.
celebrates a wide range of festivals throughout the year.
These festivals are a reflection of the state’s diversity,  The commissioner of Agra division is the chairman
traditions, and religious practices. of this committee.
z It was inaugurated by Higher Education Minister
Religion Festivals
Yogendra Upadhyay.
Basant Panchmi, Naagpanchmi, Raksha
Bandhan, Ganesh Chaturthi, Bhai dooj, z More than 375 artisans from all over the country are
Hindu Govardhan puja, Teej, Karwachauth, showcasing their art and culture in this festival which
Amavasya, Anant chaturdasi, Devotthan, lasts for ten days.
Ekadashi etc. z Entry to The Taj Mahotsav is through ticket only.
Muslim Barawafat, Shab-e-Barat, Muharram etc. z Singer Amit Mishra, Indian Ocean Band, Sachet Tandon
and Parampara, Warsi Brothers’ Qawwali, Sadho Band,
Baisakhi, Guru Gobind Singh Jayanti,
Sikh Pawandeep-Arunita Jodi, Cultural Fashion Show by
Guru Arjun Dev Balidan Diwas etc.
World Designing Forum, Maithili Thakur, Khete Khan,
Christian Good Friday, Christmas, and New Year day.
Harshdeep Kaur artists where present their art.
31st International Taj Festival z Taj Mahotsav to end on March 1, in the closing session
z The confluence of art, craft, culture and cuisine, the of the Taj Mahotsav, Bharatanatyam performance by
31st International Taj Mahotsav has begun in Agra. Kumari Devyani, a native of France awarded with
z The Taj Mahotsav, which runs from February 20 to Padma Shri, was performed. On February 27, there
March 1, is being organized this time on the theme where a singing performance by Padma Shri awardee
of G-20 (world brotherhood). Sumitra Guha of Faridabad.

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Uttar Pradesh Mango Festival
z Uttar Pradesh Mango Festival- 2023 was organized
by the Horticulture and Food Processing Department
of Uttar Pradesh from 14 to 16 July 2023 at Avadh
Shilpgram, Lucknow.
z Under this, 02 tonnes of mangoes are being exported
from Lucknow to Moscow, 12 tonnes of mangoes to
Bahrain and 01 tonnes of mangoes to Dubai.
15.10 FAIRS OF INDIA
Kumbh Mela
z Kumbh Mela has its roots in Hindu mythology and is
believed to be at least 2000 years old. This religious
and peaceful gathering takes place every twelve years
at 4 sites – Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nashik.
The mela follows a rotational schedule and dates are
scheduled according to the alignment of Jupiter, the
sun, and the moon.
z Millions of Hindu pilgrims, including devotees, sadhus,
saints, and others, visit the fair during the mela. For
all pilgrims, the Ganga river is a sacred location where
they can practice the tradition of water dipping in
order to find redemption.
z The most important out of all Kumbh fairs is the Maha
Kumbh mela which falls periodically every 144 years
and is celebrated at Prayagraj. This auspicious and
grand fair welcomes many people and is considered
to be a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. Around
644 BC in Prayagraj, Harshavardhana started the
Kumbh Mela.
Recently, A spectacular project known as the “Digital
Kumbh Museum” has been suggested for building
by Uttar Pradesh’s tourism department. With a
focus on giving visitors a cutting-edge, immersive
experience, this museum hopes to shed light on
the mythological and historical significance of the
legendary Kumbh Mela.
Sonepur Mela
z It is organised near Patna in Bihar and is Asia’s largest
cattle fair. It has been celebrated since the Mauryan
empire, dating back to a thousand years ago. Held in
November, you can observe the sale and purchase
of different livestock including birds, goats, buffalos,
donkeys, and horses.
z But the main attraction remains the Hathi Bazaar
or Elephant market where hundreds of elephants
line up near the banks of river Ganga. Many people
bring their elephants to boast and exhibit to visitors
as well.
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Pushkar Fair
z It is one of the biggest fairs in Rajasthan and the
largest livestock fairs in the world. Organised in
October and November, it is a traditional camel
fair that was once a trading event. In the deserts of
Pushkar where the fair is held, thousands of tourists
and vendors pay a visit.
z Camels are decorated and displayed at Pushkar fair.
This fair is renowned for being an exotic event in the
beautiful town of Pushkar. The mela is surrounded by
the riveting and vibrant culture of Rajasthan where
one can experience the nomadic lifestyle of the state.
Goa Carnival
z The Goa carnival organised in Panjim is vibrant and
full of energy. This carnival has been celebrated since
the 18th century and starts in May, 40 days before
Lent.
z The glamorous carnival is similar to Latino Carnival
where one can see colourful masks, live music,
dancing, and people having a gala time.
Gangasagar Mela
z The Gangasagar Mela, also known as the Gangasagar
Fair or Gangasagar Yatra, is an annual religious
pilgrimage and festival held at the Sagar Island
(Sagardwip) in West Bengal, India. It is one of
the largest and most significant gatherings in India,
attracting millions of devotees who come to take a
holy dip at the confluence of the Ganges River (known
as the Ganga) and the Bay of Bengal.
z The Gangasagar Mela takes place during the Makar
Sankranti festival, which usually falls in mid-January.
Makar Sankranti marks the transition of the sun into
the zodiac sign of Capricorn (Makar), and it is
considered an auspicious time for bathing in sacred
rivers.
Desert Festival
z Once a year, the empty sands around Jaisalmer come
alive with a mesmerizing performance on the sand
dunes in the form of the Desert Festival.
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z The high points of the festival are puppeteers, acrobats, camel tattoo shows, camel races, camel polo, traditional
processions, camel mounted bands, folk dances, etc.
z Activities:
 Rajasthani men and tall, beautiful women dressed in their best and brightest costumes dance and sing ballads
of valour, romance and tragedy, while traditional musicians attempt to outdo each other to showcase their
musical superiority.
 The high points of the festival are puppeteers, acrobats, camel tattoo shows, camel races, camel polo, traditional
processions, camel mounted bands, folk dances, traditional food etc.

Fairs in News
z Recently, the Prime Minister of India has urged people to visit Matua Maha Mela in large numbers which is
being celebrated by the Matua community and also paid tribute to Shri Harichand Thaku.
z Matuas trace their ancestry to East Bengal, and many of them entered West Bengal after Partition and after the
formation of Bangladesh.
z The Matua community has members on either side of the Bengal border.
z The Matua Mahasangha, a religious reform movement and a sect was formed by Harichand Thakur in East
Bengal in the mid-1800s.
z Rojgar mela- A Rozgar Mela is an event where a number of employers and job seekers come together for
the purpose of applying and interviewing for jobs. Recently, the Prime Minister participated in the National
Rozgar Mela through video conferencing where he handed out approximately 70,000 appointment letters to
newly recruited individuals joining various government departments and organizations. This event includes 43
locations across the country.
z Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the second phase of Sansad Khel Mahakumbh 2022-23
held in Basti district of Uttar Pradesh via video conferencing.

15.11 FAIRS OF UTTAR PRADESH

All Indian fairs and festivals have lots of diversity according to the culture, life style, language, and religion of each state and
region, like Durga Puja (Navaratri) is the major festival of West Bengal, Ganapati in Maharashtra, also in the western and
eastern parts of India, Pongal in Tamilnadu, Onam in Kerala, Goa Carnival, Christmas and New Year in Goa, car Festival of
Puri, Pushkar fair in Rajasthan, Snake boat fair in Kerala, Holi in North India, Kumbh Mela in Haridwar and Varanasi,
republic day in Delhi.
Fairs show the rich cultural heritage of Uttar Pradesh. Every year many fairs are organised in the state of Uttar
Pradesh. Most of the fairs are organised in Mathura district (86), followed by Kanpur (80), Hamirpur (79), Jhansi
(78), Agra (72) and Fatehpur (70) districts in the state. Pilibhit district organises the least number of fairs in the
state.
Important fairs of Uttar Pradesh are as discussed here:

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Bateshwar Fair
z Bateshwar fair is held in October and November at Bateshwar, the spiritual and cultural centre and is located 70
kilometers from Agra.
z It is a place to purify your soul by worshiping Lord Shiva and taking a holy dip in the river Yamuna. Participating
in the livestock trade is an exciting experience.
z The temple premises consist of more than 100 temples dedicated to lord Shiva. The temples are all lined along
the crescent-shaped curve of the riverfront and several have ghats (steps) leading down to the water.
Kailash Fair
z Kailash Fair, another religious fair held at Kailash, 12 kilometers from Agra, is celebrated in August and
September.
z The fair is celebrated in honour of Lord Shiva, who is believed to have appeared at the place in the form of a
stone lingam.
Ganga Festival, Varanasi
z The Ganga festival is celebrated on the banks of the river Ganga at Varanasi to worship the river.
z A 10-day Craft Bazaar (National Craft Fair) is organised at Urban Haat, Sanskritik Sankul, and Chowka Ghat in
which artisans from more than 20 states of India participate to showcase their exquisite Handicrafts.
Kampil Fair, Kampil
z A Jain fair is organised at Kampil or Kampilya village in tehsil Kasganj of Etah district.
z The city was the capital of King Drupad who is the father of Queen Draupadi of the epic Mahabharata.
z The renowned town is known as the birthplace of the 13th Tirthankar Brahlan Vimal Nath and was once visited
by Lord Mahavir.
Janmashtami Fair, Mathura
z Krishna Janmashtami, also known simply as Janmashtami or Gokulashtami, is an annual Hindu Fair that celebrates
the birth of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu.
z It is observed according to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, on the eighth day (Ashtami) of the Krishna Paksha (dark
fortnight) in the month of Bhadrapada of the Hindu calendar, which overlaps with August and September of the
Gregorian calendar.

Sardhana Christian Fair, Meerut

z A Christian Fair is organised in Meerut.
z The Sardhana Church, built by the Begum, is one of the largest churches in North India.
z It is built on Italian architecture by Antoni Reghellini.

Some other important fairs of Uttar Pradesh:

Fair Place
Fair Place Naimisharanya Fair Naimisharanya (Sitapur)
Nakkateya Fair Varanasi Syed Salar Fair Bahraich
Dussehra Fair It is celebrated all over Devipatan Fair Balrampur
the state Dhai Ghat Fair Shahjahanpur
Parikrama Fair Misrikh Neemsar
Haridas Jayanti Fair Vrindavan (Sitapur), Ayodhya
Dauji (Mathura) Govind Sahab Fair Atraulia (Azamgarh)
Devchhat Fair
Barsana (Mathura) Bal Sundari Fair Anupshahr
Makanpur Fair (Bulandshahar)
Farrukhabad
Kalinjar Fair Banda
Ramnagaria Fair Farrukhabad
Garh Fair Garhmukteshwar
Shringi Rampur Fair Farrukhabad
Fairs are significant for a number of reasons, including:

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 Economic Benefits:
Fairs can boost the local economy by attracting visitors from outside the area. They can also
provide a platform for businesses to showcase their products and services, which can lead to
increased sales.

Cultural and Educational:

Fairs can promote cultural awareness and understanding by showcasing different
cultures and traditions. They can also be a source of educational information, as they
often feature exhibits on a variety of topics.

Social Benefits:
Fairs can provide a sense of community by bringing people together from all
walks of life.

Environmental Benefits:
Fairs can promote environmental awareness by highlighting sustainable practices and
products. They can also help to reduce waste by encouraging recycling and composting.

Shri Ram-Janaki Yatra

z The Indian Railways flagged off its Bharat Gaurav deluxe AC tourist train on a tour of the “Shri Ram-Janaki Yatra:
Ayodhya to Janakpur.
z It will cover two significant pilgrimage centers; Ayodhya in India and Janakpur in Nepal.
z The tour package will also include visits to Nandigram, Janakpur, Sitamarhi, Kashi and Prayagraj as added
attractions. The fully air-conditioned train provides two types of accommodation viz. 1st AC and 2nd AC.
z Destinations Covered & Tour Highlights:
 Ayodhya: Ram Janmabhoomi temple, Hanuman garhi, Saryu Ghat.
 Nandigram: Ram-Bharat Temple.
 Janakpur: Ram-Janki Mandir and Dhanusha Dham.
 Sitamarhi: Ram Janki Temple at Sitamarhi and Puraura Dham.
 Varanasi: Sarnath (Outer visit), Tulsi Manas temple, Sankat Mochan Temple, Kashi Vishwanath Corridor and
Temple, Ganga Aarti at Varanasi Ghat
 Prayagraj: Sangam Sthal, Hanuman Mandir, Shankar Viman Mandapam and Bharadwaj Ashram.

Previous Year Questions
1. Mention various Festivals celebrated in Uttar Pradesh.
2. Discuss briefly about various fairs in India.
Expected Question
1. D istinguish between the ‘Budhhist Jayanti’ and
‘Mahavir Jayanti’ festivals in India.
2. Write a short note on the national festivals of India.
3. What are the challenges and significance of the Uttar
Pradesh Kumbh Mela?
4. O n the occasion of Diwali, Ayodhya bagged the
Guinness World record for the largest display of oil
lamps. Elucidate.
5. Write a brief note on the Bateshwar Fair of Uttar
Pradesh.

v v v

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 16 Cultural Institution in India
A number of major organizations are responsible for
India’s artistic and cultural heritage, including the
Archaeological Survey of India, the Indian National Trust
for Art and Cultural Heritage. India has many hundreds
of museums, the oldest of which is The Indian Museum
Kolkata, founded in 1814. The National Museum and
the National Gallery of Modern Art are both situated in
New Delhi. There are major museums in Mumbai and
Chennai, state museums throughout the country, site
museums associated with the Archaeological Survey of
India, and museums managed by trusts and foundations.
16.1 MAJOR CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS
IN INDIA
Archaeological Survey of India
z Year of Establishment: 1861
z Place: New Delhi
z Chairman/President: General Janhwij Sharma
Ministry: Ministry of Culture
z
Objective
z It is the premier organization for the archaeological
research and protection of the cultural heritage of the
nation.
z Maintenance of ancient monuments and archaeological
sites and remains of national importance is the
prime concern of the ASI.
z One of the more specialized and one in the kind
projects by the ASI is their Underwater Archaeology
Wing. The ASI also has several diplomas and degrees
for studying archaeology from the Institute of
Archaeology in New Delhi.
The Archeological Survey of India (ASI) discovered
two 1200-year-old miniature votive stupas near Sarai
Tila mound on the premises of ‘Nalanda Mahavihara’
in Nalanda District of Bihar.
About the Discovery:
z These two votive stupas (offered in fulfillment of
a vow) were discovered near Sarai Tila mound
within the premises of ‘Nalanda Mahavihara.
z These, carved from stone depicting Buddha figures,
are around 1200 years old.
z The stupas, carved from stone, depict Buddha
figures.
National Archives of India (NAI)
z Year of Establishment: 1891
z Place: New Delhi
z Chairman/President: Shri G. Kishan Reddy
z Ministry: Ministry of Culture
Objective
z The National Archives of India is the custodian of the
records of enduring value of the Government of India.
z It has a vast corpus of records viz., public records,
private papers, oriental records, cartographic
records and microfilms, which constitute an
invaluable source of information for scholars-
administrators and users of archives.
z The National Archives of India is the repository of the
non-current records of the Government of India and
is holding them in trust for the use of administrators
and scholars.
z It was set up in March 1891 in Calcutta (Kolkata)
as the Imperial Record Department and subsequent
to the transfer of the National Capital from Calcutta
to New Delhi in 1911 and it was shifted to its present
building in 1926.
Indian National Trust for Art and
Cultural Heritage (INTACH)
z Year of Establishment: 1984
z Place: New Delhi
z Chairman/President: Maj.Gen. (Retd) L.K.Gupta

Objective
z Today INTACH is recognized as one of the world’s
largest heritage organizations, with over 190
Chapters across the Country. In the past 31 years
INTACH has pioneered the conservation and
preservation of not just our natural and built heritage
but intangible heritage as well.
z It operates through various divisions such as
Architectural Heritage, Natural Heritage, Material
Heritage, Intangible Cultural Heritage, Heritage
z Education and Communication Services (HECS), Crafts
and Community Cell, Chapters, INTACH Heritage
Academy, Heritage Tourism, Listing Cell and Library,
Archives and Documentation Centre.
z Protect and preserve India’s living, built, and natural
heritage by undertaking necessary actions and
measures.
z Document unprotected buildings of archaeological,
architectural, historic and aesthetic significance, as
well as the cultural resources, as this is the first step
towards formulating conservation plans.
Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts
z Year of Establishment: 1987
z Place: New Delhi
z Chairman/President: Sh Rambahadur Rai
Objective
z The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
established in memory of Smt. Indira Gandhi, is
visualized as a center encompassing the study and
experience of all the arts.
z To serve as a major resource center for the arts,
especially written, oral and visual source materials
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WALLAH
z To undertake research and publication programmes
of reference works, glossaries, dictionaries
and encyclopedias concerning the arts and the
humanities.
Additional Information
During the 36th Foundation Day celebrations of the
Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA),
the Vedic Heritage Portal was launched by the Union
Home Minister and Union Culture Minister.
Craft Council of India
z Year of Establishment: 1964
z Place: Tamil Nadu
z Chief Executive: Claire Whitaker Obe
Objective
z To help ensure
sustainable livelihoods
through crafts.
z To help ensure growth
for artisans and their
families through
opportunities for education and training.
z To help bring technology, design, marketing and
entrepreneurial skills for self-reliance within
changing markets at home and abroad.
z To promote research and documentation that can
help conserve tradition and provide resources for
future development.
Prime Minister Museum and Library
(Nehru Memorial Museum & Library)
z Year of Establishment: November 14, 1964
z Place: Teen Murti House, New Delhi
z Chairman: Nripendra Misra
z Ministry: Ministry of Culture
Objective
z On Jawaharlal Nehru’s 75th birth anniversary on
November 14, 1964 Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan,
President of India, formally dedicated the Teen Murti
House to the nation and inaugurated the Nehru
Memorial Museum.
133
z Founded as an autonomous institution, the Nehru
Memorial Museum and Library (NMML), is dedicated
to the objective of promoting advanced research on
Modern and Contemporary India.
z On 1 April 1966, the Government set up the Nehru
Memorial Museum and Library Society to manage
the institution, which has today emerged as a place
of pilgrimage for the Indian masses on the one hand
and as a premier research centre and a forum for
intellectual activity on the other.
Initially, the Museum was set up in the eastern wing of
z
the Teen Murti House and the Library in the western
wing. With the rapid growth of research material in
the Library over the years, there was a pressing need
for more space. An exclusive Library building was
constructed adjacent to the Teen Murti House and
inaugurated by Shri V. V. Giri, President of India, in
January 1974.
z Over the past four decades, the NMML has emerged as
a premier institution of research on the Indian history
and society of the modern and contemporary period.
The central government has renamed the Nehru
Memorial Museum and Library (NMML) to the Prime
Minister Museum and Library. The name has been
formalized on India’s 77th Independence Day.
National Mission for Manuscripts
z Year of Establishment: February 2003
z Place: New Delhi
z Chairman: Prof. Kuldeep Chand Agnihotri
z Ministry: Ministry of Tourism and Culture
Objective
z The Mission seeks to unearth and preserve the vast
manuscript wealth of India.
z India possesses an estimate of ten million
manuscripts, probably the largest collection in the
world. These cover a variety of themes, textures
and aesthetics, scripts, languages, calligraphies,
illuminations and illustrations.
National Mission for Manuscripts
z The Mission has the mandate of identifying,
documenting, conserving and making accessible the
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manuscript heritage of India. We see a national effort
in the form of a mission for manuscripts as a logical,
radical and urgent response to a very contemporary
challenge- of reclaiming the inheritance contained in
manuscripts, often in a poor state of preservation.
z NMM is working towards fulfilling its motto,
‘conserving the past for the future’. It has emerged
as a movement, undoubtedly the most popular
and effective among all the heritage conservation
initiatives in the country.
Sahitya Akademi
z Year of Establishment: 12 March 1954
z Place: New Delhi
z President: Sri Madhav Kaushik
Objective
z For the development of Indian letters and to set high
literary standards, to foster and co-ordinate literary
activities in all the Indian languages and to promote
through them all the cultural unity of the country.
z Though set up by the Government, the Akademi
functions as an autonomous organization.
z Akademi gives 24 awards annually to literary works in
the languages it has recognized and an equal number
of awards to literary translations from and into the
languages of India, both after a year-long process of
scrutiny, discussion and selection.
z The Akademi has launched Centres for Translation in
Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Kolkata and Delhi, and an
Archive of Indian Literature in Delhi.
z Languages Recognised: Besides the 22 languages
enumerated in the Constitution of India, the
SahityaAkademi has recognised English and
Rajasthani as languages in which its programme may
be implemented.
Sangeet Natak Akademi
z Year of Establishment: 1953
z Place: Rabindra Bhavan, 35 FerozeShah Road,
New Delhi
z Chairman: Sandhya Purecha
z Ministry: Ministry of Culture
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Objective Lalit Kala Academy
z Sangeet Natak Akademi, the apex body in the field of z Year of Establishment: 5th August 1954
performing arts in the country, was set up in 1953 for z Place: New Delhi
the preservation and promotion of the vast intangible
z Chairman: V. Nagdas
heritage of India’s diverse culture expressed in forms
of music, dance and drama. z Ministry: Ministry of Culture
z To coordinate the activities of regional or State Objective
Academies of dance, drama and music;
z In pursuance of the objectives set out in the
Constitution, the organization functions through
its General Council, Executive Board and other
Committees.

z To promote research in the fields of Indian dance,

drama and music and for this purpose, to establish
a library and museum, etc.
z To co-operate with such similar academies as there
may be and other institutions and associations for the
furtherance of its objects and for the enrichment of z Lalit Kala Akademi, the youngest of the three
Indian culture as a whole; Akademies founded by Govt. of India, establishes to
z To encourage the exchange of ideas and enrichment direct its focus on activities in the field of Visual Arts.
of techniques between the different regions in regard In his inaugural speech Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
to the arts of dance, drama and music; had stated “The Akademi must work to preserve the
z To encourage, where necessary, the establishment of glorious traditions of the past and enrich them by the
theatre centres, on the basis of regional languages, work of our modern artists”.
and co-operation among different theatre centres; z Akademi has preserved and documented a permanent
collection of the highest order that reflects the vitality,
z The President of India, Smt Droupadi Murmu complexity and unfolding patterns of contemporary,
presented the Sangeet Natak Akademi’s Fellowships modern, folk and tribal art in India.
(Akademi Ratna) and Sangeet Natak Akademi
z Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi along with its Regional
Awards (Akademi Puruskar) for the year 2019,
Centres situated at Chennai, Lucknow, Kolkata,
2020 and 2021 in New Delhi on February 23, 2023.
Bhubaneswar, Garhi (New Delhi) and sub-centres
Sangeet Natak Akademi at Shimla, Ahmedabad, Agartala, Patna presents
New Delhi exhibitions workshops, camps lectures, retrospectives
Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellows (Akademi Ratna) shows and many other art activities of unparalleled
1. Saroja Vaidyanathan significance.
2. Sadanam Krishnankutty
3.
4.
Darshana Jhaveri
Chhannu Lal Mishra
16.2 FAMOUS CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS
5. A K C Natarajan OF UTTAR PRADESH
6. Swapan Chaudhuri
7. T. V.Gopalakrishnan
8. Tijan Bai Uttar Pradesh Sangeet Natak Academy
9. Bharat Gupt z Year of Establishment: November 13, 1963
z Place: Lucknow
z The Akademi’s fellowship (Akademi Ratna) carries
a purse money of Rs. 3,00,000/- (Rupees Three Objective
Lakhs only) and Academy Awards (Akademi
z To coordinate and develop music, dance and drama
Puraskar) carry a purse money of Rs. 1,00,000
arts in the state, which in its long journey of more
(Rupees One Lakh only). The award also carries a
than half a century has been promoting music, dance,
Tamrapatra and Angavastram.
drama, folk music and folk drama.

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z It is doing an important work of promoting, promoting
and preserving the traditions of where the Academy
has performed the responsibility of promotion and
protection of arts and artists.
z They have been archived, while the work of identifying
new talents and bringing them in front of art lovers
has also been done, which is necessary to preserve
the tradition of arts.
z When it was established by the state government
for the upgradation, promotion and preservation
of the performing arts of the state, it was named
Uttar Pradesh Natya Bharti, which got the present
name of Uttar Pradesh Sangeet Natak Akademi on
September 02, 1969 at Lucknow.
Kathak has an important place in classical dances,
and gharanas like Lucknow and Banaras in Uttar
Pradesh have contributed significantly to this dance.
The Academy also works to expand its activities
through the Kathak Center established under the
Academy. Creating and staging programs is also a
part of the objectives of the Academy, while doing
new experiments with the aim of giving life to the
Kathak tradition of Lucknow Gharana through the
Kathak Center. The center mainly has arrangements
for training. Along with this, workshops, seminars,
lectures, demonstrations are also organized from
time to time. The ‘Naman’ program organized in the
memory of Kathakacharya Pt.Lachhu Maharaj has
gained international recognition and famous Kathak
artistes participate in it.
Bhatkhande Music Institute
z Year of Establishment: 1926
z Place: Lucknow
Objective
Indian music education was brought and structured in
z
this system in the beginning of the twentieth century.
Two stalwarts of Indian music in this century, Pandit
Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Pandit Vishnu
Narayan Bhatkhande led and developed two strong
and parallel traditions of this institutionalization of
music education and training system.
136
z This institution was inaugurated by the then governor
of Awadh Sir William Marris and was named after
him as “Marris College of Music’’. On 26th March
1966, the state Government of Uttar Pradesh brought
this college under its control and aptly renamed
it after its founder as “Bhatkhande College of
Hindustani Music.”
z Bhatkhande Music Institute Deemed University is also
a much sought after destination for seekers of music
from Europe, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh
and Central and East Asian Countries. Many of these
students from these countries are pursuing education
in Indian Classical Music.
National Kathak Institute
z Year of Establishment: 1988-89
z Place: Lucknow
z Director: Shri Suman Kumar
Objective
z The National Institute of Kathak was established in
the year 1988-89 at Lucknow as an autonomous
institute under the Department of Culture.
z The purpose of the institute is to record the traditions
of various gharanas of Kathak, the only classical
dance of Uttar Pradesh, encourage young talents,
patronise senior artists, promote Kathak dance and
research on lost and new aspects, and establish a
Kathak museum.
z While actively working in the promotion, protection
and promotion of Kathak dance, the institute conducted
many activities in the interest of children, youth and
senior artists related to this classical dance and dance.
z In the last 30 months especially, this dance style
has gained an important place in public awareness
due to its grandeur and interestingness and people’s
curiosity about this dignified dance style and classical
music has awakened. In this short span of time, the
National Institute of Kathak has given adequate
expansion to Kathak.
Bhartendu Natya Academy
z Year of Establishment: 1975
z Place: Lucknow
Objective
z In memory of Bhartendu Harishchandra, father
of Modern Hindi Drama, Department of Culture,
Government of Uttar Pradesh established Bhartendu
Natya Kendra in August, 1975 aiming to impart
professional training in various aspects of theatre.
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 Systematic training in dramatic arts commenced on
5th April, 1976.
z Two Year Diploma Course started in 1981 along with
the institute being renamed as Bhartendu Natya
Academy of Dramatic Arts (BADA) popularly
known as BNA. Financed by Department of Culture,
Government of Uttar Pradesh. Academy is an
Autonomous Body.
z Introductory knowledge of theory and practicality
of Film and T.V. Production process is also imparted
to final year students to make the trainees aware of
the media. After completion of a two year Diploma
Course, a one year internship is also provided to
deserving candidates.
v v v
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In summary, cultural institutions are essential for
preserving and promoting cultural heritage, fostering
community engagement, supporting education and
research, and enhancing the overall quality of life. They
play a crucial role in the preservation, promotion, and
appreciation of diverse cultural expressions, contributing
to the social, economic, and intellectual development of
societies.
Expected Questions
1. What are the objectives of Bhartendu Natya Academy?
2. Describe the institution “Prime Minister Museum and
Library”.
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 17 Awards and Honors

The Government of India presents a wide range of
awards and honors to recognize and acknowledge
the outstanding contributions and achievements of
individuals and organizations in various fields.
Awards given out. So far, 45 people have received the
Bharat Ratna Award from the government.
In 1954, the Government of India instituted two civilian
awards-Bharat Ratna & Padma Vibhushan.

17.1 BHARAT RATNA

The Bharat Ratna is the nation’s highest civilian award.
It is given in honor of exceptionally excellent service or
accomplishment in any area of human endeavor. It is
handled differently than the Padma Award. The Prime
Minister of India recommends candidates for Bharat
Ratna to the President of India. There is no requirement
for formal Bharat Ratna recommendations. A single
year can only have a maximum of three Bharat Ratna

Year Name of Awardee Field

C. Rajagopalachari Activist, statesman, and lawyer
1954 C. V. Raman Physicists, mathematicians, and scientists
Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan India’s first Vice-President and second President
Bhagwan Das Activist, philosopher, and educationist
1955 Jawaharlal Nehru Author & Activist and served as the Prime Minister of India
M. Visvesvaraya Civil engineer, statesman, and Diwan of Mysore
1957 Govind Ballabh Pant 1st Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh & Activist
1958 Dhondo Keshav Karve Social reformer and educator
Bidhan Chandra Roy Physician, political leader, philanthropist, educationist, and social worker
1961
Purushottam Das Tandon Speaker of the United Provinces Legislative Assembly
1962 Rajendra Prasad Activist, lawyer, statesman, and scholar
Zakir Husain Activist, economist, and education philosopher served as a Vice-
1963 Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University and the Governor of Bihar
Pandurang Vaman Kane Sanskrit scholar, known for his literary work
1966 Lal Bahadur Shastri He has Served as 2nd Prime Minister of India
1971 Indira Gandhi First women Prime Minister of India
1975 V. V. Giri Trade Unionist
1976 K. Kamaraj Independence activist, Ex Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu
Year Name of Awardee Field
1980 Mother Teresa Founder of the Missionaries of Charity.
1983 Vinoba Bhave Social reformer, and a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi
1987 Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan First noncitizen, independence activist
1988 M. G. Ramachandran Actor cum politician, Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu
B.R. Ambedkar Social reformer and leader of the Dalits
1990 Nelson Mandela Leader of the Anti-Apartheid Movement (South Africa) & President
of South Africa
Rajiv Gandhi He was the 9th Prime Minister of India serving from 1984 to 1989.
1991 Vallabhbhai Patel Freedom fighter & First Deputy Prime Minister of India
Morarji Desai Activist, and Prime Minister of India
Abul Kalam Azad Activist and first Minister of education
1992 J. R. D. Tata Industrialist, philanthropist, and aviation pioneer
Satyajit Ray Director, filmmaker, writer, novelist
Gulzarilal Nanda Activist, and interim Prime Minister of India.
1997 Aruna Asaf Ali Activist
A.P.J Abdul Kalam Aerospace and defense scientist
M. S. Subbulakshmi Carnatic classical vocalist
1998
Chidambaram Subramaniam Former Minister of Agriculture of India
Jayaprakash Narayan Activist, and social reformer
Amartya Sen Economist
1999
Gopinath Bordoloi Activist
Ravi Shankar Musician, sitar player
Lata Mangeshkar Singer
2001
Bismillah Khan Hindustani classical shehnai player

2009 Bhimsen Joshi Hindustani classical vocalist

C. N. R. Rao Chemist and professor, author

2014
Sachin Tendulkar Cricketer
Madan Mohan Malaviya Scholar and educational reformer.
2015 Atal Bihari Bajpayee Elected nine times to the Lok Sabha, twice to the Rajya Sabha, and
served as the Prime Minister of India for three terms.
Pranab Mukherjee Indian politician, & leader in the INC

2019 Nanaji Deshmukh A social activist from India in the field of education, health, and rural
self-reliance.
Bhupen Hazarika Indian playback singer, musician, singer, poet, & filmmaker in Assam.

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 Additional Information
z The oldest recipient of the Bharat Ratna Award was Dhondo Keshav Karve. He was a social reformer who
received a prize in 1958, the year of his 100th birthday.
z The youngest Bharat Ratna recipient in India was Sachin Tendulkar who received in the year 2014 when he
was 40 years old.
17.2 PADMA AWARDS
Padma Awards, which were instituted in the year 1954,
are announced every year on the occasion of Republic
Day except for brief interruption (s) during the years
1978 and 1979 and 1993 to 1997.
The award is given in three categories, namely,
z Padma Vibhushan for exceptional and distinguished
service;
z Padma Bhushan for distinguished service of a high
order; and
z Padma Shri for distinguished service.
All persons without distinction of race, occupation, position
or sex are eligible for these awards. However, Government
servants including those working with PSUs are not eligible
for these Awards (except Govt. doctors and scientists).
The award seeks to recognize works of distinction and is
given for distinguished and exceptional achievements/
service in all fields of activities/disciplines. An
illustrative list of the fields is as under:
z Art (includes Music, Painting, Sculpture, Photography,
Cinema, Theatre etc.)
z Social work (includes social service, charitable service,
contribution in community projects etc.)
z Public Affairs (includes Law, Public Life, Politics etc.)
z Science & Engineering (includes Space Engineering,
Nuclear Science, Information Technology, Research &
Development in Science & its allied subjects etc.)
140
z Trade & Industry (includes Banking, Economic Activities,
Management, Promotion of Tourism, Business etc.)
z Medicine (includes medical research, distinction/
specialization in Ayurveda, Homeopathy, Sidhha,
Allopathy, Naturopathy etc.)
z Literature & Education (includes Journalism, Teaching,
Book composing, Literature, Poetry, Promotion
of education, Promotion of literacy, Education
Reforms etc.)
z Civil Service (includes distinction/excellence in
administration etc. by Government Servants)
z Sports (includes popular Sports, Athletics, Adventure,
Mountaineering, promotion of sports, Yoga etc.)
z Others (fields not covered above and may include
propagation of Indian Culture, protection of Human
Rights, Wild Life protection/conservation etc.)
All nominations received for Padma Awards are
placed before the Padma Awards Committee, which is
constituted by the Prime Minister every year. The Padma
Awards Committee is headed by the Cabinet Secretary
and includes Home Secretary, Secretary to the President
and four to six eminent persons as members. The
recommendations of the committee are submitted to the
Prime Minister and the President of India for approval.
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Awardees in 2023
z These Awards are conferred by the President
of India at ceremonial functions which are held
at Rashtrapati Bhawan usually around March/
April every year. For the year 2023, the President
has approved conferment of 106 Padma Awards
including 3 duo cases (in a duo case, the Award is
counted as one) as per list below.
z The list comprises 6 Padma Vibhushan, 9 Padma
Bhushan and 91 Padma Shri Awards. 19 of the
awardees are women and the list also includes
2 persons from the category of Foreigners/NRI/
PIO/OCI and 7 Posthumous awardees.
Awardee from Uttar Pradesh
z Padma Vibhushan: Shri Mulayam Singh Yadav
(Posthumous) :Public Affairs
z Padma Shri
 Shri Radha Charan Gupta: Literature & Education
 Shri Dilshad Hussain: Art
 Shri Arvind Kumar: Science & Engineering
 Shri Uma Shankar Pandey: Social Work
 Shri Manoranjan Sahu: Medicine
 Shri Ritwik Sanyal: Art
 Shri Vishwanath Prasad Tiwari: Literature
17.3 NATIONAL FILM AWARDS
These awards are presented annually to recognize
outstanding contributions to the Indian film industry
in various categories, including Best Film, Best Director,
Best Actor, Best Actress, and many others.
z Established in 1954, the National Film Awards is one
of the most prestigious and much looked-forward-to
events in the country. The Hon’ble President of India
presents the awards culminating in showcasing of
award-winning films for the public.
z Since the first awards given for the films of 1953, the
National Film Awards have come a long way. Over
the years the number of the awards has increased.
Complete list of Dadasaheb Phalke Award 2023 Winners
Category
Best Film
Film Of The Year
Best Actor
Best Actress
Dadasaheb Phalke International Film Festival Awards Rekha
2023 for Outstanding Contribution In The Film Industry
Best Playback Singer (Male)
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Initially called ‘State Awards’, with two President’s
Gold Medals, two certificates of merit and silver
medals for a dozen regional films, for the first
six years, it was the practice to give the Regional Best
Award to the National Best Film itself. Over the years
the number of awards increased.
z Separate awards for artists and technicians were
instituted in 1968 for the films of 1967, Nargis Dutt
and Uttam Kumar being the first actress and actor
to get the Best Actress (then called Urvashi) and Best
Actor (then called Bharat) Awards respectively.
z The National Film Awards also include the very
prestigious Dadasaheb Phalke Lifetime Achievement
Award which is presented to those who have spent
their entire career contributing to Indian Cinema.
17.4 THE NATIONAL FILM AWARDS 2023
z In the category of Best Actress, the talented Olivia
Colman took home the award for her mesmerizing
performance in “Empire of Light.” Equally impressive
was Taron Egerton, who won Best Actor for his
remarkable portrayal in “Tetris.”
z The Best Newcomer award went to Noah Caplan, who
showcased exceptional talent in the film “Stepping
Stone,” sponsored by By Valentine.
International Film Festival of India
z Founded in 1952, the International Film Festival of
India (IFFI) is one of Asia’s most prominent film
festivals. Since 2004, it has moved to its permanent
venue at Goa, where it is jointly organized by
DFF and the State Government of Goa, as per the
International Film Festival guidelines and protocols.
z The Festival aims at providing a common platform
for the cinemas of the world to project the excellence
of the film art; contributing to the understanding
and appreciation of film cultures of different nations
in the context of their social and cultural ethos,
and promoting friendship and cooperation among
people of the world.
Name Film/Song/Series/Serial
- Kashmir Files
- RRR
Ranbir Kapoor Brahmastra Part 1: Shiva
Alia Bhatt Gangubai Kathiawadi
-
Sachet Tandon Maiyya Mainu from Jersey
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17.5 SAHITYA AKADEMI AWARD
z Since its founding in 1954, the Sahitya Akademi Award
has given recognition to the best books of literary
excellence that have been published in any of the main
Indian languages recognized by the Akademi.
z The award amount, which was Rs. 5,000 since
inception, had been enhanced to Rs. 10,000 from 1983,
Rs. 25,000 from 1988, Rs. 40,000 from 2001, Rs. 50,000
from 2003 and is now Rs. 1,00,000 from 2009.
z The first Awards were given in 1955. It is given
annually to those who have achieved literary merit
and created new trends by publishing their works,
prose or poetry, in any of the 24 major languages
recognised by the Akademi.
Recently, The Sahitya Akademi has announced a list
of 22 recipients of its Bal Sahitya Puraskar and 20
winners of its Yuva Puraskar. Hindi has been given to
Atul Kumar Rai’s for his novel ‘Chandpur Ki Chanda’.
17.6 JNANPITH AWARD
z Since its inception, the Bharatiya Jnanpith has been
working devotedly for the fulfillment of its twin
objectives. Its research and publication programme
started with the resurrection of a monumental classic.
z A temple at Moodbidri in Karnataka, had stored for
centuries an unidentified manuscript of palm-leaves.
The Jnanpith’s painstaking research revealed that it was
a ninth century commentary in Prakrit and Sanskrit,
of a second century A.D. work, Sat-kahandagama, in
Prakrit on the doctrine of karman.
142
The sixth & last part of this great work, Mahabandha,
z
has been published in seven volumes, comprising
three thousand pages, by Bharatiya Jnanpith.
z It is given to those Indian citizens who compose
literature in one of the 22 languages listed in the
Schedule VIII of the Indian Constitution and English.
z Goan writer Damodar Mauzo has received the
prestigious Jnanpith Award 2023, the country’s
highest literary honor, from state Governor
P S Sreedharan Pillai.
17.7 SARASWATI SAMMAN
z The Saraswati Samman is an annual award for
outstanding prose or poetry literary works in any of
the 22 languages of India listed in Schedule VIII of
the Constitution of India. It is named after the Hindu
goddess of knowledge, Saraswati.
z The Saraswati Samman was instituted in 1991 by the
K. K. Birla Foundation. It consists of Rs. 15,00,000, a
citation and a plaque.
z In 2022, Sivasankari got the award for “SuryaVamsam”
(Memoir) in Tamil.
17.8 AWARDS IN NEWS
Paramveer Chakra Award
z On Parakram Diwas (January 23), Prime Minister
Narendra Modi named the 21 largest islands of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands after Param Vir Chakra
winners.
z The largest unnamed island will be named after the
first Param Vir Chakra winner, the second largest
unnamed island will be named after the second Param
Vir Chakra winner and so on.
z This step will be an everlasting tribute to our heroes,
many of whom made the supreme sacrifice protecting
the sovereignty and integrity of the nation.
Additional Information
z Keeping in view the historical significance of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and to honor the
memory of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, the Dross
Islands were renamed as Netaji Subhash Chandra
Bose Islands in 2018.
z Neil Dweep and Havelock Island were renamed as
Shaheed Dweep and Swaraj Dweep respectively.
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Uttar Pradesh Gaurav Samman
z The Yogi Adityanath government will now honor
those who bring laurels to the state.
z Rs 50 lakh has been released for this new Samman
Yojana on behalf of Raghunath Prasad Verma, Under
Secretary, Government of Uttar Pradesh.
z Such eminent people of Uttar Pradesh, who achieve
glory at the national and international level by their
individual efforts in various genres and work areas
such as art and culture, science and technology, will
be eligible to get Uttar Pradesh Gaurav Samman.
z Artists selected for Uttar Pradesh Gaurav Samman
will be given 11 lakh cash cash marks, Angvastra,
Tamravastra and Memento nomination form.
z Uttar Pradesh government Yash Bharti award
(started by the Samajwadi Party government) was
discontinued two years back.
z Under the Yash Bharti Samman, Rs 11 lakh was given
to such preference, who brought laurels to the state
in the country and abroad. In its place, the Ministry
of Culture has now started the Uttar Pradesh Gaurav
Samman.
Gandhi Peace Prize
z The Gandhi Peace Prize for 2021 will be conferred on
Gita Press, Gorakhpur, one of the largest publishers
of religious texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, the
Ramayana and the Upanishads.
z The decision to confer the award on Gita Press was
taken by a jury headed by the Prime Minister.
About Gandhi Peace Prize
z The annual Gandhi Peace Prize was instituted
in 1995 on the occasion of the 125th birth
anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi.
z Tribute to Gandhi’s ideals: The award serves as
a tribute to the ideals championed by Mahatma
Gandhi.
z Recognition of contributions: It is an annual
award presented to individuals and institutions for
their noteworthy contributions to social, economic,
and political transformation through non-violence
and Gandhian methods.
v v
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z Award components: The Gandhi Peace Prize
includes a prize amount of 1 crore rupees, a plaque,
and a citation.
z Open to all: The award is open to individuals and
organizations regardless of nationality, race, creed,
or gender
About Gita Press
z It is one of the world’s largest publishers, having
published 41.7 crore books in 14 languages,
including 16.21 crore Bhagavad Gita.
z It completes 100 years of its establishment in
2023.
z As per the Ministry of Culture, the institution has
never relied on advertisement in its publications,
for revenue generation. Gita Press along with its
affiliated organizations, strives for the betterment
of life and the well being of all
Miscellaneous
z At a formal ceremony held at the Rashtrapati Bhavan
Cultural Centre on July 24, 2023, President Draupadi
Murmu presented Dr. Amiya Kumar Samal, Assistant
Professor, Department of Geo-Science, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, with the prestigious National
Young Geo-Science Award – 2022 (NGA) of the
Ministry of Mines.
z On 9 May 2023, President Draupadi Murmu awarded
Shaurya Chakra to CRPF Assistant Commandant
Amit Kumar from Meerut for showing indomitable
courage during the operation against terrorists in
Jammu and Kashmir.
Expected Questions
1. Discuss the significance of national awards like the
Bharat Ratna in recognizing exceptional contributions
to society.
2. Examine the role of state-level awards and honors in
promoting talent and excellence within Uttar Pradesh.
3. Analyze the influence of awards like the Booker Prize
and the Academy Awards (Oscars) on Indian literature
and cinema.
v
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 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites

A landmark or location that has received legal
protection under a global agreement overseen by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) is known as a World Heritage
Site. UNESCO names places as World Heritage Sites
when they are considered to be of significant cultural,
historical, scientific, or other value. “Cultural and
natural heritage around the world considered to
be of outstanding value to humanity” is said to be
present at these locations.
18.1 CULTURAL HERITAGE
For the purposes of the World Heritage Convention, the
following are considered as “cultural heritage”:
z Monuments: architectural works, works of
monumental sculpture and painting, elements or
structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions,
cave dwellings and combinations of features, which
are of outstanding universal value from the point of
view of history, art or science;
z Groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected
buildings which, because of their architecture, their
homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of
outstanding universal value from the point of view of
history, art or science;
z Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature
and of man, and areas including archaeological sites
which are of outstanding universal value from the
historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological
points of view.
z Natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas of
outstanding universal value from the point of view of
science, conservation of natural beauty.
Banking on World Heritage in G20
Summit 2023
The Banking on World Heritage is the first time
that banknotes depicting UNESCO World Heritage
Sites around the world have been presented of the
G20 member nations at Indira Gandhi National
Centre for Arts (IGNCA), New Delhi.
z The theme G20 proposed, “Vasudhaiva
Kutumbakam” or “One Earth One Family One
Future” perfectly matches the “Outstanding
Universal Values of World Heritage.”
z It includes Indian banknotes with images of
famous landmarks, such as the 10 rupee note
with the Sun Temple, the 20 rupee note with the
Ellora caves, the 500 rupee note with the Red
Fort, and two 100 rupee notes with pictures of the
Kanchenjunga Mountains and Gujarat’s “Rani Ki
Vav” stepwell.

18.2 NATURAL HERITAGE

For the purposes of the World Heritage Convention, the
following are considered as “natural heritage”:
z Natural features consisting of physical and biological
formations or groups of such formations, which are
of outstanding universal value from the aesthetic or
scientific point of view;
z Geological and physiographical formations and
precisely delineated areas which constitute the
habitat of threatened species of animals and plants
of outstanding universal value from the point of view
of science or conservation;
z The bank notes in our country have 17 languages
of India, which reflects inclusivity and unity in
diversity.
Selection Criteria
For a property to be included on the World Heritage List,
the World Heritage Committee must find that it meets
one or more of the following criteria:
 1. To represent a masterpiece of human creative
establish regional archaeological units at Bareilly
genius;
and Ayodhya Commissionaires to preserve the
2. To exhibit an important interchange of human cultural heritage.
values, over a span of time or within a cultural z To Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard
area of the world, on developments in architecture the world’s cultural and natural heritage Special
or technology, monumental arts, town-planning efforts will be made to ensure the protection of 143
or landscape design; monuments identified by the state archaeological
3. To bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony department through conservation and restoration
to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is work.
living or which has disappeared; z To Enhance the scope of Heritage City
4. To be an outstanding example of a type of Development and Augmentation Yojana
building, architectural or technological ensemble (HRIDAY) to cover more cities other than Mathura
or landscape which illustrates (a) significant and Varanasi. An integrated approach will be
stage (s) in human history; adopted to promote and popularise the cultural
heritage of the state. This will include organising
5. To be an outstanding example of a traditional
festivals and fairs around cultural themes and
human settlement, land-use, or sea-use which
taking the issues to schools and other institutions.
is representative of a culture (or cultures),
or human interaction with the environment
especially when it has become vulnerable under World Heritage Site
State/UT Year
the impact of irreversible change; (Cultural)
6. To be directly or tangibly associated with events Kakatiya Rudreshwara Telangana 2021
or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, (Ramappa) Temple
with artistic and literary works of outstanding
universal significance. (The Committee considers Dholavira Gujarat 2021
that this criterion should preferably be used in
Jaipur City Rajasthan 2020
conjunction with other criteria);
7. To contain superlative natural phenomena or Victorian and Art Deco Maharashtra 2018
areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic Ensemble of Mumbai
importance;
Historic City of Gujarat 2017
8. To be outstanding examples representing major Ahmedabad
stages of earth’s history, including the record
of life, significant ongoing geological processes The Architectural Work Chandigarh 2016
in the development of landforms, or significant of Le Corbusier which
geomorphic or physiographic features; is an Outstanding
9. To be outstanding examples representing Contribution to the
significant ongoing ecological and biological Modern Movement
processes in the evolution and development Archaeological Site of Bihar 2016
of terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine Nalanda Mahavihara
ecosystems and communities of plants and (Nalanda University)
animals;
10. To contain the most important and significant Rani-Ki-Van Gujarat 2014
natural habitats for in-situ conservation of Hill Forts of Rajasthan Rajasthan 2013
biological diversity, including those containing
threatened species of outstanding universal value The Jantar Mantar Rajasthan 2010
from the point of view of science or conservation.
Red Fort Complex Delhi 2007
The protection, management, authenticity and integrity
of properties are also important considerations. Champaner-Pavagadh Gujarat 2004
Archaeological Park
According to Sustainable Development
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharashtra 2004
Goals (SDG11) Terminus
z All monuments with historical and cultural
importance would be protected and conserved. The Rock Shelters of Madhya 2003
Government of Uttar Pradesh will take steps to Bhimbetka Pradesh

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 World Heritage Site World Heritage
State/UT Year State/UT Year
(Cultural) Site (Natural)
Mahabodhi Temple Bihar 2002 Nanda Devi Uttarakhand 1988,
Complex at Bodh Gaya National Park & 2005
Valley of Flowers
Mountain Railways of Tamil Nadu 1999
India Sundarbans West Bengal 1987
National Park
Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi Delhi 1993
Kaziranga Assam 1985
Qutb Minar and its Delhi 1993 National Park
Monuments, Delhi
Keoladeo Ghana Rajasthan 1985
Buddhist Monuments at Madhya 1989 National Park
Sanchi Pradesh
Manas Wildlife Assam 1985
Elephanta Caves Maharashtra 1987 Sanctuary
Great Living Chola Tamil Nadu 1987
Temples World Heritage Site
State/UT Year
(Mixed)
Group of Monuments at Karnataka 1987
Pattadakal Khangchendzonga National Sikkim 2016
Park
Churches and Convents Goa 1986
of Goa
Fatehpur Sikri Uttar Pradesh 1986
Additional Information
Rabindranath Tagore’s Nobel Prize-winning
Group of Monuments at Karnataka 1986
Hampi hometown of Santiniketan has been suggested for the
UNESCO World Heritage List.
Khajuraho Group of Madhya 1986
Monuments Pradesh z The recommendation was made by the International
Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), which
Group of Monuments at Tamil Nadu 1984
Mahabalipuram is the advisory body to the UNESCO World Heritage
Centre, based on a file moved by the Centre.
Sun Temple, Konarak Orissa 1984
UNESCO World Heritage Sites are a testament to
Agra Fort Uttar Pradesh 1983
humanity’s commitment to preserving and celebrating
Ajanta Caves Maharashtra 1983 the richness and diversity of our planet’s cultural
Ellora Caves Maharashtra 1983 and natural heritage. They serve as beacons of global
cooperation, education, and appreciation for the
Taj Mahal Uttar Pradesh 1983 wonders of our world, highlighting the importance of
responsible stewardship for the benefit of current and
World Heritage
State/UT Year future generations.
Site (Natural)
Great Himalayan Himachal Pradesh 2014 Expected Questions
National Park
1. Describe the natural and cultural heritage with suitable
Western Ghats Maharashtra, Goa, 2012 examples.
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
2. Explore the cultural diversity of World Heritage Sites
and Kerala
in Uttar Pradesh.

v v v

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 19 GI Tags

Geographical Indications of Goods are called as that aspect of industrial property which refer to the geographical
indication related to a country or to a place situated where the country or place of origin of that product. India, as a
member of the World Trade Organization.
z The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999 has come into effect from 15th
September 2003.
z In addition, the qualities, characteristics or reputation of the product should be essentially due to the place of origin.
Since the qualities depend on the geographical place of production, there is a clear link between the product and
its original place of production.
19.1 IMPORTANT GI TAGS OF INDIA IN NEWS
GI Tag and information

Mithila Makhana
z Mithila Makhana is locally known as Makhan in Mithila. Its Botanical name is Euryale Ferox Salisb. This
special variety of Aquatic Fox Nut is cultivated in the Mithila region of Bihar and adjoining areas of Nepal. Fox
Nuts are rich in protein and fiber and have various micronutrients such as magnesium, calcium, phosphorus
and iron.
z The Maithili Brahmin community extensively uses and distributes Makhana during the Kojagara Puja festival.

Alibag White Onion

z The onions have low pungency, sweet taste, ‘no tear’ factor, low pyruvic acid, high protein, fat and fibre content,
besides high antioxidant compounds (quercetin).
z The famed white onion of Alibag in Maharashtra’s Raigad district has earned itself a ‘Geographical Indication’,
giving the crop a unique identity and wider markets.

Rewa Turmeric
z The flourishing district of Rewa derives its name from the sacrosanct Rewa River Known to be an important
agricultural hub of Madhya Pradesh, this district produces some of the finest quality maize, paddy, soybean,
wheat, pulses, onion, coriander, linseed, tomato, potato, mango, guava and medicinal herbs and spices like
turmeric and ashwagandha.
z limestone and coal has a separate combination of deep black soils, medium deep black soils and mixed red and
black soils.

Jagtial Mango
z Jagtial district in Telangana state is prominent for its turmeric, groundnuts, chili, rice and mangoes.
z This district has earned a name both in India and outside for its delicious mango produce.

Nagarkurnool Mango
z Nagarkurnool district in Telangana state is Known for its different Varieties of mango.
z The mango saplings were purchased from Nuzividu (Andhra Pradesh).

Basohli Painting
z The Pahari School of Art developed in the mountainous regions of Basohli, Kulu, Guler, Kangra, Jammu, and
Garhwal between the 17th and 19th centuries. The first center of the Pahari school materialized at Basohli with
its own bold and flamboyant style.
z The style is toned down in the Guler paintings with its finer drawings and calmer colors. Subsequently, the
paintings from Jammu portrayed more clarity and simplicity of individualisation and ultimately transformed into
rhythmic, graceful paintings from Kangra. Basohli, nevertheless, gave birth to the Pahari style and paved the way
for other centers to flourish.

Gamosa of Assam
z The Assamese traditional scarf, “gamosa”, the identity of Assam, has received the Geographical Indication (GI)
tag from the Geographical Indications (GIs) Registry, five years after the claim was made by the state directorate
of handloom and textiles.

Wanaparthy Groundnut
z It is one of the most famous oilseed crops cultivated in India.
z Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Telangana are
the top eight states in the country in terms of area under cultivation and Production.

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Nizamabad Turmeric
z The world’s largest producer of turmeric in India is the state of Telangana under cultivation and production of Turmeric.
z The districts of Nizamabad, Nirmal and Jagtial comprises belt of Turmeric.
z The Nizamabad turmeric in particular is exported to the USA, Iran, UAE, Malaysia and EU etc.

Ujjain Batik Print

z Batik Printing is one among the various kinds of prints, and is much known in the Ujjain city. Bed sheets, dress
materials and more contain this kind of print.
z There are numerous kinds of prints that are manufactured in the city and are in demand all over the nation in
Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh).
z Melted wax is used for the kind of batik printing and dyed. Batik is a combination of art, as there is a free moment
of the hand while working on the patterns which are artistically done and craft, the way the whole process of
waxing and designing takes place.

Tandur Redgram
z Tandur red gram, a pigeon pea variety grown in about 3.74 lakh hectares of Telangana.

Ladakh Apricots
z These apricots from Ladakh are the most common fruit of the Ladakh province in Northern India.
z Their vibrant orangish red colours, sweet and sour taste make them special in their own way. They have velvety
skin and flesh, not too juicy but definitely sweet and smooth.
z They are free from cholesterol and saturated fats. These apricots are treated with sulphur dioxide in compliance
with FDA standards, so as to maintain their colour and shelf life.

Morena Gajak
z Gajak Sweets prepared with til (sesame seeds), Ghee, Jaggery or Sugar, Kaju (in particular variant only). Gajak
sweets carry the authentic taste and aura of Morena (Madhya Pradesh) within their texture.The gajaks of Morena
are very well-known and is exported internationally.

Gwalior Handmade Carpet

z Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh) is famous for their handmade carpet weaving art. Weaving a hand-knotted rug
requires a great deal of skill and often a lot of time to produce.
z The quality and very often the cost of a hand-knotted rug is determined by the number of knots per square inch.
In this case, a higher density means better quality.

Mata ni Pachedi
z Mata Ni Pachedi is a handmade textile of Gujarat meant to be an offering in the temple shrines which house the
Mother Goddess.
z The name is derived from the Gujarati words ‘Mata’ meaning ‘mother goddess’, ‘Ni’ meaning ‘belonging to’ and
‘Pachedi’ meaning ‘back’. The goddess forms the central figure in the design, flanked by other elements of her story.

Gond Painting
z The Gond painting from Madhya Pradesh received the Geographical Indication (GI) tag. Now it would ​​protect and
recognize tribal artists and require committee approval for non-tribal artists to use the art.
z It is used for industrial products, foodstuffs, agricultural products, spirit drinks, and handicrafts.
z The main source of Gond painting has been Dindori District in Madhya Pradesh.

Ladakh Sea Buckthorn Agricultural Ladakh (UT)

z Sea buckthorn is an ecologically and economically important plant species and is currently being domesticated
in various parts of the world including India.
z Sea buckthorn achieved a unique status in the trans-Himalayan Ladakh because of its immense medicinal and
therapeutic potential.

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19.2 RECENT GI TAGS OF UTTAR PRADESH
Product Information

Sambhal craft z The horn-bone handicraft products made in Sambhal

are immensely popular. The raw material used for
making these craft items is procured from dead
animals that makes this industry environment friendly.
Sambhal’s horn and bone products are known all over
the world.
z Sambhal district headquarter is Bahjoi town. It was
created on 28 September 2011 as one of three new
districts in the state.

Tarkashi Art z Tarkashi is a technique of inlaying brass, copper or

silver wires in wood. It is a unique and artistic product
of this district. It is used for decorating jewelry boxes,
name plaques and other similar items.
z Tarkashi can be seen in door panels, trays and lamps,
sandook (chest), decorative pieces, tables, flower pots
etc. Usually, Sheesham wood is used for this art in
Mainpuri.

Gaura stone z Mahoba is known nationwide for its exquisite gaura

stone craft. Gaura stone craft is made of radiant white
coloured stone that is predominantly found in this
region. The stone craft holds a very special place in the
world of art and craft. Gaura stone has a soft texture.
z Mahoba is a small district of Uttar Pradesh that is a
part of Chitrakoot Division. Mahoba town is the district
headquarters. It lies in the Bundelkhand region. It
lies near to historical places like Khajuraho, Laundi,
Kulpahar, Charkhari, Kalinjar, Orchha, and Jhansi.

Aligarh Locks z It belongs to the field of Hardware.

z Aligarh lock is already included in ODOP. GI tag was
issued on 31 March 2023.
z Aligarh is the center of hardware and artware trade
with the lock industry.
z Johnson gave it a modern look. He started lock
manufacturing by connecting blacksmith’s work with
power presses.

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Bakharia Brassware z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z One of the old economies of Sant Kabir Nagar depends
on Bras Industries (Cluster). There are many posts of
kitchens made in Bakhira with Bras Industries which
is famous all over India.

Banda Shazar Patthar Craft z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.

z Shazar is known as Dendrite Agate. It is an equivalent
stone and found in different colors and patterns.
z It is found exclusively in Banda’s Ken River. The
specialty of the stone is colorful patterns of leaves,
trees, mountains, animals, symbols etc.

Pratapgarh Aonla z It belongs to the field of Agriculture.

z Pratapgarh has risen in ranks as the top producer of
Aonla fruit. It is a multi-purpose fruit, is extremely rich
in vitamin C, helps cure gastro-intestinal disorders, is
said to encourage youth and liveliness and is exported
all over India and possibly over world in the form of
sweets and medicines.

Ramnagar Bhanta z It belongs to the field of Agriculture.

z It grows bigger in size when fog starts in winter,”adding
the plants with dark green broad foliage bear huge
rounded fruits of light green color. There are three-four
fruits per plant, each weighing 0.8-2.5 kg. Ramnagar
Bhanta is used for preparing Chokha and is in high
demand and is cultivated in Ramnagar, Varanasi and
Chandauli etc.

Muzaffarnagar Gur (jaggery) z The Uttar Pradesh government declared jaggery

as Muzaffarnagar’s indigenous and specialized
product under the ‘one district one product’ scheme.
Muzaffarnagar was once renowned for housing Asia’s
biggest ‘Gur Mandi’ (jaggery market), about which
traders and local residents boast in today’s era.

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Banarasi Pan z Banarasi Paan is made up of Betel leaf of ‘Paan Patta’,
which is the primary ingredient of the paan.
z This leaf that contains all the other material is then
folded to make a pocket, which is called Paan.
z It contains paan-supari, gulkand, saunf, chuna, katha,
kesar chutney, chuara, coconut, tutti frutti or sugar,
elaichi and jaiphal powder.

Nagina Wood Craft z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.

z Nagina is popularly famous for its wooden handicrafts,
especially ebony work. It is also known as ‘Wood Craft
City’. A neighborhood called Luhari Sarai is famous for
its wooden work and world known artisans.

Hathras Hing z Cotton milling, knives, the spice asafoetida or “hing”,

and Desi Ghee products were the main industries. The
last two continue to thrive. Cotton milled at the Purana
Mill Compound was exported around the world.

Banaras Langda Aam z It belongs to the field of Agriculture.

z India is the largest producer of mangoes in the world,
It is an important agricultural fruit of the country
along with fresh vegetables, fresh fruits and major
spices.
z Popular types of mangoes found in India are
Alphonsos or Hapus from Maharashtra, Badami from
Karnataka,Chausa from Himachal Pradesh, Dasheri
from Uttar Pradesh, Keshar for Gir etc.

19.3 OTHER IMPORTANT GI TAGS OF UTTAR PRADESH

Geographical Indication Information

Lucknow Chikan Craft

z The Chikan Craft is the transformation of the finest cotton and organdie fabrics into flowing yards of magic by
the skillful artistic work of the artisans of Lucknow.
z The Geographical Indication Registry gave the Lucknow Chikan the GI status in 2008.
z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.

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Mango Malihabadi Dussehri
z In 2009-2010, the Geographical Indication Registry gave the Lucknow Chikan the GI status.
z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z The pulpy and rich-flavored summer fruit grown in Lucknow.

Banaras Brocades and Sarees

z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z Banaras Brocades and Sarees are hand-made using fine woven silk, cotton and decorated with intricate designs
using zari (gold and silver thread); Such ornamentation is that makes the sarees heavy.
z Banaras weaving techniques is Kadhua weaving but due the demand of products now the Fekua weaving are
used here with the support of Jacquard and Shuttle.
z In 2009 the Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status.

Handmade Carpet of Bhado

z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z This type of hand-knotted carpet is manufactured on a vertical wooden loom by a unique weaving technique with
the use of Knots, Iron Punja. Thick cotton and woolen yarns are used in the warp ends while wool is used in the
direction of Width. Such looms are equipped with a double layer of warp ends, separator rods and platforms.
z The Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status in 2010.

Agra-Durrie
z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z Agra durrie is a flat-woven pileless rug in various varieties of designs and colors. These may have simple stripes
running from end to end or rectilinear sections or simple patterns in single color or multi-colour. There are
3 types of durries namely those made of cotton or jute, hemp, wool and waste cloth. All durries are woven in
the weft-faced plain weave.
z The Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status in 2013.

Farrukhabad Prints
z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z It is the artistic cotton printing industry. India has long been a pioneer in the art of calico printing with many
craftsmen. A cross the country engaged in creating designs that are typical of their culture, history and heritage.
z The main traits ‘tree of life’ motif of Farrukhabad stamped on cloth and silk is one of the highest foreign exchange
earners and this district is noted for its export quality silk and cotton prints.
z The Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status in 2013.

Lucknow Zardozi
z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z Zardozi works are a range of embroidery products done by the devoted artisans.
z Zardozi work has two distinct categories known as Karchobi and kam dani. The embroidery is done on velvet or
heavy satin generally for tent coverages, furnishings, etc. Kamdani generally refers to the work done on muslin,
silk and other fabrics.
z The Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status in 2013.

Kalanamak Rice
z It belongs to the field of Agriculture.
z Kala Namak rice is grown in the Tarai area of Siddharth Nagar.
z It is famous for its taste and fragrance. It is also featured in speciality rice of the world by the Food and Agricultural
Organisation who are headquartered in Rome.
z Kala namak Rice has been in cultivation since the Buddhist period.
z The Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status in 2013.

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Firozabad Glass
z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z The glassware handicrafts are prepared by using a unique mouth blown technique, a rare form of blowing air
through a glass pipe to provide required shape, reflecting perfect craftsmanship.
z The Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status in 2013.

Kannauj Perfume
z It belongs to the field of Manufactured.
z A perfume usually derived from flowers, musk, camphor, saffron, and sandalwood, is extremely popular in the
city of Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh.
z The perfume does not contain chemicals, alcohol.
z The Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status in 2014.

Kanpur Saddlery
z It belongs to the field of Manufactured.
z The British officers living in Kanpur started the British India Corporation in the ‘Harness Factory’ known as the
‘Ordnance Equipment Factory’ at Kanpur to serve the needs of the British Army and Police.
z The Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status in 2014.

Moradabad Metal Craft

z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z Moradabad metal engraving is a fine art. Such craft shows the traces of Islamic culture. The princely states of
India demanded not only enameled jewelry but also enameled utensils such as wine cups.
z In 2013,the Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status.

Saharanpur Wood Craft

z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z In 2014, the industry was given a GI tag.
z The industry was limited to household carving done on Sheesham wood which would be readily available in
Saharanpur and the finished product would be supplied to markets of Delhi and Lucknow, but overtime with
increased demand the use of wood like Mango and Keekar also grew with greater mechanisation.The products
range from furniture, wall decors, wooden panels, antiques, gift items etc.

Meerut Scissors
z It belongs to the field of Manufactured.Meerut Scissors GI does not pertain to a specific Gram Panchayat or village
or hamlet.
z It brings into its fold all the manufacturers residing in the district belonging to the ‘manufactured’ category of
GI products.
z Meerut Scissors are entirely made from scrap metal and by hand.

Khurja Pottery
z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z Khurja pottery is a pottery work manufactured in Khurja of the Bulandshahr district. A large portion of the
ceramics used in the country is supplied by Khurja hence it is called “The Ceramics City“.
z In 2015, the Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status.

Nizamabad Black Clay Pottery

z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z The pottery is unique for its dark shining body engraved with silver Pattern.
z In 2015,the Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status.

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Banaras GulabiMeenakari Craft
z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z The Banaras specialty is its Pink Meena on white enamel and often employs a lotus motif. Many people work on
the product - goldsmith, Ghaaria (engraver), the Chitteria (designer), and Jadiya who applies the gems on the gold.
z In 2015, the Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status.

Varanasi Wooden Lacquerware & Toys

z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z Varanasi and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh are famous for their wooden lacquerware and wooden toys. The craftsmen
here claim to belong to the Kunder Kharadi Samaj. It is an ancient craft and Varanasi has been a major center
for the same. Sal or sheesham is the raw material used. Designs are created with the natural veins of the wood.
z In 2015,the Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status.

Handmade Carpets of Mirzapur

z It belongs to the field of Handmade Carpets.
z The Mirzapur Handmade Durrie is one among a multitude of styles of floor coverings. They are defined essentially
by the use of the “Panja” for weaving, and are also known for their fairly bold colors and patterns.
z Mirzapur Handmade Durries are woven in a weft faced plain weave on simple horizontal looms. Woolen yarns
are mostly used; this gives them a sturdy and flat appearance. The mix of traditional and contemporary designs
is evidence of a high degree of workmanship.

Banaras Metal Repouse Craft

z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z In Varanasi, this art is mainly practiced by the Kasera Community in the Kaashipura area. The art has been
preserved in the lanes (gali) of old Varanasi for generations, making various types of faces of God & Goddess,
Gold and Silver dresses, traditional ornaments, doors and wall decoration in the temples, gold and silver
utensils.

Varanasi Glass Beads

z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z It has the largest glass bead exports from India and has the biggest number of skilled artisans for the same. This
craft is complete handicraft as it involves minimal intervention of tools.
z The craftsmanship has been passed mostly orally from one generation to the other. Two types of producers exist
here: small scale industries and artisans working from home with their own resources.

Allahabad Surkha
z It belongs to the field of Agriculture.
z It is known as an apple-shaped guava that is unique and different as compared to guavas grown in other parts
of India.
z In 2007-2008, the Geographical Indication Registry gave the GI status.

Gorakhpur Terracotta
z It belongs to the field of Handicraft.
z Gorakhpur Terracota is an age-old craft of the Gorakhpur region.
z The craftsmen belong to ‘Prajapati’ caste, the Terracotta craft of Gorakhpur is an example of traditional art form
thriving over generations. The craftsmen make various animal figures like, horses, elephants, camel, goat, ox etc
with hand applied ornamentation. For this, refined clay is partially dried & cast, molded or hand worked into
desired shape.

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 Paniyala
z With the permission of GI tag, the taste of Paniyala produced in Lachhipur and nearby villages of Gorakhpur will
now reach the country and the world.
z The dying Paniyala trees will be preserved, Paniyala gardens will be prepared, and people will enjoy the sour-sweet
taste of its fruit. ¾ It is known that Paniyala is like Jamun in shape and color and its taste is sour-sweet.

Mahoba Gaura Patthar Hast Shilp Handicraft

z Mahoba is known nationwide for its exquisite Gaura stone craft.
z Gaura stone craft is made of radiant white-coloured stone that is predominantly found in this region. Gaura stone
has a soft texture.

Mainpuri Tarkashi Handicraft Uttar Pradesh

z Tarkashi is a technique of inlaying brass, copper or silver wires in wood.
z It is a unique and artistic product of Mainpuri district. It is used for decorating jewelry boxes, name plaques and
other similar items.
z The amazing art of tarkashi can also be seen in door panels, trays and lamps, sandook (chest), decorative pieces,
tables, flower pots.

Sambhal Horn Craft Handicraft Uttar Pradesh

z The horn-bone handicraft products made in Sambhal are immensely popular.
z The raw material used for making these craft items is procured from dead animals that makes this industry
environment friendly. Sambhal’s horn and bone products are known all over the world.
z Sambhal offers a wide range of decorative horn-bone handicrafts that are available in different attractive looks,
designs and patterns.

Amroha Dholak Handicraft Uttar Pradesh

z The Amroha Dholak is a musical instrument made of natural wood. Mango, jackfruit and teakwood are preferred
for making the dholak.
z Wood from mango and sheesham trees are used to carve the multiple sized and shaped hollow blocks, which are
later fitted with animal skin, mostly goatskin, to create the instrument.

Baghpat Home Furnishings Handicraft Uttar Pradesh

z Baghpat’s home furnishing product and running fabrics in cotton yarn since generations, and only cotton yarn
are used in the handloom weaving process.
z Baghpat is famous for weaving on the frame loom instead of the pit loom for generations.

Barabanki Handloom Product Handicraft Uttar Pradesh

z The district (Barabanki) is known for fabric knitting through the handloom. Owing to the high demand for cotton
clothing, there is also a huge demand for handloom products prepared using traditional techniques.
z Weaving is done in urban as well as rural areas of the district. Presently, about 11200 weavers are engaged in
textile weaving in the district.

Kalpi Handmade Paper Handicraft Uttar Pradesh

z The handmade paper-making cluster at Kalpi is a huge cluster, engaging more than 5,000 craftsmen and
approximately 200 units.

Geographical Indication (GI) tags play a crucial role in recognizing and protecting the unique cultural, historical,
and geographical attributes of products and goods originating from specific regions. These tags not only safeguard the
interests of local communities and producers but also help consumers make informed choices about the authenticity
and quality of the products they purchase.

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156 Art and Culture UPPSC

WALLAH
 20 Coins in India
The evolution of coins in India is a long and rich history
that spans over 2,500 years. Indian coinage has evolved
through various dynasties, empires, and periods, each
leaving its unique mark on the design, material, and
significance of coins. The study of coins is known as
Numismatics. Here’s a brief overview of the evolution
of coins in India:
20.1 ANCIENT INDIA
India’s earliest coins were made of various metals such
as copper, silver, and gold. These coins often featured
inscriptions in various ancient scripts.
Mauryan Empire (c. 322-185 BCE)
The Mauryan Empire, under the reign of Emperor
Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, issued some
of the earliest standardized coins in India. These coins
were made of silver and copper and featured punch-
marked symbols and legends.
z The first known coins were ‘Punch Marked’ coins
produced between the 7th and 6th centuries BC and
the first century AD.
z These coins were made using a process known as
“punch marking,” hence the name. These bear
symbols that were each individually punched on the
coin and are primarily composed of silver.
z Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya’s prime minister,
wrote about this in his Arthashastra treatise.
Punch marked coins included rupa rupa (silver),
suvarnarupa (gold), tamra rupa (copper), and
sisarupa (lead).
z The sun and six-armed wheel were the two symbols
that were most consistently employed among the
others. The currency was known as a Karshapana and
weighed 32 rattis with an average silver content of
50–54 grains.
Indo-Greeks
z Aside from the portraits of the issuers, Greek gods
and goddesses are extensively featured on the silver
coins of the Indo-Greeks, which are characterized by
Hellenistic traditions.
z The legends on their Indian coins were written in two
different languages: Kharosthi on one side and Greek
on the other. Zeus, Hercules, Apollo, and Pallas Athene
were the Greek deities frequently depicted on Indo-
Greek coins.
Kushans
z Oesho (Shiva), the moon god Miro, and Buddha were
all portrayed on Kushan coinage, which was produced
in the Central Asian region.
z Vima Kadphises is largely credited with creating the
earliest Kushan coins.
z The Kushan Dynasty is known for its purest gold
coins.
z The iconographic shapes of Kushan coins were
typically taken from Indian, Greek, Mesopotamian,
and Zoroastrian mythology.
z The three main Indian deities portrayed were Siva,
Buddha, and Kartikeya.
Satavahanas
z It is disputed when they came to power, with estimates
ranging from 270 BC to 30 BC.
z Their coins were primarily made of copper and lead,
though there are also documented silver issues.
z These coins included animal themes like elephants,
lions, bulls, horses, etc., frequently in opposition to
natural motifs like hills, trees, etc.
z The Kshatrapa types served as inspiration for the
images and bilingual legends on the silver coins of
the Satavahanas.
Gupta Empire (c. 4th to 6th century CE)
z The Gupta Empire is often considered a golden
period for Indian coinage. Gupta coins were known
for their artistic value, featuring various deities, rulers,
and inscriptions. They were made of gold, silver, and
copper.
z The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins
(dinaras) in ancient India.
z The Kushanic custom of having the ruler on the
obverse and an Indian god with a Brahmi legend on
the reverse was continued by the Guptas (4th–6th
centuries AD).
z The first Gupta rulers, Samudragupta, Chandragupta
II, and Kumaragupta, are credited with creating the
first known coins.
z These coins frequently mark dynastic succession as
well as important social and political occurrences,
such as marriage alliances and horse sacrifices, or
else highlight the artistic and personal achievements
of royal members (Lyrist, Archer, Lion-slayer, etc.).
20.2 MEDIEVAL INDIA
During the medieval period, various dynasties like the
Cholas, Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Delhi Sultanates issued
their own coinage. Islamic rulers introduced Arabic
inscriptions on their coins.
Mughal Empire (1526-1857)
z The Mughal emperors, particularly Akbar, standardized
and improved the design of coins. Mughal coins were
known for their intricate calligraphy, with inscriptions
in Persian and Arabic script.
z Gold and silver coins, known as “mohur” and “rupee,”
were widely used.
Large numbers of gold coins were produced by the
Vijayanagara Empire (14th–17th centuries), along
with pure silver and copper.
z Pagodas, which are larger denominations, feature
a running warrior and the sign of the dagger.
z Fanams of gold - a fractional measure
z Units of fractional silver, taras
z Transactions with copper coins on a daily basis.
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158
20.3 MODERN INDIA
British Colonial Era (17th-20th Centuries)
The British East India Company and later the British
Crown introduced a new monetary system in India.
They issued coins in various denominations, including
the rupee and anna.
Post-Independence (1947-Present)
After India gained independence in 1947, the country
adopted a decimal coinage system. The Indian
government introduced the Indian Rupee (INR) as the
official currency, and coins in various denominations
like paise, rupees, and more have been issued since then.
The main considerations influencing the coinage policy
of Republic India over time have been:
z The incorporation of symbols of sovereignty and
indigenous motifs on independence;
Coinage Reforms with the introduction of the metric
z
system;
z The need felt from time to time to obviate the
possibility of the metallic value of coins rising beyond
the face value;
z The cost-benefit of coinisation of currency notes
Modern Coins
Modern Indian coins feature images of prominent
leaders, historical landmarks, and cultural symbols. They
are typically made of various metals, including copper,
nickel, and bimetallic compositions. One rupee, two
rupees, five rupees, ten rupees, and twenty rupees are
the current coin denominations that are in circulation.
Four mints located in Kolkata, Mumbai, Hyderabad,
and Noida, India, produce all of these.
The coins are an invaluable source of reconstructing
ancient Indian history. They depict the glorious history
of our past. In many cases, they tell us about the reigning
period of kings, the economy of kingdoms, the extent of
empires and about trade during that period. They also
throw light on the art and religion of the period to
which they belong.
Expected Questions
1. Examine the evolution of coinage in India from the
punch-marked coins of the Mauryan period to the
medieval period.
2. Explain the evolution of Coins in India.
Art and Culture UPPSC
WALLAH