Elements of Sets and Logic Lecture Manal by Chebet Eli

Eli Chebet chebeteli4@gmail.com tel.
0773218574/0776503832
ELEMENTS OF SETS AND LOGIC

Lecture Manual
By
Eli Chebet
Bsc. Ed (IU), Msc.(Cand.)
Chebeteli4@gmail.com
0773218574/0776503832
December 2023
Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Eli Chebet chebeteli4@gmail.com tel. 0773218574/0776503832
COURSE OUTLINE
A SET THEORY
 Definition of a set
 Set membership
 Some special sets
 Set cardinality
 Universal set and Venn diagram
 Complement of a set
 Subsets
 Set Equality
 Power Set and Its Cardinality
 Set operations (intersections, disjoint sets, union sets, set difference, set
description)
 De Morgan’s laws
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC
 What is logic?
 Why is it useful?
 Why study logic?
 Why is logic important?
 Logic as formal language
 What is an argument?
 Deduction and inference
 Examples

BASIC CONCEPTS OF SET THEORY: SYMBOLS AND

TERMINOLOGIES
A set is a collection of objects.
A well-defined set has no ambiguity as to what objects are in the set or
not.
For example:
The collection of all red cars
The collection of positive numbers
The collection of people born before 1980
The collection of greatest baseball players
All of these collections are sets. However, the collection of greatest

baseball players is not well-defined.
Normally we restrict our attention to just well-defined sets.
Definition Of A Set
word description
The set of odd counting numbers between 2 and 12
the listing method
{3,5,7,9,11}
set-builder notation or defining property method
{x | x is a counting number, x is odd, and x < 12}
Note:
Use curly braces to designate sets,
Use commas to separate set elements
The variable in the set–builder notation doesn’t have to be x.
Use ellipses (...) to indicate a continuation of a pattern established before
the ellipses i.e. {1,2,3,4,...,100}
The symbol | is read as “such that”
Set membership
An element or member of a set is an object that belongs to the
set
The symbol ∈ means “is an element of”
The symbol ∉ means “is not an element of”
Generally capital letters are used to represent sets and lowercase letters are
used for other objects i.e. S = {2,3,5,7}
Thus, a ∈ S means a is an element of S
Is 2 ∈ {0,2,4,6}?
Is 2 ∈ {1,3,5,7,9}?
Some special sets
N — Natural or Counting numbers: {1, 2, 3, ...}
W — Whole Numbers: {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
I — Integers: {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
𝑃
Q — Rational numbers: { 𝑄
| p,q ∈ I,q≠ 0 }
 ℝ -Real Numbers: { x | x is a number that can be written as a

decimal }
 Irrational numbers: { x | x is a real number and x cannot be written
as a quotient of integers√ √}. Examples are: π, √2, and 3√ 4
∅ — Empty Set: { }, the set that contains nothing

 U — Universal Set: the set of all objects currently under
discussion

NOTE.
Any rational number can be written as either a terminating decimal (like 0.5,
0.333, or 0.8578966) or a
repeating decimal (like 0.333 or 123.392545)
The decimal representation of an irrational number never terminates and
never repeats
The set { ∅ } is not empty, but is a set which contains the empty set
Membership questions
Is ∅ ∈ { a, b, c } ?
Is ∅ ∈ { ∅, { ∅ } } ?
Is ∅ ∈ { { ∅ } } ?
Is
Set cardinality
The cardinality of a set is the number of distinct elements in the set
The cardinality of a set A is denoted n(A) or |A|

If the cardinality of a set is a particular whole number, we call that set
a finite set
If a set is so large that there is no such number, it is called an infinite set
(there is a precise definition of infinity but that is beyond the scope of this
course)
Note: Sets do not care about the order or how many times an object is
included. Thus, {1,2,3,4}, {2,3,1,4}, and {1,2,2,3,3,3,4,4} all describe the
same set.

Example.
If A = {3,5,7,9,11},
B = {2,4, 6,…,100},
C = {1,3,5, 7,...}
D = {1,2,3,2,1},
E = {x | x is odd, and x < 12}
n(A) =?
n(B) =?
n(C) =?
n(D) =?
n(E) =?
Universal set and Venn diagram
Universe of Discourse – the set containing all elements under discussion for
a particular problem
In mathematics, this is called the universal set and is denoted by
U in some cases, it is denoted by 𝜀
Venn diagrams can be used to represent sets and their relationships to
each other
U

The “Universe” is represented by the rectangle
Sets are represented with circles, shaded regions, and other shapes within
the rectangle.
Complement of a set
𝐴′
The set 𝐴′ , the shaded region, is the complement of A

𝐴′ , is the set of all objects in the universe of discourse that are not elements
of A
𝐴′ = {x | x ∈ U and x∉A}
Exercise
Let = {1,2,3, … ,8}, R = {1,2,5,6} S = {2,4,5,8}
What is 𝑅′ ? 𝑠 ′ ? 𝑈?̇
Subsets
Suppose U = {1,2, 3,…,8}, R = {1,2,5,6}, S = {2,4,5,7,8}, and T = {2,6}
What element(s) are in the area where all the sets overlap?
What element(s) are in the area outside all the sets?
T
S

Set Equality
Set Equality: the sets A and B are equal (written A = B) provided:
1. every element of A is an element of B, and
2. every element of B is an element of A
In other words, if and only if they contain exactly the same elements
{a, b, c} = {b, c, a} = {a, b, a, b, c}?
{3} = {x | x ∈ N and 1 < x < 5}?
{x | x ∈ N and x < 0} = {y | y ∈ Q and y is irrational}?
Set Equality and Proper Subsets
Another definition for set equality: Sets A and B are equal if and only if:
1. A ⊆ B and
2. B⊆A
3. Proper Subset: A ⊂ B if A ⊆ B and A ≠ B
Note
Any set is a subset of itself
Any set is a subset of the universal set
The empty set is a subset of every set including itself
Exercise

Is the left set a subset of the set on the right?

{a,c,d,f}
{a,b,c}
{c,a,b}
{a,b,c}
{a,b,c}
{a,b,c}
{a} {a,b,c}
{a,c} {a,b,c,d}
{a,c} {a,b,d,e,f}
X X
∅ {a,b,c}
∅ ∅
Power Set and Its Cardinality

Power Set: ρ(A) is the set of all possible subsets of the set A
For example, if A = {0,1}, then ρ(A) = {∅,{0},{1},{0,1}}
Find the following power sets and determine their cardinality.
ρ(∅) =
ρ({a}) =
ρ({a,b}) =
ρ({a,b,c}) = Is there a pattern?

Another Method for Generating Power Sets

A tree diagram can be used to generate the set is P(A). Each element of
either in a particular subset, or it’s not.
∅
{ a}
∅
{ a} { a,b }
∅ { b}
{ a} { a,c } { a,b } { a,b,c }

∅ { c} { b} { b,c }
The number of subsets of a set With cardinality n is 2n

The number of proper subsets is 2 − 1(Why?)
n
Set operations (intersections, disjoint sets, union sets, set difference, set
description)
Intersection
The intersection of two sets, A ∩ B, is the set of elements common to
both:
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
In other words, for an object to be in A ∩ B it must be a member of both
A
and B.

Disjoint sets: two sets which have no elements in common.
I.e., their intersection is empty: A ∩ B = ∅
The union of two sets, A ∪ B, is the set of elements belonging to either of

the sets: A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
In other words, for an object to be in A ∪ B it must be a member of
either A or B.
The difference of two sets, A−B, is the set of elements belonging to set A
and not to set B: A − B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∉ B}
Note: x∉B means x ∈ 𝐵′

Thus, A − B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ 𝐵′

= A ∩ 𝐵′
Find a) {1,2,3,4,5}−{2,4,6} = b) {2,4,6}−{1,2,3,4,5} =
Note, in general, A − B ≠ B – A
The union of two sets, A ∪ B, is the set of elements belonging to either of
the sets: A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
In other words, for an object to be in A ∪ B it must be a member of
either A or B.
Determine
{ a, b, c }∪{ b, f, g } =
=
{ a, b, c } ∪ { a, b, c } For any A, A ∪ A
=
{ a, b, c }∪{ a, b, z }
=
{ a, b, c }∪{ x, y, z } =
=
{ a, b, c }∪∅ =
For any A, A ∪ ∅ =
For any A, A ∪ U
For any A ⊆ B, A ∪ B

De Morgan’s Laws
De Morgan’s Laws: For any sets A and B
(A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B0
(A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B0
Using A, B, C, ∩, ∪, −, and 0, give a symbolic description of the
shaded area in each of the following diagrams. Is there more
than one way to describe each?
A B A B
C C

Inclusion/Exclusion Principle
For any two finite sets A and B:
n(A ∪ B) = n(A)+ n(B)− n(A ∩ B)
In other words, the number of elements in the union of two sets is the sum of the
number of elements in each of the sets minus the number of elements in their
intersection.
How many integers between 1 and 100 are divisible by 2 or 5?
Let,
A = {n | 1 ≤ n ≤ 100 and n is divisible by 2}
B = {n | 1 ≤ n ≤ 100 and n is divisible by 5} n(A) = n(B) = n(A ∩ B) = n(A
∪ B) =
Back to Counting with Venn Diagrams
A B
ality of the sets:
𝐴𝑈𝐵𝑁𝐶’
𝐴𝑈𝐵𝑈𝐶’
𝐴’𝑈𝐵’𝑈𝐶’
(𝐴𝑈𝐵)’𝑁𝐶

Venn diagram in 3 sets

Question 1.
Write all parts of the venn diagram using set notation.
Question 2.
Julie Ward, who sells college textbooks, interviewed freshmen on a
community college campus to determine what is important to today’s
students. She found that Wealth, Family, and Expertise topped the list. Her
findings can be summarized as:
n(W) = 160 n (E ∩ F) = 90 n(F) = 140 n(W ∩ F ∩ E) = 80 n(E) =

130 n(E’) = 95 n(W ∩ F) = 95 n[(W ∪ F ∪ E)’] = 10
How many students were interviewed?

LOGIC
What is logic?
“Logic is the beginning of wisdom, not the end”
Logic. The branch of philosophy concerned with analyzing the patterns of
reasoning by which a conclusion is drawn from a set of premises
(hypotheses), without reference to meaning or context Collins English
Dictionary)
Why is logic important?
Logic is a formalization of reasoning.

Logic is a formal language for conclusion knowledge from a small number

of premises (hypotheses or facts).
Logic provides a formal framework for representing knowledge
Logic differentiates between the structure and content of an argument
Logic as formal language
In this course, logic will be presented as a formal language
Within that formal language:
Knowledge can be stated concisely and precisely
The process of reasoning from that knowledge can be made fine
what is an argument?
An argument is just a sequence of statements.
Some of these statements, the premises, are assumed to be true and serve as a
basis for accepting another statement of the argument, called the conclusion
Deduction and inference
If the conclusion is justified, based solely on the premises, the process of

reasoning is called
deduction/ conclusion
If the validity of the conclusion is based on generalization, from the premises,
based on strong
but inconclusive evidence /proof, the process is called inference
(sometimes called induction/initiation)
This course is concerned only with deduction
Two examples
Deductive argument:
“Alexandria is a port or a holiday resort.

Alexandria is not a port. Therefore, Alexandria is a holiday resort”

Inductive/ inference argument “Most students who
did not do the tutorial questions will fail the exam.
John did not do
the tutorial questions. Therefore, John will fail the
exam”
References
 James A Anderson, “Discrete Mathematics
with
Combinatorics (2nd edition)”, Prentice-Hall, 2004
 John Truss, “Discrete Mathematics for

Computer Scientists”, Addison-Wesley,
Second Edition, 1999.
 Nimal Nissanke, “Introductory Logic and Sets

for Computer Scientists”, Addison-Wesley,
1999.
 Lectures of Martin Russell, in “Discrete

Mathematics”. Geoffrey Finch, “How to
study linguistics”, Macmillan, 1998
 J N Crossley and others, “What is

mathematical logic?”, Oxford University
Press, 1972

IBANDA UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
BED/DEP YEAR ONE SEMESTER TWO EXAMINATIONS
COURSEWORK
PMTC 111. ELEMENTS OF SETS AND LOGIC
INSTRUCTIONS:
Answer All questions
Begin each question on a fresh page
LECTURER. CHEBET ELI. TEL. O773218574/0776503832.
Question one
1. (a) Define the following terms
(i) A set ii) Membership iii) Finite set
iv) Infinite set v) Cardinality of a set vi) Universal set
vii) Intersection set viii) The union set
ix) Compliment of a x) Power of a set
(b) Describe the various notations used in set theory.
Question two
2. Use suitable Venn diagrams and shading to show that
(a) 𝐴’𝑛𝐵’ = (𝐴𝑢𝐵)’
(𝑏) 𝐴’𝑢𝐵’ = (𝐴𝑛𝐵)’
(c) In a class of 90 students, 50 offer Maths (M), 47 offer English (E)
and 5 students offer neither Mathematics nor English. Find the number
of students that offer,
(i) All the two subjects
(ii) Mathematics but not English
END

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Eli Chebet chebeteli4@gmail.com tel.

ELEMENTS OF SETS AND LOGIC

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

BASIC CONCEPTS OF SET THEORY: SYMBOLS AND

All of these collections are sets. However, the collection of greatest

The symbol ∈ means “is an element of”

The symbol ∉ means “is not an element of”

Thus, a ∈ S means a is an element of S

 ℝ -Real Numbers: { x | x is a number that can be written as a

∅ — Empty Set: { }, the set that contains nothing

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

The cardinality of a set A is denoted n(A) or |A|

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

E = {x | x is odd, and x < 12}

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

The “Universe” is represented by the rectangle

The set 𝐴′ , the shaded region, is the complement of A

Suppose U = {1,2, 3,…,8}, R = {1,2,5,6}, S = {2,4,5,7,8}, and T = {2,6}

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

{a, b, c} = {b, c, a} = {a, b, a, b, c}?

{3} = {x | x ∈ N and 1 < x < 5}?

{x | x ∈ N and x < 0} = {y | y ∈ Q and y is irrational}?

Set Equality and Proper Subsets

3. Proper Subset: A ⊂ B if A ⊆ B and A ≠ B

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Is the left set a subset of the set on the right?

Power Set and Its Cardinality

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Another Method for Generating Power Sets

{ a} { a,c } { a,b } { a,b,c }

The number of subsets of a set With cardinality n is 2n

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Disjoint sets: two sets which have no elements in common.

I.e., their intersection is empty: A ∩ B = ∅

The union of two sets, A ∪ B, is the set of elements belonging to either of

Note: x∉B means x ∈ 𝐵′

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

ality of the sets:

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Venn diagram in 3 sets

n(W) = 160 n (E ∩ F) = 90 n(F) = 140 n(W ∩ F ∩ E) = 80 n(E) =

How many students were interviewed?

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Logic is a formal language for conclusion knowledge from a small number

An argument is just a sequence of statements.

Deduction and inference

If the conclusion is justified, based solely on the premises, the process of

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

Alexandria is not a port. Therefore, Alexandria is a holiday resort”

 John Truss, “Discrete Mathematics for

 Nimal Nissanke, “Introductory Logic and Sets

 Lectures of Martin Russell, in “Discrete

 J N Crossley and others, “What is

LECTURER. CHEBET ELI. TEL. O773218574/0776503832.

Mathematics Learning Centre, Ibanda University –ASS. Lecturer. Chebet Eli

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