Brewing Learning Document v2280623

Heritage Brewing Company
Brewing knowledge
Technical brewing information
Produced by: Daniel Odendaal

6-28-2023
This document is not a guide to brewing but more information and background on brewing here and other types
of systems and approaches. This learning document is purely to broaden the horizons of brewing and possibly
expanding the understanding on why we do certain practices.
This Training document private and confidential and is for the exclusive use of Heritage Brewing Company
personnel. It may not be shared or copied.
HERITAGE BREWING COMPANY - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. UNAUTHORIZED USE, DISCLOSURE, COPYING, OR DISTRIBUTION PROHIBITED.
1
Malt Milling
The main objectives of grain milling are:
 For all grains that have a husk the main aim is to split the husk and preserve, preferably longitudinally to
expose the inner portion of the kernel, which is the endosperm, at the same time maintaining husk integrity
(if required by the relevant wort separation equipment).
 To keep the quantity of fines (flour) to a minimum to prevent the formation of a substance which will cause
excessive dough in the mash. Since our operation uses a Lauter tun this is important to consider regarding
the adjuncts we intend to use.
 To bring about complete disintegration of the endosperm while limiting flour formation so that its constituents
are accessible to enzymatic action.
Types of Milling Systems
1. Dry milling – Heritage Brewing Company is using a 2 roller mill

2. Wet milling
3. Steep conditioning milling
Dry Milling
In dry milling there are two basic (unit) operations and they are:
 Size reduction
 Particle size control or screening – In 2 roll milling only a single pass can be made so particle size is
determined by the mill gap setting and there is no screening
There are really only two main types of mills that are used in brewing commercially – hammer mills and rollers
mills. There are various types of roller mills that will be briefly covered in this document for completeness sake.
2
a) Hammer Mills
These are fairly simple machines that have been used for many years to produce flour. They have gained use in
the brewing industry with the introduction of the ‘new age mash filters’, such as the Meura 2001 Mash Filter.
Hammer milling totally crushes the grain including the husk so cannot be used in conjunction with a mash
separation system where the husk is required as part of the filter medium.
The mill has a horizontal rotating spindle bearing one or more discs which have pivoted on their edge a series of
hammers. This is surrounded by a casing which ends in a sieve. A large motor rotates the discs at high speed and
the grain is crushed and the sieves ensure no large particles go through with the grist. A critical part of this
machinery is an aspiration system due to the amount of dust produced.
They are simple machines, which are easy to maintain, but because of dust they do pose health and safety
implications and a large amount of electrical energy is required to run them.
b) Roller Mills
These are the most common types of dry mills found in breweries if dry milling is used in conjunction with either
a lauter tun or an isothermal infusion mash tun. The malt endosperm is crushed so that maximum extraction can
occur, but there is a play off between extraction and filtration as it is important to retain the integrity of the husk.
There are various types of dry mills:
 Two roller mills. These are generally used in craft breweries depending on your size and budget.
 Three, four roller mills with screens.
 Four roller mills with no screens.
 Four, five and six roller mills with two screens.
3
Six roll mills offer more effective separation and differential size reduction. Less well-modified malts can be
crushed using these systems and they are the system of choice for dry milling in modern breweries.
The following diagrams show typical layouts of these mills.
Six roller Roller Mill
4
Basically the grain is channelled through a combination of the sieves and rollers to give the required particle
distribution. It is therefore imperative that the roller gaps are very carefully controlled. This can be done by
measuring with feeler gauges or putting a copper wire through the rolls and then measuring. In modern mills this
may be measured and adjusted automatically.
Advantages of dry milling:
 Mechanical crushing is easily achieved

 Good particle size control as it may be measured using a plansifter
 Good extract potential
Disadvantages of dry milling:
 Wort separation may be slow as husk fragmentation leads to a poor filter bed
o This is especially true in 2 roll mills as grain crushing and husk preservation has to be done in one
operation. The mill setting requirements must be carefully set and maintained
 Low lauter tun loadings compared with other systems
 Maintenance is crucial
 Dust production
Grist Comparison for different separation systems
5
These grist analyses were done using a Plansifter apparatus. This is a standard method of analysis where a sample
of dry crushed malt is sieved through a set of 5 sieves with reducing mesh size. It gives an excellent indication of
the particle size distribution being produced by your mill.
This schematic also shows the important relationship between particle size distribution and wort separation
equipment that will be discussed more under wort separation. Our operation at Heritage Brewing Company is
best represented by the Mash tun representation.
6
Wet Milling
This is a type of system that became very popular during the 60’s and 70’s. A basic schematic is shown below.
Advantages of wet milling:
 Run off times are quick

 Due to proteolytic stand, less conversion time is needed
 Good lauter tun loading as the husk is kept virtually intact
Disadvantages of wet milling:
 Poorly modified malts cannot be used

 Hygiene can be an issue
 A pasty endosperm may be produced (difficult to remove from the husk)
 High levels of effluent are produced
Because of these issues it is not normal to see new wet mill installations these days.
7
C. Steep Conditioning Milling
A recent variation to dry milling is steep conditioning. This is a combination of both
Wet and dry milling and has the advantages of both with the elimination of the majority of their disadvantages.
These are the main types of mills used by by large commercial breweries no yet converted to mash filters
Steep Conditioning Milling Schematic
Malt remains dry inside the malt hopper during the entire milling operation. The conditioning chute installed
between hopper and mill has a splash pipe which intensely moistens the malt that enters the chute. The husks
moisture increases to 18-22% and then the crushed malt is pumped over to the mash tun.
Advantages of steep conditioning are:
 Less fragmentation of the husk occurs.

 Better rate of wort separation occurs.
8
 Roller gaps can be reduced.
 Better extracts obtained
Disadvantages to steep conditioning are:
 Corrosion can be a problem.

 Optimisation of contact time is critical.
 Plant soiling can be a problem.
 Density of the grist is reduced so plant sizing must be considered.
 Spent grain removal may be a problem.
9
Mashing
The objectives of the mashing process are:
 To dissolve the substances from the ingredients which are immediately soluble.
 To render soluble through enzymic action substances which are insoluble in their natural state.
 To change the chemical structure, through simultaneous enzymic action, of some of the constituents in a
planned and predictable manner to produce the desired fermentable sugar spectrum for a given beer type.
Biochemistry of Mashing
The main issue for brewers is to ensure that the mashing process allows them to produce the wort required, mainly
through enzymic action form malt or by addition (exogenous enzymes). We are primarily concerned with
carbohydrates (starch) and proteins.
Since our operations will use local adjuncts as input we will be adding additional enzymes. There is 4 main
enzyme classes to consider for endosperm to soluble component conversion from grain.
The following are the main enzymes involved:
Enzyme Action Produces Temp pH
α-amylase Random starch linkages Sugars 70°C 5.2
β-amylase Cleaves maltose from the non- Maltose 64 °C 5.5

reducing end
β-glucanase Random β-glucan linkages sugars 45 °C 6.0
Proteases Protein linkages Peptides and 50 °C 5.5

amino acids
The temperature optima of these enzymes will change depending on the barley variety and year.
10
1. Carbohydrates
The only long chain carbohydrate that we get from ghrain is starch.
As discussed previously this has two components:
 Amylose is a straight chain of glucose α 1-4 linkages.

 Amylopectin is a branched molecule that has a majority of α 1-4 linkages but also contains α 1-6 linkages at
the branch points.
Breakdown of Starch
 -amylase breaks anywhere but not close to a branch due to steric hindrance and hence can produce a whole
range of sugars, both fermentable and unfermentable.
 β-amylase nibbles from one end (the non-reducing end) but not right up to a branch and produces maltose
(two glucose sugars).
Remember that the only fermentable sugars we get from starch are glucose, maltose and maltotriose; everything
else is non-fermentable and termed dextrins.
Β-glucanase is unlikely to be active in the mash tun as there is very little left in the barley malt after mashing and
has a very low temperature optimum. It is for this reason that external enzymes will need to be added as the
adjuncts will have very low natural enzyme contents
2. Protein
11
After the malting process the barley malt will contain polypeptides, shorter peptides and amino acid as well as
proteins. Dependent on the wort spectrum required and the degree of modification of the malt it is possible to get
breakdown of proteins by malt enzymes.
The degradation is done by several groups of enzymes as shown below.
The degradation is done by several groups of enzymes:
 Carboxypeptidases attack the carboxyl end of the protein chain.

 Aminopeptidases attack the amino end of the protein chain.
 Endopeptidases attack randomly within the protein chain.
 Exopeptidases attack the ends of the protein chain.
This action produces:
 Proteins – These are insoluble and precipitate in spent grains & break
 Polypeptides – which are important for foam & haze
 Amino Acids – which are required for yeast growth
It must be stressed that in a well-modified malt this breakdown is done during the malting process and all that
happens in mashing is the dissolution of soluble components.
Adjuncts that are not malted require external protease enzyme addition to support above objectives. In many
cases proteins are integral parts or encasing starch which protects it from degradation. Thus external protease
addition will assist in making the starch bio available for the other enzyme actions.
Vessel designs
The Heritage Brewing company is designed with a cooker as well as a combined mash/Lauter vessel.
12
The grain to sugar conversion process is a 2 step process doing a cooker operation to prepare all the adjunct and
then the barley grains is mashed in to convert all the starches together
Mashing is done in a vessel that is called by several different names including mash tun, mash vessel, mash
conversion vessel and mash kettle.
The milling system supplies the cooker to produce a mash that will need to be mixed with liquor when entering
the tank. All cookers have the same features including a agitator, steam jackets for temperature control, and the
ability to CIP the vessel.
The system is so designed that the main requirements are to:
 Create optimum conditions for starch to sugar conversion

 Reduce oxygen pick-up
On designing the mash profile there are various things which need to be considered. These include the following:
 Malt quality – degree of modification, enzyme levels, protein content, starch gelatinization temperature.
 Wort required – limit extract (i.e. degree of fermentable and unfermentable extract, free amino nitrogen
required).
The brewer may then achieve these by adjusting the following process variables:
1. Time/Temperature profile. The brewer may hold the mash at various temperatures and times to get optimal
activity of the various enzymes and hence adjust wort composition. The classic approach used to be
a. 42°C – for β-glucanase activity in the case of under-modified malts.
b. 50-55°C – for protease enzyme activity.
13
c. 62-65°C – this is called the saccharification stand and creates most of the fermentable sugars through
the action of β-amylase although there will be some α-amylase activity.
d. 70-72°C – this is called the conversion stand and the main reason for this stand is to break down all
log chain starch that is left by the action of α-amylase.
e. 76-78°C – to stop the action of all the enzymes.
These days with modern mashing techniques and external enzymes the process can be adapted to achieve all of
above even if a big proportion of the grain is un-malted. The exact ratio and mashing conditions is proprietary
but can be discussed in general during the training period
Therefore the mash profile developed is a combination of the required wort profile (and hence brand specification)
and the type of grain quality inputs.
A typical profile is shown below.
2. Liqour:grist (l liquor/kg dry grist). This will affect the rate of enzymic action. At low ratios enzymic action
is slower but the enzymes will be active longer whilst the opposite is true of high ratios. Typically ratios of
3.0 – 4.0 are used.
14
3. Exogenous enzymes. Well-modified malts should provide enough soluble material and enzymes for the
brewer to convert the malt to the required wort composition. However, additional, commercial enzymes may
be added. These are usually of fungal and bacterial origin. Due to our recipe designs external enzymes will
be employed in almost all the brews planned.
4. Mash pH. This may be adjusted by the addition of salts, particularly Calcium or acids. These days lactic and
phosphoric are the most commonly used.
5. Calcium. Usually salts are added, either directly to the cooker/mash tun or to the brewing liquor itself. The
level of salts are recipe and style driven. It is important that we add salts since we are using soft water as
brewing water. This helps adjust mash pH and the salt also acts as a cofactor for the activity of α-amylase.
c) Temperature Programmed Infusion Mashing
Most craft brewers have a single infusion type system as they do not have to contend with a cooker operation.
One vessel is used (although a second is required for separation) and all the mash is put into the vessel and then
taken through a series of temperature stands to allow enzymic action and achieve the required wort composition.
In this way the brewer can achieve more control.
Here there are potentially four steps:
 Mashing at specified temperature

 Saccharification
 Conversion, and,
 Mash off
In modern breweries where well modified malts are used then normally mashing is only done at temperatures
appropriate for saccharification. Therefore the malt is mashed in at approximately 63°C as no proteolysis stand is
required and a strike temperature of less than 63°Cshould be avoided.
After the conversion stand a ‘Starch-iodine Test’ is done. Here a sample of mash is placed on a palate and allowed
to cool to room temperature. Then a drop of iodine solution is placed on the sample and the colour monitored. If
15
a blue-black colour is seen then the conversion is not complete and there is still long chain starch in the mash.
This would cause filtration problems and haze in the beer and therefore the conversion stand needs to be extended.
The test works by the fact that long chain starch is found as a helix formed by weak hydrogen bonds into which
Iodide (I-) ions can get trapped forming the blue-black complex. If the starch chains are short then there is no helix
and the complex cannot be formed. However two important points must be noted if false negative results are not
to be seen:
i. Fresh iodine solution must be used.

ii. The sample must be cooled. If mash is hot the starch may not form the helical structures giving a negative
result. However, the starch helix will reform on cooling.
6. MASHING MANAGEMENT
Quality
Mashing is the critical stage in the process where the wort composition is fixed. Specifically the Limit Extract
(ratio between fermentable and unfermentable sugars) is developed. This will ultimately lead to the Residual
Extract and Alcohol content in package so any mistakes here will lead to non-standard product. In order to get the
LE right the following inputs need to be controlled in order to control the action of enzymes:
 Liquor: grist
 pH
 Temperature
 Time
 Calcium levels
Therefore the correct addition of salts and acids is also critical.
16
Lautering -Wort Separation
The objective of wort separation is to separate the solubilised wort from the spent grains whilst trying to optimize
the three following aspects:
There are three main separation systems used (lauter tun, mash filter and isothermal mash tun) but they all use the
same principle of filtration. We will focus on the lauter tun which is universally used by most brewers. Large
commercial brewers are however moving more and more to Mash filters as they chase speed and efficiency.
Objectives of Wort Separation:
There are objectives that contribute directly to the process:
 High extract efficiency

 Clear wort with low solids
 Wort with low dissolved oxygen (DO2)
 Optimising wort quality
Plus desirables outside the process loop (green issues):
 High mechanical efficiency

 Low moisture spent grain. Wet spent grain is messy and difficult to remove from the lauter vessel into bins
17
 Minimum effluent disposal. Get your cut off correct to save water
Optimisation of Wort Quality
Wort quality from mash filtration is assessed on parameters of clarity, solids and dissolved oxygen as well as
minimising pick-up of undesirables such as:
 Haze particles
 Flavour negative materials from the husk like polyphenols
 Starchy material
Optimisation of Extract Efficiency
Extract efficiency is a direct measure of the filter efficiency and is measured as soluble extract left in discharged
spent grains. Extract efficiency influenced by the composition & filter bed quality which in turn relates to:
 Quality of raw materials

 Quantity of materials (bed loading)
 Quality of upstream preparation & presentation to lauter tun. This is totally affected by craft brewing use of
2 roller mills and large percentage of adjuncts
 Available wort collection period
 Gravity to be achieved from available materials
 Wort quality required
Principles of Filtration: Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s modified law has been used to describe lautering/mash filtration:
Q = KA ΔP
µL
18
Where
Q = wort volume Flowrate – effectively the wort run-off rate
K = mash bed permeability – effected by the milling process and particle size produced and wort run-off
rate – if too fast will collapse the bed
A = mash bed cross sectional area – fixed as the lauter tun diameter
ΔP = pressure drop across the mash bed – this is effected by the bed permeability and can be managed
by raking
µ = viscosity of the wort – effectively the wort gravity but can be affected by high glucan levels,
temperature and concentration of the brews sugar content
L = mash bed depth – does not change much except when the bed is compressed during run-off
Lauter Tun
Introduction
The lauter tun is internationally accepted as predominant wort separation device and is a well proven and
developed device for mash filtration. The lauter tun/filtration device is usually the rate limiting step in the
brewhouse and hence its optimisation is critical.
Wort extraction efficiency is affected by the craft brewers approach to lautering as most parameters are manual
and totally at the mercy of the brewer
Definition of Lautering
This is a combination of the leaching and separation of wort from mash:
 Leaching: Dissolving of solids from mash & diffusion into liquid phase – this happens mostly during
sparging
19
 Separation: Removal of a liquid phase from a solid/liquid phase. This relates to strong wort ad last worts (
2nd runnings)
There are 2 stages in lautering:
 run-off of the first wort (main mash)

 sparging (washing out) of the spent grains (2nd runnings)
Lauter Tun Arrangement
Above Lauter tun is a typical Mashing vessel and Lauter tun operation as separate vessels. The Heritage Brewing
Company unit is a combined mashing and lautering vessels typically called a mash tun.
Lauter Tun Cycle
The following are the steps in the operation of the lauter tun at Heritage Brewing Company brewing.
 Cleaning & underplate rinsing before mashing

 Underletting before mashing
20
 Then after mashing is complete the lautering steps can start
 Wort recirculation
 First runnings
 Sparging
 Second and last runnings
 Draining (sweet wort)
 Spent grain removal into bins
Again it is crucial that you know the standard step times for each and every step in all of the brewhouses so you
can identify whether delays are likely. A delay or longer than standard time on any of the steps will lead to a
longer lauter tun cycle time and hence loss of productivity through the brewhouse as it is the rate-limiting step.
i) Cleaning & Underplate Rinsing
This is the first step in quality and the following maintenance checks are required: post -caustic brews, vessel CIP,
plate inspection. The false bottom has a spray system, with usually 2 nozzles/m 2.. You must ensure the plates are
not blocked with residual grains.
ii) Underletting
This is also known as plate flooding and it fills the underplate void until it just seeps above the false bottom plates.
The underlet temperature = mash temperature = 76 - 78°C. The objective to minimise DO pick-up and at the start
of the weeks brewing may also warm up the system and prevent mash blocking the plates. Care must be taken to
avoid air entrapment beneath the plates.
At Heritage brewing we will ensure the plates are covered with water before we start mashing in as above is for
separate mash and lautering operations.
iii) Mash Pump-over
Mash enters either through multiple pop-up valves on the false bottom or top/side/bottom entry. The Heritage
unit has side entry. Pump-over velocities are in order of 0.7-1.0 m/s with a maximum pump-over velocity of
21
1.5m/s for side entry. Gentle side/bottom filling is proposed & preferred as this reduces oxidation and shear stress.
This step is not of relevance at Heritage Brewing Company but important still in mashing and lautering operations.
iv) Wort Recirculation
After the mash has settled, wort is recirculated until we have clear worts with low solids. This may be done on a
time basis or visually. 1-1.5 underplate volumes need to be recirculated with the recirculation entry point on the
top of the vessel onto a spreader plate.
This step should not exceed 5 minutes otherwise the bed will start to compact slowing down run-off. Therefore if
there is a breakdown and the process goes into recirculation this should only continue for a maximum of 5 minutes
before the process goes into hold.
v) First Runnings
Wort is withdrawn via run-off ports on the true bottom and feeds to a collection header. These first worts are high
gravity and high viscosity hence there is high filtration resistance and slow flowrate. The filter bed is compressible
and during run-off bed height decreases due to drag force. Due to the highly compressed bed, bed porosity
decreases leading to lower run-off flow and therefore the rakes may be employed during 1st runnings to loosen
the bed and increase the flow. This may be controlled manually. Usually this step is controlled so as to achieve a
consistent flow rate.
vi) Sparging
This starts just before the end of first runnings and may be preceded by a deep cut by the rakes. It is critical that
the lauter bed does not run dry before sparging commences as this will cause mash oxidation and subsequent beer
flavour problems. Generally the bed is covered by about 30 to 50 mm of liquid at any stage. Too much sparge will
lead to extract dilution. Brewing liquor at 76-78°C is used to wash the filter bed from above. This is a compromise
temperature used to keep wort viscosity high but not so high that it leaches undesirable substances from the spent
grain such as polyphenols and starch. We start at high flowrate to replace the volume of wort removed. Sparging
continues during second runnings at a rate just above run-off flowrate.
vii) Second & Last Runnings
22
Flowrate increases incrementally until sparging is completed and is controlled by totalised wort volume to
underback or kettle. Based on the differential pressure the rakes may be used to maintain bed permeability. During
this stage the gravity decreases, viscosity decreases and flowrate increases. Wort collection stops at 2,0-2.5 Plato.
if it is collected past this point then there is the potential to extract undesirable compounds such as alpha glucans
and polyphenols.
viii) Draining
This step drains the remainder of the liquid phase from the grains and is called weak/sweet wort. It has a poor
quality extract and can contain undesirables, i.e. polyphenols etc. It may be withdrawn to sweet wort tank for re-
use or sent to drain.
ix) Spent Grain Discharge
the spent grain is removed manually via the side out let. The vessel is equipped with a squigee arm that can be
lowered and operated in reverse motion to assist spent grain removal. We can analyse the grain for soluble and
total extract which give an indication of milling, mashing & lautering efficiency.
Mash Filter
23
In the 1990’s Meura introduced their 2001 Mash Filter which was one of the first major innovations in mash
filtration for, possibly, several centuries. It took the ‘old-style’ mash filter and upgraded it to be a serious
competitor for the lauter tun.
The mash filter is a typical plate and frame filter with alternating plates and frames suspended on an overall frame.
The plates also have air lines attached so that the filter bed may be compressed. Mash inlet and wort outlet is from
both top and bottom with sparge liquor following the mash inlet.
Mash Filter Cycle
The mash filter has the following operational steps:
1. Filling
2. Mash Filtration
3. Pre-compression
4. Sparging
5. Final Compression
6. Drain Down
7. Spent Grains Discharge
Lauter Tun Quality
24
Quality
During the lautering process various quality checks need to be taken:
 The gravity of the first high gravity worts to ensure the process is in control and extract will be recovered.
 Sparging starts before the wort bed runs dry as this will lead to bed collapse and poor run-off as well as
mash oxidation.
 Turbidity of the first worts and throughout the run-off process either by inline or off-line haze meter or
visual analysis. We do not want cloudy worts as they contain substances that effect beer quality such as
lipids and polyphenols and possibly glucans.
 Final wort gravity. We stop run-off at 2.0 to 2.5 plato
 We sometimes also measure the pH during last wort run-off as a sudden increase indicates that unwanted
substances are being extracted. Generally exceeding pH above 6 is considerate negative
Many process parameters need to be monitored and controlled as they also may affect wort quality:
 Sparge liquor temperature 76-78°C. As per Darcy’s equation the higher the temperature the lower the
viscosity will be and hence the run-off will be quicker. However, the higher the temperature the more
undesirable substances will be extracted from the husk. Therefore the compromise temperature is used.
 Bed cuts / raking. Ideally we would not rake the bed at all and only do so in order to reduce permeability
and maintain run-off speed. If there is excessive raking it indicates a problem and that more haze particles
will be collected in the final wort.
 Check that the squeegee arm is set correctly as well as direction during spent grain discharge.
25
Wort Boiling
Introduction
Wort boiling is a very energy intensive process that occurs once the sweet wort has been separated from the spent
grains. There are many good reasons for this process that will be discussed shortly. The objective is to achieve the
correct gravity and volume of wort with the desired analytical spectrum that is clear and free from any
contaminants. In recent years this has been a focus of development in the brewing industry with a strive to reduce
boil times and evaporation rates not only to reduce costs but also to reduce the precipitation and removal of foam-
enhancing proteins and to enhance flavour stability by reducing the exposure to heat.
Reasons for Wort Boiling
1. Sterilisation
Wort boiling is the breakpoint in the process between hygienic and sterilisation. Up until this point the process
has been hygienic but not sterile and there will be microorganisms in the wort associated with the raw materials
used. The sugary solution (wort) is a perfect growth medium for bacteria such as Acetobacter, Lactobacillus,
Enterobacter, etc. which can cause off flavours, reduce available extract and produce compounds inhibitory to
yeast growth and these obviously need to be removed. It is important to note that the process is not actually
sterilisation per se as the spores of some bacteria, e.g. Bacillus, can survive the process. These are important as
they can then reduce nitrate to nitrite during fermentation which in turn can combine with amines to form the
carcinogenic compound Nitrosamines.
At this stage no pathogenic organisms have been found in beer due to:
 hop antibiotic effect

 CO2 content
 pH
 ethanol (as produced by yeast)
 Low carbohydrate nutrient content
2. Inactivation of Enzymes
At this stage in the process malt enzymes have completed their task of:
26
 converting starch to sugars
 converting proteins to amino acids (minor)
 -glucan reduction (minor)
3. Concentration of Extract
There is a debate about whether this is actually a requirement of wort boiling or indeed just a consequence. The
physical process is important as it facilitates the stripping of volatiles but actually we just require management of
the process to achieve the required final gravity and volume. This is apparent when you consider that some brewers
dilute their wort prior to boiling to allow for steam stripping of volatiles and to compensate for evaporation losses.
Generally evaporation rates are targeted 4 to 6%
4. Volatile Removal
There are various unwanted volatiles that need to be removed from the wort that may have arisen from hops or
malt. One of the most important is the compound Di-Methyl Sulphide (DMS). This compound arises from the
precursor found in malt, s-Methyl Methionine (SMM) and has a sweet corn/cooked cabbage flavour that is
unwanted in most (but not all beers).
Volatile hop oils will also be removed during this process so therefore if hop aromas are required in the beer then
either the hops are added towards the end of the boil, in the process known as late hopping or later in the process
in the form of oils, essences or emulsions.
Never boil with the door closed.
5. Bitterness Development
Humulones from hops provide the bitterness in beer but in their natural state they are relative insoluble in aqueous
solution. Boiling converts the compounds into an isomerised, soluble form as shown below:
27
This isomersiation process takes between 45-60 minutes if raw hops are added. If isomerised hops are added
(extracts or pellets) then these are added 20 minutes before the end of the boil to dissolve and mix them
homogeneously in the wort.
As brewers we can measure the effectiveness of the isomerisation and mixing process during boiling using the
concept of Utilisation:
The bittering compounds are lost in the hot break or trub formation either by non-isomerisation or complexing
with proteins from hops and malt.
Hops is not just about bittering but also for flavour and aroma. As much as you need time to isomerise the bittering
components, hop flavour and aroma is temperture sensitive. So roiughly you would add hops for bittering at the
start of boil and hops for aroma at the end of boil or during whirlpool
6. Trub Formation
Trub, or hot break, is a combination of proteins and polyphenols and hop debris. It is formed during wort boiling
as proteins are denatured and complex with polyphenols. The vigour of the boil promotes particle contact and
flocs are formed. As we shall discuss later it is important to remove this trub effectively as it can lead to haze and
flavour alteration in the beer. The formation of trub can be improved by adding kettle finings (carageenans or Irish
Moss) which aid the formation of these flocs. This is important for clarity and good fermentation performance.
It can also assist in clearer beers for non filtered beers and improves filtration performance for filtered beers
28
7. Colour and Flavour Formation
Colour and flavour are developed in wort in the same way as they are in malt during the kilning process by a set
of reactions known as the Maillard Reaction. These are actually a set of fairly complicated reactions but the
initial reaction is the condensation of an amino acid with a simple sugar.
8. Acidification of the Wort

The wort becomes slightly more acidic during boiling because:
 Melanoidins are formed which are acidic.

 α-acids are added with the hops.
 H+ ions are exchanged from polypeptides by Ca2+ and Mg2+ and precipitation of phosphate and oxalate.
Many important processes proceed better or more quickly at lower pH:
 Good precipitation of protein-polyphenol complexes.

 Less increase in wort colour at a lower pH
 Better, clean tasting hop bitterness at a lower pH.
 A Lower pH improves micro stability
9. Adjunct Addition
Whilst not a reason for wort boiling the process does allow for the addition of liquid adjuncts as the vigorous
boiling promotes rapid dissolution and mixing and the heat sterilises. Some of our beers need some sugar additions
and it is important to add the sugar slowly with circulation on to ensure ddisolution and no burn on.
Wort Boiling Systems
There have been many different wort boiling systems over the years and many more in recent times due to novel
developments. These include:
 Internal boilers
 External Boilers
 Jacketed Vessels – Heritage Brewing Company brewhouse
 Direct-fired vessels
29
There have also been many different vessel configurations proposed including underbacks, kettle, whirlpools and
combined kettle/whirlpools.
a) External Wort boilers
This kettle has a pump to prime the system but once a vigorous boil is attained this may be switched off and the
current is maintained by thermosyphon. This is where the temperature differential between the liquid in the bulk
of the kettle and that within the heating element is such that liquid is actually sucked through the element without
any actual mechanical force, i.e. a pump. As long as the temperature differential is maintained the design itself
will allow for this circulation to continue. This in itself has benefits as there is no mechanical pumping action that
could disrupt trub particles that have been formed.
 Advantages
o no surging / early pre-heat and less chance of burn on
o reduced CIP volume and frequency
o wort temp control possible
o assisted stripping due to pressure drop through the heating system
 Disadvantages
o cost
o complex piping & controls
o increased maintenance
30
o more real estate
Kettle with Internal Heater
This system has an internal heater. These had lost favour to the external heater but are now being seen more often.
All the systems have a Chinese hat or spreader to increase surface area and maximise volatile stripping as wort
re-enters the kettle:
31
Huppmann Dynamic Low Pressure Boiling
Wort Clarification
As discussed earlier, once formed it is imperative that the trub is removed.
Originally this was done purely by sedimentation in decanter vessels or coolships. These were literally large,
horizontal, shallow vessels where the wort was left for many hours as the trub settled and the wort was cooled and
aerated. Obviously this would be hygienically unacceptable these days.
Whirlpool
With the advent of hop products, and hence much less hop material, the whirlpool was developed to remove the
trub. Wort is injected tangentially into the vessel, where particles are pushed out by centrifugal force and then
downwards, due to gravitational force and then back inwards as the velocity drops which forms a trub cone at the
centre of the vessel. One objective is to ensure as little wort as possible left entrained in the trub to minimize
extract losses.
32
Whirlpools are normally left to stand for 25 minutes. This is a balance between allowing a stable trub cone to
form and DMS levels. DMS will be formed in the whirlpool but will not evaporate and therefore the longer the
stand the higher the DMS levels in the wort.
Vent
Spray balls for

CIP and
trub removal
Three levels of
wort outlet Tangential Inlet
Trub Cone
Management of Wort Boiling and Clarification
Quality
Some of the key quality outputs from wort boiling and clarification are:
 Original Extract (OE) or Gravity. This will be affected by the gravity that has been collected in the kettle
and the degree of evaporation.
33
 Volume. A critical output as this will seriously affect fermentation performance and possibly losses if
too high. The combination of OE and volume is very important in terms of indicating control throughout
the brewhouse. The relationship of volume to OE is, of course what we call ‘Extract’.
 pH. As discussed various chemical reactions happen that affect the pH and these are a consequence of
time and temperature. Also additions must be made at the right time and amount, e.g. acid and salts.
 Bitterness Units. Hops must be added at the right time to achieve the correct balance of bitterness and
aroma:
o Hop pellets and extracts should be added at the start of the boil.
o Aroma hops added towards the end of boil as prescribed by the recipe.
 Colour. Particularly with low colour lager beers boiling plays a significant part in terms of colour
development (30-40%). This is affected by the time and temperature of the boil. Delays in the whirlpool
will also increase colour.
 Volatile levels. A vigorous boil should ensure there are no volatiles and this may be checked by tasting
the condensate towards the end of the boil which should be tasteless. Delays in the whirlpool run-off may
lead to increased levels of DMS. Additionally the condensate taps should be checked weekly to ensure
they are not blocked.
 Wort clarity. As discussed we require a bright wort into fermentation with trub carryover minimised.
Correct inlet speeds to the whirlpool, stand times and run-off speeds will ensure this. Failure to do so
may affect beer quality and yeast performance.
 Sterility. There really should be no microorganisms in the wort after these processes but CIP regimes
should be adhered to in order to assist in this as well as effective boiling.
Wort cooling
The clarified wort has to be cooled to the fermentation temperature. If left hot the yeast would be killed on pitching.
Also oxygen is added to initiate yeast growth either in the form of air or pure sterile oxygen.
Wort Cooling Systems
Traditionally several systems were used including:
34
 Cooler Rooms and Open Coolers
 Horizontal or Vertical Refrigerators
 Shell and tube heat exchangers
These days predominantly plate heat exchangers (PHEs or HE) are used. These obtain good heat exchange by:
 Very thin metal plates being used, (chrome nickel steel)

 High conductivity materials of construction
 The plates having a profile which will produce turbulence,
 The gap between the plates being very small,
 Counter current flow of wort and cold water being used, and
 The direction of the flows is changed frequently
Hot wort 95-98°C is cooled to 6-10°C whilst the chilled liquor at 1-4°C is heated to 80-88 °C. This water is
recovered and used for the brewing process and therefore optimisation is required to ensure the brewhouse does
not run out of W85. If lower final wort temperatures are required a second phase glycol chiller may also be used.
The heat exchange depends on the temperature difference. The higher the difference the higher the heat flow rate.
The temperature rise of the cooling water can be controlled by the velocity of the water through flow. Important
factors in the temperature exchange are wall thickness, material from which the wall is made and its thermal
conductivity.
To ensure the cooling surfaces are not fouled the PHE is cleaned after every brew using 1 % caustic. This is done
in the reverse direction at increased flow rates 1.5 times that of normal. This creates turbulence which washes the
solids out. The PHE should also be descaled regularly using 1 % acid.
35
Wort Oxygenation
Oxygen is required for yeast metabolism and growth so that fermentation can be initiated. It is taken up by the
yeast within a few hours and was not thought to damage the yeast although recent research has shown that it may
be very important in terms of beer staling. Wort oxygenation at high temperatures results in extensive oxidation
and the wort becomes dark and more bitter so therefore it is normal to aerate cold wort. The only negative here is
that it is then imperative to ensure the gas is sterile, usually using sterile filters. These should be cleaned and
sterilised regularly as per the schedules. If air is used a maximum of 8-10 ppm oxygen in the wort may be achieved
so if higher is required, e.g. with high gravity brewing, then pure oxygen must be used. To dissolve the oxygen in
cold wort the air must be injected as very small bubbles and turbulently mixed with the cold wort.
Methods of oxygenation
 Venturi pipe
o Air is introduced through a jet nozzle in the turbulent flow occurring in the widened region
immediately after the constriction.
 Ceramic or sintered metal candles (Heritage Brewing Company beer solution)
o Air is injected as very small bubbles through fine pores in the candle into the wort flowing past.
 Static mixers
o The intimate mixing of wort and air is achieved in a reaction section with built-in angled bands.
 Centrifugal mixers
o Air is forced into the wort by centrifugation and it is thereby introduced as very small bubbles.
Oxygenation control
There are generally three methods of controlling the amount of oxygen added:
1. Rotameter. Here a fixed mass of oxygen is added which is, hopefully, proportional to the amount of wort
passing and leads to the correct Dissolved Oxygen (DO) levels in FV.
2. Automated Control. Here an in-line oxygen measurement system, such as an Orbisphere, provides a
feedback loop to a controlled injection system.
3. Adding by look and feel the craft brewer way
Key Points:
 It is critical that the correct temperature and DO level are achieved otherwise there will be non-standard
brews and defective product.
36
 Hot water recovery from the heat exchanger is important to ensure water balance in the brewhouse is
maintained and there are no delays.
 The oxygen used must be sterile so careful attention to the filters is needed.
37
Fermentation
 Produce beer of the correct quality required by the brewer as defined in their specifications.
 Control beer flavour by controlling yeast metabolism.
 Control yeast growth (as excessive yeast growth means beer loss and inadequate means poor and possibly
incomplete fermentation).
 Ensure no contamination by any microorganisms other than the required brewing strain.
 Meet all processing times.
 Produce alcohol , CO2 and flavours
Fermentation Control Parameters
There are two main methods of controlling fermentation: control the inputs and then control the process itself.
The inputs to the process are absolutely critical in terms of achieving the correct beer quality. The following are
the key inputs to control:
 Wort:
o Composition.
o Aeration/Oxygenation.
o Sterility.
o Clarity.
o Temperature.
o Volume.
 Yeast Addition.
o Viability/Vitality
o Quantity
38
o Addition time
 Fermentation Vessel.
o sterility
During the process very little can actually be controlled:
 Vessel Temperature.
 Vessel Pressure.
 Time.
Process measurements that may be measured to check control (other than above):
 Gravity.
 Alcohol- Calculate
 pH.
 Diacetyl - Taste
Fermentation control
1. The Inputs
Wort
This is fixed with the raw materials and by processing in the brewhouse but has a key influence on the outputs of
fermentation.
 Composition. The nutritional composition of the wort is vital for yeast metabolism and hence the final
beer produced:
o Original Gravity or Extract. Defines the amount of extract at the start of fermentation.
o Limit Extract (or Attenuation Limit). Defines how much of the extract is fermentable and hence
gives an indication of how much alcohol may be produced and how much sweetness or body
may be left. This is a key control parameter to maximise flavour and mouthfeel.
o Free Amino Nitrogen (FAN). This is the amount of nitrogen that may be used by the yeast and
is derived directly from the malt and during mashing in the brewhouse. This is especially
important when you are using adjuncts like maize, rice and cassava
39
 Aeration/Oxygenation. Wort has oxygen added Heritage Brewing Company beer adds air via an sintered
candle in the wort cooling T Piece. Oxygen has to be added at the start of fermentation to ensure there
are sufficient live, active yeast to complete the fermentation. If air is used a maximum level of 8-10 ppm
O2 can be achieved whereas much higher levels can be achieved if sterile liquid O 2 is used.
 Sterility. Another key aspect is that the wort is sterile. Wort is boiled in the brewhouse and therefore kills
all living organisms, except the thermophilic spores of some bacteria, such as Bacillus. From the kettle
via wort clarification and cooling into the fermentation vessel this status needs to be maintained.
Therefore all plant is cleaned and sanitized and all additions made (such as air or oxygen) need to be
sterilized.
 Clarity. There was a debate for many years as to whether wort into fermenter should be ‘clear or cloudy’
but these days there is a clear consensus that clear worts are required. Cloudy worts have the following
issues:
o Trub particles can coat yeast and impair performance.
o Fats from trub can lead to excessive yeast growth, poor foam and flavour instability due to
oxidation.
 Temperature. Each yeast strain and brand will have its own fermentation profile (time versus
temperature) and the starting temperature for this is critical.
 Volume. This is also important and is usually determined in conjunction with the gravity to give an
indication of total extract. Obviously if it is low then either the gravity is high or there has been extract
loss in the brewhouse. If the volume is high then this may lead to over-foaming in the fermenter with
associated beer loss and loss of foam potential.
Yeast Addition
The agreed amount of live, healthy yeast cells need to be added at the start of fermentation. This has been discussed
in the ‘Yeast Handling’ module.
Control Parameters
Control of Temperature
40
Heat is created during the fermentation process and if a controlled temperature is required then some sort of
control mechanism needs to be employed. The temperature needs to be controlled to control the rate of yeast
metabolism which will have a significant effect on the flavour compounds produced. This usually involves some
form of cooling method – Our Unitanks use cone and body glycol cooled jackets. The objective is that the FV
temperature can be controlled to at least +/- 0.5°C.
Various cooling mediums are used. Traditionally just cooled water was used but more often these days glycol, or
in some installations, direct ammonia.
Control of Pressure
Generally most brewers require a pressure-less fermentation as excessive pressure can stress the yeast and produce
unwanted metabolites. On an open fermenter pressure is not an issue but with enclosed fermenters during the
fermentation process the FV is vented to atmosphere. In this case there is usually a pressure relief valve on the
vessel for safety reasons. Our operation will be using spunding valves to control internal pressure and Co2 level
control
Control of Time
Really time is controlled as a factor of the other key inputs and control of temperature but still needs careful
monitoring by the brewer for quality and capacity reasons. If key time parameters are standardized (e.g. vessel
occupancy, time to full attenuation, etc) then the brewer has some comfort that the required quality is being
achieved.
Key Points:
 The main control in fermentation is to ensure that the inputs are correct. Any deviation will lead to non-
standard product.
 Pre-start up checks should ensure that the vessel is empty and sterile, drained of any residual sterliant,
utilities available and enough healthy yeast.
 Incorrect pitching of yeast will not lead to ‘no fermentation’ but a non-standard product.
Fermenter design
Traditional fermenters were of a simple design. They were open with either external cooling jackets or internal
coils. They were often used with top-fermenting yeast where the yeast could be collected by ‘skimming’ off the
top. Various different types of fermenters could be seen.
Ale Open Fermenters
41
Burton Union System Yorkshire Square
Lager Open Fermenters
In Eastern Europe, particularly, open fermenters were used for making lagers using bottom-fermenting yeast.
They were often housed in underground cellars and I can only believe that hygiene standards were not very good.
Both these types of vessels are rarely, if ever, found in modern breweries.
Cylindroconical Fermentation Vessels
These days the vessel of choice is invariably a stainless steel cylindroconical Fermenter or unitank. A simplistic
diagram of a typical vessel is shown below.
42
The key aspects are:
 The whole vessel is made of polished stainless steel for ease of cleaning and hygiene.
 There is a CIP delivery attached either to a spray ball or rotary cleaning head (Our unitanks have these
installed). The CIP delivery line is usually used for carbon dioxide collection also.
43
 General belief is to keep the Height: Diameter (known as the aspect ratio) to about 2.5:1. This is of more
importance in large commercial breweries where wort depth can be upto 10 m.
 The angle of the cone is usually 60 -70° to facilitate slippage during yeast removal.
 Generally there is a 25-30% head space allowed as foam develops during fermentation and this prevents
excessive beer loss.
 Pipework will be such to allow the addition of wort and yeast, removal of trub and yeast.
 The vessel will have a sample point.
Natural currents occur during fermentation in cylindroconical vessels as shown in the diagram below and this is
why top temperature probes are used to control. This is again more important in large commercial fermenters.
Fermentation monitoring
Once the inputs are correct and the control parameters are in place then the fermentation should continue in a
uniform way. Many brewers measure certain criteria to monitor this control. This usually includes temperature,
gravity and calculate or measure alcohol, but may also include pH, yeast count and diacetyl levels. The graph
below shows a typical lager fermentation profile.
44
Usually any trub or yeast that has settled is removed after 12-24 hours into fermentation. Yeast is also removed
towards the end of fermentation and this is discussed in more detail in the next section.
Fermentation Quality
Managing Fermentation
Quality
A good start to fermentation is key to a good fermentation, for a good start to a fermentation we need:
 Good yeast – pure, viable (living) and high vitality (high energy levels)
 The correct amount of yeast
 Good wort at the correct temperature
 The correct level of oxygenation
 Correct yeast food addition
Micro control is critical.
Safety and Risk

Traditional Cellars safety concerns include
 CO2 in the brewery area and vessel entry

 Collapsing a vessel during emptying or CIP
45
More modern risks include
 Detergent contamination by either caustic or nitric acid
Trub removal
Traditionally trub (cold break) is drained from the fermenter before the start of fermentation.
Yeast scrapping
It is important that once the yeast has settled out of the fermenter that it is removed, yeast settling out after the
main crop has been harvested should be scrapped daily (or at the very least every second day).
Key Points:
 Gravity measurements are critical to assess the progress of fermentations and early identification of
possible problems.
 Temperature must be monitored carefully as incorrect control will lead to fast or stopped fermentations
and non-standard product.
 The FV must be drained after 12-24 hours to remove trub.
 The timing of yeast cropping is critical to ensure healthy yeast is collected and that dead or dying yeast
is not in contact with beer.
 Start-up checks are vital and must always be adhered to.
46
Brewing Yeast
Brewing Yeast Fundamentals:
 A single cell fungus

 Should be the only living organism to come into contact with beer
 Facultative anaerobe
 Considered as a biological catalyst by brewers as it converts sugar to alcohol
 Found naturally in the environment
 Main brewing species are
o Saccharomyces cerevisiae
o Saccharomyces pastorianus
There is some contention over nomenclature. Originally all brewing yeast were considered to be S.cerevisiae until
work was done at the Carlsberg brewery who suggested that this was the ale-type yeast and in fact the lager type
yeast was a different genus which they called S. carlsbergensis. Recent identification using genetic fingerprinting
has suggested that in fact the genus S. carlsbergensis is in fact just another form of the standard lager yeast which
is called S. pastorianus var cerevisiae, a hybrid of S. cerevisiae and S. bayanus (wine yeast). At this stage it is
generally agreed that there are two types of brewing yeast:
 S. cerevisiae – top-fermenting ale yeast

 S. pastorianus var cerevisiae – bottom-fermenting lager yeast
Other features that can be used to identify the yeast are:
 Bud scars indicate age (i.e. the more numerous the bud scars the older the cell is likely to be).
 Shape & density of vacuole gives an indication of the development stage of the cell.
 Brewing yeast cell size is usually 5 by 8 micron (note that they are not round) although this is strain
dependent.
 Some form chains - linked together.
 Yeast can be classified according to its fermentation performance:
o flocculent - this is where yeast cells have a tendency to aggregate together and either sediment
(‘bottom-fermenting’) or float to the surface (‘top-fermenting’)
47
o non-flocculent - does not sediment out so readily (often called ‘powdery’ yeast)
 Now usually identified by “genetic finger print” as discussed above.
A Brewer’s Yeast CV (courtesy of Dr David Quain)
This is an electron micrograph showing a single mother cell and its budding daughter cell. You can also see a
distinctive bud scar on the surface of the mother cell. To me this cell does not look too healthy as the cell surface
is crenulated (‘wrinkled’) indicating some stress.
Dr. David Quain indicated the ideal Curriculum Vitae for brewing yeast:
 Name: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

 Age: circa 1000 million years
 Size: circa 5 by 8m
 Experience: 5000 years of brewing (fermentation)
 Marital status: single
 Qualifications: good at making ethanol
48
Yeast Appearance
This slide shows healthy, budding yeast under the electron microscope.
49
Yeast Cytology
Key:
 BS Bud Scar
 N Nucleus
 ER Endoplasmic Reticulum
 F Filament
 G Golgi Body
 I Invagination of the plasmalemma
 L Lipid Granule
 M Mitochondria
 Mt Thread like Mitochondrion
 N Nucleus
 Nc Centriolar Plaque
 Nm Nuclear Membrane
 Nu Nucleolus
 P Plasmalemma
 PG Polymetaphospahte Granules
 V Vacuole
 W Cell Wall
50
Budding Yeast Reproduction
This diagram shows a typical asexual, budding yeast production cycle. This cycle can only happen in the presence
of oxygen and fatty acids, both of which are required for the production of yeast cell wall material, sterols. When
oxygen is not present the yeast cell will enter a fermentative stage. During normal lager fermentation the yeast
will produce 3 times as many cells and this can rise to up to 6 times in some ale fermentations.
Stages of Yeast Growth and Budding
51
This diagram shows the various stages during the life cycle of yeast during a typical brewery fermentation:
1. Lag Phase. During this stage the yeast absorbs nutrients and its metabolic process are switched on or
activated.
2. Growth Phase (sometimes called the Exponential Phase). Yeast cells reproduce by budding using the
oxygen present in the wort. If you measured the dissolved oxygen level of the wort in a fermenter it
would go to zero within 3-4 hours as it is rapidly absorbed by the yeast.
3. Stationary Phase. In this stage there is now no more yeast growth as all the oxygen has been utilized. The
yeast enters a fermentative stage and uses the available nutrients to metabolise and produce alcohol.
4. Death or Sedimentary Phase. At the end of the fermentation there are no more assimilable nutrients for
the yeast. A flocculent lager yeast will then sediment to the bottom of the vessel. If left for any significant
period the yeast will firstly use all its internal food stores just to survive and then will eventually die by
a process called ‘autolysis’. The cell literally perforates and then bursts releasing the cell contents into
the beer. This can be detrimental to the beer for various reasons:
o May lead to flavour defects through yeast metabolites including fatty acids
o The release of protease enzymes reduces beer foam
52
o The release of nutrients from yeast can lead to increased microbiological infection
Key Points:
o Yeast cannot reproduce without oxygen.

o It is critical to have yeast growth at the start of fermentation to ensure there are enough healthy yeast to
complete the fermentation. However, too much yeast growth will lead to excessive beer loss.
o The lag phase in fermentation can be shortened by ensuring the yeast is healthy at pitching.
o At no stage do we want yeast to die in our process due to the detrimental effect on the beer. Hence the
importance of optimal yeast cropping at the correct time and subsequent daily yeast removal.
Yeast - nutritional requirements
Yeast requires more than just sugars to grow. Its requirements are:
 Simple sugars – monosaccharides (glucose and fructose), disaccharides (maltose and sucrose) and
trisaccharide (maltotriose). Cannot ferment any larger sugars which are called dextrins. These sugars are
produced through mashing in the Brewhouse.
 Amino acids, small chain peptides (di- and tri-) plus ammonium compounds for Nitrogen.
 Lipids & fatty material for cell wall development.
 Vitamins from malt.
 Trace metals particularly zinc & copper.
 Oxygen for cell wall synthesis.
Yeast Metabolism
53
Yeast Metabolism - Flavour production
These are the major metabolic processes occurring within the yeast cell that will be discussed more in later
modules.
Key Points:
54
o Yeast requires many different nutrients for growth which it must receive in the wort.
o It has a complex metabolism which can create new yeast, energy (in the form of heat), waste products
(carbon dioxide and ethanol), and many different flavour compounds.
Recognition: Prof. B Lodolo, The most passionate yeast enthusiast I know.
55
Yeast operations
Brewing is reasonably unusual in that is re-uses the brewing yeast and does not always discard it. Therefore yeast
can be seen to be in a cycle in the brewery including the following stages:
 Addition to wort – yeast pitching

 Separation from green beer – yeast cropping
 Holding between brews – yeast storage
 Introducing replacement yeast strains – yeast propagation. At Heritage Brewing Company beer dry yeast
will be used and as such no propagation will be done.
 Getting rid of surplus yeast – waste yeast
This cycle is shown diagrammatically below:
Each of these processes will now be discussed.
1. Yeast Pitching
Post wort cooling the correct amount of yeast needs to be added to the fermenter in order to have a satisfactory
fermentation. The correct amount of dry yeast or fresh live yeast means attaining the correct number of live yeast
cells per ml wort.
56
The first decision to be made is which yeast will be used for repitching. The following criteria will be taken into
account:
 Generation number. Generally yeasts are not used for more than 4 generations at Heritage Brewing Company
beer before being discarded as they are prone to mutation and contamination by other microorganisms. Since
Heritage Brewing Company beer does not have a microbial department yeast generations and reuse will be
kept low to prevent contamination over time.
 Viability and vitality. Yeast with a high (over 95% viability is required) and preferably high vitality also, if
measured. Yeast re pitching will be based on previous fermentation performance. Any problematic
fermentations of flavour issues should result in yeast scrapping.
 Infection – the yeast should be free of contamination. To treat the yeast we will add a natural yeast cleanser
Yeast Cropping
At the end of fermentation yeast either settles to the bottom, floats to the top or stays in suspension depending on
its flocculation characteristics. The decision has to be taken to either crop this into the yeast keg or remove as
waste/scrap. The decision making process for this is very similar to that described above as to whether to use for
pitching or not. The following are the methods for cropping:
a) Bottom fermenting yeast cylindroconical tank
At the end of a CCT fermentation the yeast has settled to the bottom of the fermenter where it has been cooled to
maintain viability. When yeast is at the bottom of a fermenter it has no further role to play in the fermentation and
indeed can only harm the beer quality through yeast autolysis (literally the yeast cell ‘bursts’ when it dies). This
has many adverse consequences:
 The imparting of unwanted flavours known as ‘yeast bite’.

 An adverse effect on beer foam as protease enzymes are released.
 Potential increased microbial action as ‘nutrients’ are added to the beer.
Therefore yeast should be removed as soon as possible although this tends to be a compromise between cost and
quality; the longer the beer is left the more compact the yeast cone will be, hence there will be less beer entrained
and less losses.
Yeast Cropping Management
57
Quality
Scrapping is necessary to minimise the risk of autolysis and yeast stress flavours (mercaptan and H2S) in the beer.
Signs of yeast autolysis in the beer include
 Increase in beer pH – as the cells break open.

 Rise in the FAN level of the beer.
Yeast quality measures
There is a “yeast cropping” window in the fermentation process. This is to collect the yeast at the end of the main
fermentation, yet before it spends too much time in the cone of the FV.
Excessive scrapping of very thin yeast causes high beer loss figures in fermentation It is important to record all
scrapped volumes and take corrective steps if losses increase.
Excessive yeast growth in fermentation is a sign that something is wrong, and valuable extract is being used to
generate cell mass rather than beer. In a fermentation we expect around 2 to 3 times yeast growth maximum.
Poor cropping practices can mean there is not enough yeast for pitching.
Good planning skills are needed to link the cropping and scrapping of yeast with the brewhouse program. The
weekly plan should communicate the yeast plan on the fermenter charts as it is important for the brewing plan to
synchronise cropping, storage and pitching needs.
Good practices
These are:
 Keep the yeast cropping and pitching pot clean and dry. Always clean and sanitise after use and re
clean and sanitise before use
Yeast cropping good practices:
 Scrapping the first 500ml of the yeast crop because this contains a larger percentage of dead yeast and
possibly some trub. Normally go on colour as the yeast goes from brownish to creamy white stop
58
scrapping
 Slow cropping flow rates to prevent pulling a hole in the yeast.
 Yeast of different generations should not be put in to the same yeast storage vessel.
Yeast scrapping practices:
 Excessive scrapping causes increased beer losses and high beer content in the waste yeast. Record all
removals from the unitank on the fermenter sheet.
 Insufficient yeast scrapping in unitank will cause the clarity issues
 Any suspected micro contaminated yeast should be sent directly to the drain
Key Points:
o Yeast cropping is a compromise between yeast quality and beer loss.

o Any yeast at the bottom of a vessel is stressed and will eventually die. Therefore it is removed as quickly
as possible and cone cooling is used to reduce metabolism.
o The first 500ml of the crop must be removed.
o Sterility is critical to reduce contamination of the yeast.
3. Yeast Storage
The key to storing yeast is that at the end of the storage period you should be able to pitch the yeast into a fermenter
and have a perfect fermentation in terms of process time and product produced. Ideally yeast would not be stored
at all but just transferred at the right time from one fermenter to another. This is logistically very difficult for most
breweries so the general method, particularly for bottom fermenting yeasts, is to store the yeast as a slurry. There
are various key factors that need to be addressed:
a) Reduction in metabolic rate
59
At the end of the fermentation the yeast is in a state of nutrient deprivation and has started to use its own storage
reserves of glycogen and trehalose. If metabolic rate is not reduced (to virtually zero) then the yeast will eventually
use all its storage reserves and begin the process of autolysis. The first point is to remove the yeast from the
fermenter as soon as possible as discussed under cropping. The main method is, of course, to cool the yeast and
an optimum temperature has been found to be 2-4ºC. Any lower and the temperature may damage the yeast, any
higher and metabolism will speed up.
The next issue is time. Although metabolism has been reduced it has not stopped and the longer the storage the
more likely damage to the yeast will be. The recommended storage time is – as short as possible! Best practice is
less than 24 hours and above 72 hours is not recommended.
Finally, every effort must be made to ensure there is no oxygen ingress into the yeast as again this will cause the
yeast to increase its metabolism.
c) Contaminating microorganisms
Sterility is critical so clean, sterile yeast pot must be used.
Yeast storage process control
Yeast temperature
High temperatures can cause lower viability
Yeast storage time
Ideally the yeast storage time should be less than 24 hours in the storage vessel an a maximum of 24 hours; this
simply needs to be managed by the brewers. Good communication with the brewhouse and the people responsible
for planning can minimise this problem.
Key Points:
60
o Yeast storage criteria, in terms of temperature, time, contamination and reducing stress factors are
critical.
o If the above factors are not managed then the yeast will be unfit for pitching or we will pitch yeast that
will have serious effects on beer quality.
61
Cold storage
Many different terms have been used by brewers over the years to name the processes that occur after the primary
fermentation including:
 Maturation (both warm and cold)

 Conditioning,
 Lagering,
 Cold storage, and,
 Secondary fermentation.
Generally there are several processes that we are trying to achieve:
 Improve beer flavour though metabolic reactions of yeast

 Consolidate concentration of CO2 in beer
 Purge unwanted volatiles from beer by CO2 formed during fermentation especially during the initial growth
phase
 Adsorb various non-volatiles onto yeast
 Separate excess yeast from the beer
 Reduce haze forming potential of the beer
This area of brewing is very interesting in that there are many different ways in which the same objectives may
be achieved.
Historically, storage was necessary because beer production was a seasonal operation. Cold storage was chosen
to avoid product spoilage. The term ‘lagering’ actually comes from the German verb lagern which means ‘to store,
to age or to lay down’.
Most of recent innovations and process changes post-fermentation have been to reduce these expensive storage
periods whilst maintaining quality. These include the following:
 Warm maturation
62
 Novel processing
 Use of processing aids
o Finings – we will be using Natural clear which is a natural, Reinheitsgebot approved, Vegan friendly
finning agent
o adsorbents (including wood chips)
o filter aids
o enzymes
 Centrifugation – used mostly in large commercial breweries but some lager craft brewers have started using
small centrifuge units to improve clarity.
Changes during beer storage
1. Chemical aspects:
 Increased CO2 content due to fermentation of sugars by yeast

o improves appearance
o improves foam
o improves mouthfeel
There is evidence that suggests that improved CO2 performance in beer may be achieved by getting the gas in as
soon as possible and also by doing this naturally, i.e. from yeast.
2. Colloidal aspects:
 Formation of high molecular weight protein/polyphenol complexes

 Precipitation of complexes (haze)
 Adsorption and sedimentation of complexes
 Sedimentation of yeast
In this part of the process it is necessary to both remove solids present post-fermentation and form and remove
haze-forming materials.
3. Flavour aspects:
63
 Reduction in the concentrations of undesirable components that may be left at the end of primary
fermentation:
o diacetyl
o H2S
o acetaldehyde
o dissolved O2
 Formation and enhancement of desirable flavour attributes.
Key Points:
 Cold unitank operation has key benefits

 The main processes are:
o Flavour enhancement.
o Solids removal.
o Carbon dioxide level adjustment if not achieved completely during spunding.
o Development of colloidal stability.
Colloidal stability
The main issue with colloidal stability is the aggregation of protein and polyphenol molecules at low temperature
to form chill haze which may become polymerized to larger, permanent haze molecules in the presence of oxygen
and heavy metals. There are various methods that may be used:
 Chill beer to <4ºC to deliberately form chill haze which either then sediments out, i.e. cold storage.
 Use precipitants,
 Use adsorbents, e.g. polyvinyl polypyrrolidone (PVVP) for polyphenols, and silica gels for proteins.
These are diagrammatically shown below.
64
Cold storage process control
Beer temperature
The temperature in the unitank is determined by the glycol tank temperature and the set point for the unitank
A rise in the unitank beer temperature is either caused by a lack of cooling (failed solenoid or no glycol circulation)
or a cooling medium that is warmer than the beer.
Storage time
A longer storage period is better for the beer as it helps yeast sedimentation and chill haze formation, however if
warm maturation is used then cold storage needs only be a four to six days.
The negative impact of long storage is that if beer remains in the unitanks for a long time; it reduces the
productivity of the unitanks. So the balance is between yeast removal and productivity.
Yeast draining
The removal of yeast in the unitank must be done to prevent yeasty off-flavours and to ensure good filtration
through-put.
Yeast draining is a balance between good clarity and high beer loss.
65
Managing cold storage
Quality
 Beer quality is improved by having good (below 4°C) beer storage temperatures to form the chill haze
for removal in sedimentation.
 Storage helps reduce the yeast levels in suspension, as it gives the yeast more time to settle out.
 Scrapping of yeast in the cone is necessary to prevent autolysed yeast off flavours.
66
Filtration
Beer is generally filtered bright (but not always) for the following reasons:
 Traditional beer consumer of specific beer styles are of star-bright clarity – We must ensure that we can
serve all consumers and their expectation. We should however start educating customers the unfiltered
means more flavour.
 To ensure that stability is achieved (Microbiological, Organoleptical - taste & Colloidal - haze)
 To ensure that any processing aids that may have been used are removed from the beer prior to packaging
The following particles generally need to be removed from beer:
Particulate Species Size (μm) Typical Concentration
Haze <1 100mg/l
Bacteria 1-2 10000/ml
Yeast 4-6 5 million/ml
Filtration Theory
Depth Filtration
Basic Filtration Principles
There are several different types of depth filtration equipment used in commercial brewing but they all follow the
same general principles. Firstly they all have a support mechanism (filter cloth, vertical or horizontal leaf, candle).
Secondly filter aids are used to prepare a cake through which the beer is filtered. This is done in three stages:
First Pre-coat: Add pre-coat to form bridges over the support medium pores:
67
The first pre-coat is usually done with a coarse filter powder.
Second Pre-coat: Add medium filter powder to create a full filter cake.
This second precoat will generally define the particle size that can be removed. The coarser the powder the less
fine particles will be removed but the longer the filter run will be and visa versa.
Bodyfeed Dosing: During filtration body feed is added to supplement the filter cake.
The addition of bodyfeed maintains the filter bed and ensures that the pores do not become blocked. If this did
not take place, particles would pass straight through to the pre-coat and rapidly block it. Yeast also helps with the
bodyfeed to extend this process.
68
Theory of powder application in depth filtration:
1) PC 1 – protects the candle/filter sheet (bridging the gaps) and is a medium to which the second precoat
can “attach” to
2) PC 2 – similar/ the same as bodyfeed, a filtration layer to prevent yeast/haze particles from breaching the
filter
3) Bodyfeed – creates an ever expanding filtration medium – increases the permeability of the DE
surface/layer
Filter run length can be affected by:-
1) Underdosing – Reduced throughput, increasing ∆ P.
2) Overdosing - Slows down ∆ P increase initially, but can lead to sudden increases in pressure, bridging of bed
and potentially damage to filter screens.
69
What is ∆ P? That is the difference between in pressure of the incoming pressure before the filter and the outgoing
pressure post the filter. This difference gives you an indication of how open or blocked the filter surface is. The
higher the difference the more blocked the filter is.
Filter Mediums
Filter mediums and filter aids are used to assist with the efficient filtering in filters. Their main objective is to
retain an open pore structure in the bed to allow easy flow of filtrate while simultaneously holding back solids of
a size often smaller than the holes in the filter support or cloth. There are several types of filter aids used. Our
discussion will only focus on Kieselghur
a) Kieselguhr
Kieselguhr is also known as diatomaceous earth (DE) and is the skeletal remains (silica shells) of marine or fresh
water diatoms, existing in 12,000 - 15,000 different forms. The principle manufacturing sites around the world
are the USA, France, Spain & former USSR. The crude ore is crushed in hammer mills to 5 cm’s diameter, and
then dried in 2 stage process by furnace and hot-air blowing. Impurities are removed by air classification, before
calcination at 800 - 1200°C to produce the finer grades. Diatomite gives a highly porous filter bed, with voidage
70
by volume of 90%, graded by suppliers based on permeability flow ratio (Darcies Law). It builds up a complex
three dimensional structure to maintain permeability and hold the solids.
However, it is a hazardous material to handle and can cause silicosis. It also needs to be disposed of at the end of
the filtration process. You also need to beware of taints and iron content.
Types of Beer Filters
There are various types of equipment that use depth filtration. The following equipment is commonly found in
breweries:
 Plate and Frame Filters

 Leaf Filters – Vertical and Horizontal
 Candle Filters -The filter solution used ate Heritage Brewing Company
Candle Filter
Candle Filters comprise of a series of ‘candles’ which hang down inside a pressure vessel. The candles are coated
in filter cake and then the vessel is pumped full of the slurry; the filtrate is forced through the filter cake on the
candle and into the collection area above the candles.
71
Candle filters use radially wound wire with 50 - 80 micron gaps. The candles can be up to 2 metres in length
providing a large surface area for filtration, with up to 700 candles depending on the flowrate required.
The candle filter operation requires a very buoyant precoat to ensure the candles are covered properly. The
buoyancy of the precoat ensures that the candles are coated right to the very top of every candle. The photo below
shows a photo of the precoat process:
72
Using the sight glasses we can visually ensure that even pre-coating has occurred and that there is no ‘mottling’
seen on the powder surface.
The key quality issues to be checked are:
 Haze. The main purpose of filtration is to remove particles both large and small.
 DO. Dissolved oxygen control is particularly important in filtration where there are lots of different
processes and hence lots of potential for ingress.
 Micro. Attention to CIP and hygiene standards is needed to avoid micro contamination in BBT. Filter
lines and vessels (including additives) to be CIP’d weekly.
 Excessive dilution – this can affect alcohol, colour, bitterness and body of the beer
73
Beer Spoilage organisms
Introduction
Micro-organisms, including yeast, bacteria and moulds are present in large numbers in the environment. Hundreds
of different species of bacteria can be isolated from the air, soil, plants, animals, dust, malt, hops, people etc.
If all these micro-organisms were capable of developing in hopped wort or beer, the brewing of a drinkable
product, even under today’s conditions would be virtually impossible.
Fortunately not all these bacteria are capable of developing in wort and beer.
Wort/Beer as a Growth Medium
There are various properties in wort/beer that suppress the growth of bacteria:
 Low pH. As fermentation progresses, the pH of the wort drops to below tolerable levels for most bacteria.
Acidic types can survive, e.g. Lactic Acid bacteria, Acetic Acid bacteria and Yeast.
 Hop Antiseptics. Hop bittering substances serve to suppress many bacteria. Particularly Gram +ve bacteria
such as spore-formers (there are exceptions). Gram -ve bacteria are generally not affected.
 Alcohol Content. The increasing alcohol content of fermenting wort is inhibitory for many bacteria.
 Anaerobic Conditions. Although conditions are aerobic at the beginning of fermentation, anaerobiosis sets
in within a matter of hours. These conditions are unfavourable for strictly aerobic bacteria. These anaerobic
conditions normally prevail throughout storage, filtration and canning, right up to the time of consumption of
the product.
 Lack of Nutrients. As fermentation continues the amount of nutrients present in the wort become less and
will not be enough to sustain the growth of many bacteria.
Beer Spoilage
Refers to any change that takes place in the product which results in an uncharacteristic flavour, odour or
appearance of the beer.
74
Physical Changes in Beer due to Spoilage:
1. Haze/Turbidity. Becomes visible when large numbers of bacteria are present.

2. Ropiness. By definition is production of slime by certain bacteria, resulting in either slight viscosity, jelly-
like lumps or in rare cases viscous, oily liquids.
Flavour Changes in Beer due to Spoilage:
1. Acidity. Some species of bacteria break down carbohydrates yielding a variety of acids, e.g. lactic, acetic,
formic, succinic acid, etc. This can be produced early in the process (mashing) and may persist to the final
product.
2. Diacetyl. Normally present in beer in very low concentrations. Some bacteria produce diacetyl in large
enough quantities to spoil the beer.
3. DMS. A variety of bacteria produce DMS as a by-product of metabolism.
4. Phenolic. Mainly attributed to infection by wild yeasts. However certain bacteria also produce phenolic off-
flavours.
5. Other off-flavours. A variety of other off-flavours will be produced, specific to the contaminating micro-
organism, e.g. Acetaldehyde, Acetoin and 2, 3 butanediol etc.
6. Super Attenuation. Some species of yeast and bacteria have the ability to hydrolyse dextrins and starch to
simple sugars. These are then fermented out causing ‘super-attenuation’, i.e. higher than normal alcohol and
a lower final Specific Gravity. If this happens in the can it could over carbonate the can leading the gushing
when the customer opens the can
Profiles of Bacterial Beer Spoilers
DETECTION BY SENSORY EVALUATION COMMON LOCATIONS

Lactobacillus Acidic after taste, diacetyl Mash, pitching yeast, dirty equipment,
fermentation, maturation, finished product
Pediococcus diacetyl Pitching yeast, dirty equipment, fermentation,
maturation, finished product
75
Coliform “cooked vegetable” odour, Wort, early fermentation, (sensitive to ethanol
sulphur > 2% by weight)
Acetic acid bacteria “parsnip” odour, diacetyl Wort, fermentation, pitching yeast (sensitive to
ethanol > 2% by weight, hop sensitive)
Obesumbacterium Vinegar, turbidity and ropiness Wort, partially filled tanks
(where oxygen is present)
Zymomonas Sulphur, acetaldehyde,”rotten Beer containing sugar (fructose or glucose)
apple” odour (insensitive to alcohol, hops and low pH)
Pectinatus Sulphur, acetic acid, “rotten egg” Finished product lacking oxygen
odour
Megasphera Sulphur, turbidity, “cheesy” Finished product lacking oxygen
odour
76
YEAST
Yeast is a unicellular fungi. Obviously yeast is generally used as the fermentation agent in brewing but any
yeast other than the culture yeast found in beer is called ‘Wild Yeast’.
There are generally three categories of wild yeast:
1. Other brewing yeast strains.

2. Other Saccharomyces strains.
3. All other yeasts.
Types of Spoilage Caused by Wild Yeast:
 Haze / Turbidity. Becomes visible when large numbers of wild yeast are present after the culture yeast has
been removed by filtering or fining.
 Surface Film or Pellicle Formation. This type of spoilage is most commonly associated with draught beer
which may come into contact with enough air to encourage growth of wild yeast when present. E.g. Candida,
Hansenula and Pichia.
 Off-Flavours. Off-flavours can arise from the metabolic activities of all wild yeast. The most important off-
flavours produced by wild yeast are phenolic and excessively estery flavours.
 Super-Attenuation. Saccharomyces diastaticus is a spoilage yeast. Apart from its ability to cause haze and
off-flavours, it may ferment soluble starch and dextrins and as a result could produce abnormal attenuation
of beer.
Key Points:
 Microorganisms found in beer cannot cause serious harm to consumers but can seriously affect the
quality of the beer, particularly flavour.
 The main contaminants found are Lactic Acid Bacteria and Wild Yeast.
 Infections can be found in many areas, from pitching yeast itself, to vessels and pipework, as well as
the environment. WE are operating in an environment that is filled with lots of people movement,
large air conditioned air movements and potential aerosols from the bar environment.
77
 Beer spoilage due to micro organisms is a serious reputational risk for our brand in Ghana. We can
not afford even once to fail,
What can we do
1. Clean, Always, All the time

2. Always wash and sanitise your hands
3. Follow all CIP requirements regarding operation, concentrations and time to the letter.
4. Shine – clean floors, vessels and surfaces
5. Do all connections with sanitizing spray
78

Brewing Learning Document v2280623

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Brewing Learning Document v2280623

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Heritage Brewing Company

Produced by: Daniel Odendaal

The main objectives of grain milling are:

Types of Milling Systems

1. Dry milling – Heritage Brewing Company is using a 2 roller mill

There are various types of dry mills:

The following diagrams show typical layouts of these mills.

Six roller Roller Mill

Advantages of dry milling:

 Mechanical crushing is easily achieved

Disadvantages of dry milling:

Grist Comparison for different separation systems

Advantages of wet milling:

 Run off times are quick

Disadvantages of wet milling:

 Poorly modified malts cannot be used

A recent variation to dry milling is steep conditioning. This is a combination of both

Steep Conditioning Milling Schematic

Advantages of steep conditioning are:

 Less fragmentation of the husk occurs.

Disadvantages to steep conditioning are:

 Corrosion can be a problem.

The objectives of the mashing process are:

The following are the main enzymes involved:

Enzyme Action Produces Temp pH

α-amylase Random starch linkages Sugars 70°C 5.2

β-amylase Cleaves maltose from the non- Maltose 64 °C 5.5

β-glucanase Random β-glucan linkages sugars 45 °C 6.0

Proteases Protein linkages Peptides and 50 °C 5.5

As discussed previously this has two components:

 Amylose is a straight chain of glucose α 1-4 linkages.

The degradation is done by several groups of enzymes as shown below.

The degradation is done by several groups of enzymes:

 Carboxypeptidases attack the carboxyl end of the protein chain.

This action produces:

The system is so designed that the main requirements are to:

 Create optimum conditions for starch to sugar conversion

A typical profile is shown below.

c) Temperature Programmed Infusion Mashing

Here there are potentially four steps:

 Mashing at specified temperature

i. Fresh iodine solution must be used.

Objectives of Wort Separation:

There are objectives that contribute directly to the process:

 High extract efficiency

Plus desirables outside the process loop (green issues):

 High mechanical efficiency

Optimisation of Wort Quality

Optimisation of Extract Efficiency

 Quality of raw materials

Principles of Filtration: Darcy’s Law

Darcy’s modified law has been used to describe lautering/mash filtration:

Q = wort volume Flowrate – effectively the wort run-off rate

This is a combination of the leaching and separation of wort from mash:

There are 2 stages in lautering:

 run-off of the first wort (main mash)

Lauter Tun Arrangement

Lauter Tun Cycle

 Cleaning & underplate rinsing before mashing

i) Cleaning & Underplate Rinsing

iii) Mash Pump-over

iv) Wort Recirculation

vii) Second & Last Runnings

ix) Spent Grain Discharge