UNIT I BASIC CONCEPTS

Brief history-Types of Robot–Technology-Robot classifications and

specifications-Design and Control issues- Various manipulators – Sensors
- Work cell - Programming languages.
1. Brief History:
1.1.1 History of Robot (Origin):
 1968 Shakev, first mobile robot with vision capacity made at SRI.
 1970 The Stanford Arm designed eith electrical actuators and controlled by a
computer
 1973 Cincinnati Milacron‘s (T3) electrically actuated mini computer controlled
by industrial robot.
 1976 Viking II lands on Mars and an arm scoops Martian soil for analysis.
 1978 Unimation Inc. develops the PUMA robot- even now seen in university
labs
 1981 Robot Manipulators by R. Paul, one of the first textbooks on robotics.
 1982 First educational robots by Microbot and Rhino.
 1983 Adept Technology, maker of SCARA robot, started.
 1995 Intuitive Surgical formed to design and market surgical robots.
 1997 Sojourner robot sends back pictures of Mars; the Honda P3 humanoid
robot, started in unveiled
 2000 Honda demonstrates Asimo humanoid robot capable of walking.
 2001 Sony releases second generation Aibo robot dog.
 2004 Spirit and Opportunity explore Mars surface and detect evidence of
past existence of water.
 2007 Humanoid robot Aiko capable of ―feeling‖ pain.
 2009 Micro-robots and emerging field of nano-robots marrying biology with
engineering.

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An advance in robotics has closely followed the explosive development of computers
and electronics. Initial robot usage was primarily in industrial application such as
part/material handling, welding and painting and few in handling of hazardous
material. Most initial robots operated in teach-playback mode, and replaced repetitive
and back breaking tasks. Growth and usage of robots slowed significantly in late
1980‘s and early 1990‘s due to lack of intelligence and ability to adapt to changing
environment Robots were essentially blind, deaf and dumb. Last 15 years or so,
sophisticated sensors and programming allow robots to act much more intelligently,
autonomously and react to changes in environments faster.
1.1.2 Present –day robots:
1. Used in cluttered workspaces in homes and factories,

2. Interact safely with humans in close proximity,

3. Operate autonomously in hazardous environments,

4. Used in entertainment and in improving quality of life.

1.1.3 GENERATIONS OF ROBOT :
The various generations of robots are as follows.

 First generation: The first generation robots are repeating, non-servo

controlled type used for pick and place and point to point operations.

 Second generation: The addition of sensing devices and enabling the

robot to alter its movements in response to sensory feedback marked in the
second generation. These robots exhibit path control capabilities.

 Third generation: This generation is introduced in late 1970‘s have human

like intelligence. The growth in computers led to high speed processing of
information, robot acquired artificial intelligence, self – learning and decision
making capability by past experiences. Online computations & control,
artificial vision and active force/torque interaction with the environment are
the significant characteristics of these robots.

 Fourth generation: These are artificial biological robots or a super

humanoid capable of producing its own clones

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1.1.4 Definition for Robot:
 The Robot Institute of America (1969) defines robot as ―.... a re-
programmable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials,
parts, tools or specialized devices through various programmed motions for
the performance of a variety of tasks.

1.1.5 Asimov’s laws of robotics:

 A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm.
 A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law.
 A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Laws.
1.1.6 Robotics system components:

Mechanical platforms or hardware base is a mechanical device, such as a

wheeled platform, arm, fixed frame or other construction, capable of interacting with
its environment and any other mechanism involve with his capabilities and uses.
 Sensors systems is a special feature that rest on or around the robot. This
device would be able to provide judgment to the controller with relevant
information about the environment and give useful feedback to the robot.
 Joints provide more versatility to the robot itself and are not just a point that
connects two links or parts that can flex, rotate, revolve and translate. Joints
play a very crucial role in the ability of the robot to move in different directions
providing more degree of freedom.
 Controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. Robots today have controllers
that are run by programs - sets of instructions written in code. In other words,
it is a computer used to command the robot memory and logic. So it, be able
to work independently and automatically.
 Power Source is the main source of energy to fulfill all the robots needs. It
could be a source of direct current as a battery, or alternate current from a
power plant, solar energy, hydraulics or gas.
 Artificial intelligence represents the ability of computers to "think" in ways
similar to human beings. Present day "AI" does allow machines to mimic
certain simple human thought processes, but cannot begin to match the
quickness and complexity of the brain. On the other hand, not all robots
possess this type of capability. It requires a lot of programming and
sophisticates controllers and sensorial ability of the robot to reach this level.

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1.2 Types Of Robot and Technology:
1. 2.1 Industrial robots, painting and welding robots:
Advantages of a painting robot:
Robot painting is equal, uniform with high quality and precision. It can reach very
difficult places due to their high degree of flexibility which can be difficult for humans,
but can be achieved easily by robots. A human needs to carry heavy painting gun
and wear a mask for protection against toxic chemicals. A robot´s repetition rate is
high as it does not suffer from fatigue. Safety levels which can be achieved by using
a robot are high by saving humans from the smell chemical toxics.

1.2.2 Medical robot to make surgery:

Advantages of a medical robot:

Patient gets fast recovery. The operation is more precise with fewer mistakes. Robot
can open small incisions in the body and carry out major operations with minimal
damage to the patient. Therefore recovery time is decreased. The equipment is more
hygienic and safe.

1.2.3. Mobile robot with legs or wheel :

For chemical power plant, under see or remote areas and bombs fields. The advantage in
leg robot is that it can avoid step over obstacles which can be dangerous like bomb or even
to protect objects from being destroyed due to robot moving over them.

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1.2.4. Robotics aircrafts and boats :

without pilot which are guided from a station on the ground, which are used by army
or rescue mission.

1.2 Technology Of Robots:

1.2.5 Introduction :

In this chapter I will introduce robot sub systems and some parts that are used in
robot structure. This section will give a brief introduction to actuators, sensors, motor
drive, electronics, power supplies, algorithms and software, mechanical parts and
combining methods between these parts.

1.2.6 Sub systems :

Actuators and transmission systems they are solenoid, motor drive, pneumatic and hydraulic
system which allows the robot to move. Mechanics parts are motors usually rotate and a
mechanism to transfer motion to all the necessary parts of a robot to create the motion that is
required. Usually robots require a power supply, this kind of supply depends on what a robot
is required to do, and if it is a mobile robot then you need to decide the size of battery beside
the efficiency since power supply will be in the board of robot, but if it is not mobile robot then
electricity can be fed through a supply cable. Power storage system is battery or some other
electronic devices. Sensors are two types Internal and external, there are many sensors in a
robot which considered as the senses in a robot. Micro- controller and processors are the
brain that controls the whole system. Algorithms and software are two models higher level
and low level, programmer need to create software and algorithms to run the robot in a
desired way.

1.2.7 Actuators:

Actuators are essentially the prime movers providing linear force and motion. Conventional:
Pneumatics, hydraulics.

With this kind of system there is input and output in the cylinder, through these input and
output we pump air for pneumatic system and clean filtered oil for hydraulic system to make the

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piston move outside and inside to provide us with linear force and motion. You need to know in
robot system how far the piston should go outside or go inside, in pneumatic system we cannot
control how far the piston can go outside or inside unless you put ring in the piston rod, but in
hydraulic system we can control the extension of piston by controlling the oil flow through flow
control valves

Permanent magnet motors and stepper motors are the joint space in a robot that creates
rotational motion.

1.2.8 Power generation and storage system :

Solar cells are working on the moon or in space since we need renewable energy for example
sun light. Fuel cells are used in a big heavy robot so a diesel engine is required and fuel to run it,
these engines power is based on hydrogen and oxygen burning. Rechargeable cells are more in
use nowadays due to the technology advancements means that rechargeable cells can contain
quite a lot of energy for example: batteries that are in use in mobile phones they can last long
time.

1.2.9 Sensors
Simple switch sensors are used to turn on and off the whole cycle or some part of the
cycle.

1.3 Robot Classifications and Specifications:

1.3.1 Classification of Robots (or) Classification by co-ordinate system and

control system:-
1.3.1 Co-ordinate systems:-
Industrial robots are available in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and physical
configurations. The vast majority of today’s commercially available robots possess
one of the basic configurations:
1. Polar configuration
2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Cartesian coordinate configurable
4. Jointed-arm configuration
1.3.1.1 Polar configuration:-

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The polar configuration is pictured in Fig. It uses a telescoping arm that can be
raised or lowered about a horizontal pivot The pivot is mounted on a mta6ng base
These various joints provide the robot with the capability to move its arm within a
spherical space, and hence the name “spherical coordinate” robot is sometimes
applied to this type. A number of commercial robots possess the polar configuration.

1.3.1.2 Cylindrical configuration:-

The cylindrical configuration uses two perpendicular prismatic joints and a revolute joint as
shown in fig .This configuration uses a vertical column and a slide that can be moved up or
down along the column. The robot arm is attached to the slide, so that it can be moved
radially with respect to column. By rotating the column, the robot is capable of achieving a
workspace that approximates a cylinder. The cylindrical configuration offers good mechanical
stiffness.
Drawback: Accuracy decreases as the horizontal stroke increases.
Applications: Suitable to access narrow horizontal capabilities, hence used for machine
loading operations.

1.3.1.3 Cartesian coordinate configurable:-

The cartesian coordinate robot, illustrated in part Cc) of Fig, uses three perpendicular
slides to construct the x, y,and z axes. Other names are sometimes applied W this

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configuration, including xyz robot and rectilinear robot,By moving the three slides
relative to one another, the robot is capable of operating within a rectangular work
envelope.

1.3.1.4 Jointed-arm configuration:-

The jointed-arm robot is pictured in Fig. Its configuration is similar to that of the human arm.
It consists of two straight components. Corresponding to the human forearm and upper arm,
mounted on a vertical pedestal.
These components are connected by two rotary joints corresponding to the shoulder and
elbow.jointed arm configurations are similar to that of human arm.
It consists of two straight links, corresponding to human ‗fore arm‘ and ‗upper arm‘ with two
rotary joint corresponding to the elbow and shoulder joints.
These two are mounted on a vertical rotary table corresponding to human waist joint. The
work volume is spherical. This structure is the most dexterous one.
This configuration is very widely used.
Applications: Arc welding, Spray coating.

1.4 Design and Control Issues:

With respect to robotics, the motion control system used to control the movement of the end-
effector or tool.
1.Limited sequence robots (Non-servo)
2. Playback robots with point to point (servo)
3. Play back robots with continuous path control,
4. Intelligent robots.

1.4.1 Limited sequence robots (Non-servo):-

Limited sequence robots do not give servo controlled to inclined relative positions of the
joints; instead they are controlled by setting limit switches & are mechanical stops. There is
generally no feedback associated with a limited sequence robot to indicate that the desired
position, has been achieved generally thin type of robots involves simple motion as pick &
place operations.

1.4.2 Point to point motion:-

These type robots are capable of controlling velocity acceleration & path of motion, from the
beginning to theend of the path. It uses complex control programs, PLC’s (programmable
logic controller’s) computers to control the motion.
The point to point control motion robots are capable of performing motion cycle that consists
of a series of desired point location. The robot is tough & recorded, unit.

1.4.3 Continuous path motion:-

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 In this robots are capable of performing motion cycle in which the path followed by the robot
in controlled. Therobot move through a series of closely space point which describe the
desired path.
Ex:- Spray painting, arc welding & complicate assembly operations.

1.4.4 Intelligent robots:-

This type of robots not only programmable motion cycle but also interact with its environment
in a way that years intelligent. It taken make logical decisions based on sensor data receive
from the operation.There robots are usually programmed using an English like symbolic
language not like a computerprogramming language.

1.4.5 Precision of movement (or) parameters of robot:-

The preceding discussion of response speed and stability is concerned with the dynamic
performance of the robot. Another measure of performance is precision of the robot's
movement. We will define precision as a function of three features:
1.Spatial resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
These terms will be defined with the following assumptions.
 The definitions will apply at the robot’s wrist end with no hand attached to the wrist.
 The terms apply to the worst case conditions, the conditions under which the robot's
precision will be at its wont.
 This generally means that the robot’s arm is fully extended in the case of a jointed
arm or polar configurable.
 Third, our definitions will he developed in the context of a point-to-point robot.

1.5 Various Manipulators:

 A robot manipulator is an electronically controlled mechanism, consisting of multiple segments,
that performs tasks by interacting with its environment.
 They are also commonly referred to as robotic arms.
 Robot manipulators are extensively used in the industrial manufacturing sector and also have
many other specialized applications .
 The study of robot manipulators involves dealing with the positions and orientations of the
several segments that make up the manipulators.
 This module introduces the basic concepts that are required to describe these positions and
orientations of rigid bodies in space and perform coordinate transformations.
 Manipulators are composed of an assembly of links and joints.
 Links are defined as the rigid sections that make up the mechanism and joints are defined as the
connection between two links.
 The device attached to the manipulator which interacts with its environment to perform tasks is
called the end-effector. In Fig. , link 6 is the end effector.

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4. Jointed-arm configuration:-

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11
1.2

12
1.3

13
 An advance in robotics has closely followed the explosive development of
computers and electronics. Initial robot usage was primarily in industrial application
such as part/material handling, welding and painting and few in handling of
hazardous material. Most initial robots operated in teach-playback mode, and
replaced ‗repetitive‘ and ‗back-breaking‘ tasks. Growth and usage of robots slowed
significantly in late 1980‘s and early 1990‘s due to ―lack of intelligence and ―ability
to adapt to changing environment – Robots were essentially blind, deaf and
dumb.Last 15 years or so, sophisticated sensors and programming allow robots to
act much more intelligently, autonomously and react to changes in environments
faster.
Present-day robots:
1. Used in cluttered workspaces in homes and factories,

2. Interact safely with humans in close proximity,

3. Operate autonomously in hazardous environments,

4. Used in entertainment and in improving quality of life.

GENERATIONS OF ROBOT
The various generations of robots are as follows.
First generation: The first generation robots are repeating, non-servo controlled
type used for pick and place and point to point operations.
Second generation: The addition of sensing devices and enabling the robot to alter
its movements in response to sensory feedback marked in the second generation.
These robots exhibit path control capabilities.
Third generation: This generation is introduced in late 1970‘s have human like
intelligence. The growth in computers led to high speed processing of information,
robot acquired artificial intelligence, self – learning and decision making capability by
past experiences. Online computations & control, artificial vision and active
force/torque interaction with the environment are the significant characteristics of
these robots.
Fourth generation: These are artificial biological robots or a super humanoid
capable of producing its own clones

14
Definition for Robot:
The Robot Institute of America (1969) defines robot as ―.... a re-programmable,
multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or specialized
devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of
tasks‖.
Asimov’s laws of robotics:
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders
would conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict
with the First or Second Laws.

Robotics system components:

 Mechanical platforms or hardware base is a mechanical device, such as a
wheeled platform, arm, fixed frame or other construction, capable of interacting with
its environment and any other mechanism involve with his capabilities and uses.
 Sensors systems is a special feature that rest on or around the robot. This device
would be able to provide judgment to the controller with relevant information about
the environment and give useful feedback to the robot.
 Joints provide more versatility to the robot itself and are not just a point that
connects two links or parts that can flex, rotate, revolve and translate. Joints play a
very crucial role in the ability of the robot to move in different directions providing
more degree of freedom.
 Controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. Robots today have controllers that
are run by programs - sets of instructions written in code. In other words, it is a
computer used to command the robot memory and logic. So it, be able to work
independently and automatically.
 Power Source is the main source of energy to fulfill all the robots needs. It could
be a source of direct current as a battery, or alternate current from a power plant,
solar energy, hydraulics or gas.
 Artificial intelligence represents the ability of computers to "think" in ways similar
to human beings. Present day "AI" does allow machines to mimic certain simple
human thought processes, but cannot begin to match the quickness and complexity
of the brain. On the other hand, not all robots possess this type of capability. It
requires a lot of programming and sophisticates controllers and sensorial ability of
the robot to reach this level.

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 Actuators are the muscles of robot. An actuator is a mechanism for activating process control
equipment by the use of pneumatic, hydraulic or electronic signals. There are several types of
actuators in robotic arms namely synchronous actuator – brush and brushless DC servo, stepper motor
and asynchronous actuator – AC servo motor, traction motor, pneumatic, hydraulic
.

1.1.1 Basic elements in control systems

 System
A combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components
to form a whole unit such that combining unit performs to achieve a certain goal.
 Control
The action to command, direct or regulate a system.
 Plant or process
The part or component of a system that is required to be controlled.
 Input
It is the signal or excitation supplied to a control system.
 Output
It is the actual response obtained from the control system.
 Controller
The part or component of a system that controls the plant.
 Disturbances
The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a control system.
 Control system
A system that can command, direct or regulate itself or another system to
achieve a certain goal.
 Actuator
It is the device that causes the process to provide the output. It is the device
that provides the motive power to the process.
 Design
The process of conceiving or inventing the forms, parts, and details of system
to achieve a specified purpose.

 Simulation
A model of a system that is used to investigate the behavior of a system by
utilizing actual input signals

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 Optimization
The adjustment of the parameters to achieve the most favorable or
advantageous design.
 Feedback Signal
A measure of the output of the system used for feedback to control the system.
 Negative feedback
The output signal is feedback so that it subtracts from the input signal.
 Block diagrams
Unidirectional, operational blocks that represent the transfer functions of the
elements of the system.
 Signal Flow Graph (SFG)
A diagram that consists of nodes connected by several directed branches and
that is a graphical representation of a set of linear relations.
 Open - loop control system
A system that utilizes a device to control the process without using feedback.
Thus the output has no effect upon the signal to the process.
 Closed-loop feedback control system
A system that uses a measurement of the output and compares it with the desired
output.
 Regulator
The control system where the desired values of the controlled outputs are more
or less fixed and the main problem is to reject disturbance effects.
 Servo system
The control system where the outputs are mechanical quantities like acceleration,
velocity or position.
 Stability
It is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input
command. In a non-rigorous sense, a system is said to be unstable if its output is
out of control or increases without bound.
 Multivariable Control System
A system with more than one input variable or more than one output variable
1.1.2 Types of control system
The two major types of control system are open loop and closed loop control
system.

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 i) Open loop control system
The control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input
quantity is called open loop control system. This means that the output is not
feedback to the input for correction.

Fig.1.2: Open loop control System

Advantages
(i).The open loop systems are simple and economical
(ii).The open loop systems are easier to construct
(iii).Generally the open loop systems are stable.
Disadvantages
(i).The open loop systems are inaccurate and reliable.
(ii).The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not corrected
automatically.
ii) Closed loop control system
The control system in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity
so as to maintain the desired output value is called closed loop control system.

In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control
action is dependent on the desired output.

Fig.1.3: Negative feedback closed loop control system.

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the
input and the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block
(feedback elements) by considering the output of the overall system as an input to

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this block. Instead of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a
controller.

So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this
combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the
desired response. Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the
automatic control systems. Traffic lights control system having sensor at the input is
an example of a closed loop control system.

1.1.3 Differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems

S. NO Open Loop System Closed Loop System

1 Inaccurate & unreliable. Accurate & reliable.
2 Simple and economical. Complex and costly.
Changes in output due to external Changes in output due to external
3 disturbances are not corrected disturbances are corrected
automatically. automatically.
Great efforts are needed to design
4 They are generally stable.
a stable system.

Advantages
 The closed loop systems are accurate.
 The sensitivity of the systems may be made small to make the system more
stable.
 The closed loop systems are less affected by noise.
Disadvantages
 The closed loop systems are complex and costlier.
 The feedback in closed loop systems may - lead to oscillatory response.The
feedback reduces the overall gain of the system.
 Stability is a major problem in closed loop system and more care is needed to
design a stable closed loop system.

1.1.4 Classification of Control System

The control system may be classified in a number of ways. Some popular
classifications are:
1. Depending on the methods analysis and design, the system can be linear or
non-linear.
2. Depending upon the type of signals, the system can be time-varying, time-
invariant continuous data, discrete data, modulated or unmodulated control
system etc.

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 3. Depending on the type of system component, the system can be
electromechanical, biological, hydraulic, thermal or pneumatic control system
etc.
4. Depending upon the primary purpose, the system can be position control,
velocity control etc.
i) Linear and Non-linear system
Linear system: A system is known as linear if and only if it possesses both
homogeneity and superposition properties. Superposition implies that an input r 1 (t)
gives an output c1 (t) and another input r2 (t) gives the output c2 (t). If two inputs are
applied together then the output will be the sum of two outputs:

r1(t) + r2(t) = c1(t) + c2(t)

Non-Linear System: Non-linear system does not satisfy the superposition principle
or homogeneity property, or it is the system whose output is not directly proportional
to its input. Here, the stability of the non-linear system depends upon the input and
initial status of the system.
In a linear system, if the input is sinusoidal and starts increasing, then the output will
also increase but the form will remain the same.
However, in a non-linear system, the form may change with changes in the
magnitude of the input. It means if the input is sinusoidal then the output is non-
sinusoidal, i.e., the non-linear system.

ii) Time-Variant and Invariant Control System

The system whose parameters vary with time is known as a time-varying control
system and the system whose parameter does not vary with time is called as a time-
invariant control system.

iii) Continuous data and discrete data control system

In a continuous system, all system variables are the function of continuous time
variable 't.' At any time't' they are dependent on time thus they are called continuous
data control system.

In discrete data control system, if the signal is not continuously varying with time but
it is in the form of pulses, the controlled system is called discrete data control system.

It is of two types

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 1. Sampled
2. Digital
iv) Dynamic and Static system

If in any system the input does not change with the time then the output will also not
change with time such system is known as a static system. For example, an electric
circuit with resistances.

If the output of the system is a function of time even when the input is constant, such
system is called Dynamic system like R, L, C circuit because inductance and
capacitance are energy storing devices.

1.1.5 Types of Feedback

There are two types of feedback
i) Positive feedback ii) Negative feedback
i) Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference
input, R(s) R(s) and feedback output.

Fig.1.4: Positive feedback control system

ii) Negative Feedback

Negative feedback reduces the error
between the reference input, R(s) R(s) and
system output.

Fig.1.5: Negative feedback control system

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.
 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

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1.1.6 Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
 The overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system is the ratio
of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending
on the value of (1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this
case, 'GH' value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is
negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In
this case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is
positive.
1.1.7 Transfer function
Transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform
of output to Laplace transform of input with zero initial conditions.
Laplace transform of output
Transfer function = Laplace transform of input with zero initial conditions.

It is also defined as the Laplace transform of the impulse response of the

system with zero initial conditions.

1.1.8 Transfer function representation

i) Block Diagrams
Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are
used to represent the control systems in pictorial form.

ii) Basic Elements of Block Diagram

The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the
take-off point.

Fig.1.6: Block diagram of

closed loop control system
The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and
H(s). It is also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the
direction of the flow of signals.

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Block
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single
input and single output.
Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two
or more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also
performs the summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction
of the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs.
Take-off Point

The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through
more than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the
same input to one or more blocks, summing points.
1.2 Mathematical Model of Control Systems
There are various types of physical systems, namely we have:
1. Mechanical systems 2. Electrical systems
1.2.1 Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems
 Mechanical translational system
 Mechanical Rotational system
In a translational mechanical type of systems we have three variables
1. Force, represented by ‘F’
2. Velocity, represented by ‘V’
3. Linear displacement, represented by ‘X’
And also have three parameters
1. Mass, represented by ‘M’
2. The coefficient of viscous friction, represented by ‘B’
3. The spring constant, represented by ‘K’
In a rotational mechanical type of systems have three variables
1. Torque, represented by ‘T’
2. Angular velocity, represented by ‘ω’
3. Angular displacement, represented by ‘θ’

And also have two parameters

1. Moment of inertia, represented by ‘J’
2. The coefficient of viscous friction, represented by ‘B’

23
Now let us consider the linear displacement mechanical system which is shown
below

Fig.1.7: Linear displacement mechanical system

From the Newton’s second law of motion, we can write force as

From the diagram below we can see that

On substituting the values of F 1, F2 and F3 in the above equation and taking the
Laplace transform we have the transfer function as,

1.2.2 Mathematical Modeling of Electrical System

In an electrical type of system we have three variables
1. Voltage which is represented by ‘V’.
2. Current which is represented by ‘I’.
3. Charge which is represented by ‘Q’.
And also have three parameters which are active and passive components:
1. Resistance which is represented by ‘R’.
2. Capacitance which is represented by ‘C’.
3. Inductance which is represented by ‘L’.
Force Voltage Analogy: In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider
a circuit which consists of series
combination of resistor, inductor and
capacitor

24
 Fig.1.8: Analogy in electrical system

A voltage V is connected in series with these elements as shown in the circuit

diagram. Now from the circuit diagram and with the help of KVL equation we write
the expression for voltage in terms of charge, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have

derived for the mechanical system
1. Mass (M) is analogous to inductance (L).
2. Force is analogous to voltage V.
3. Displacement (x) is analogous to charge (Q).
4. Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance R and
5. Spring constant is analogous to inverse of the capacitor (C).
This analogy is known as force voltage analogy.
Force Current Analogy: let us consider a circuit which consists of parallel
combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor.

Fig.1.9:Force Voltage analogy

A voltage E is connected in parallel with these elements as shown in the circuit

diagram. Now from the circuit diagram and with the help of KCL equation we write
the expression for current in terms of flux, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

1.2.3 Electrical network of the transfer function

25
 Fig.1.10: Electrical network of the transfer
function

The components R1 and C1 forms one parallel combination and R2 and C2 forms
another parallel combination
R1
Z1 (s )=
The impedance function of parallel combination R1 and C1, 1+R1 C 1 s
R2
Z 2 (s )=
The impedance function of parallel combination R2 and C2, 1+ R 2 C 2 s

Ei ( s ) ×Z 2 (s )
E0 (s )=
Z 1 (s )+ Z 2 (s )
E0 (s ) Z2 (s )
=
By using voltage divider rule, Ei (s ) Z1 (s )+ Z 2 ( s )

R2 R2
( 1+ R 2 C 2 s ) ( 1+ R2 C 2 s )
= =
E0 (s ) Z 2 (s ) R1 R2 R 1 ( 1+ R2 C 2 s ) + R2 ( 1+ R1 C1 s )
= +
Ei ( s ) Z 1 ( s )+Z 2 (s ) ( 1+ R1 C 1 s ) ( 1+ R 2 C2 s ) ( 1+ R1 C 1 s ) ( 1+ R2 C 2 s )

1.3 Transfer Function of Armature Controlled DC Motor

The speed of dc motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and

inversely proportional to flux in filed winding. In armature controlled DC motor the
desired speed is obtained by varying the armature voltage. This speed control
system is an electromechanical control system. The electrical system consists of the
armature and the field circuit but for analysis purpose, only the armature circuits of
the armature is consider because the field is excited by a constant voltage. The
mechanical system consists of the rotating part of the motor and load connected to
the shaft of the motor. The armature controlled DC motor speed control system is
shown below.

Let Ra= armature resistance, Ω

26
 La= armature inductance, H
Ia = armature current, A
Va= armature voltage, V
eb= back emf,V
Kf= torque constant, N-m/A
T= torque developed by motor, N-m
θ = angular displacement of shaft, rad
J= moment of inertia of motor and load, Kg-m2/rad
B= frictional coefficient of motor and load, N-m/( rad/sec)
Kb= back emf constant ,V/(rad/sec).
By kirchoff s voltage law, we can write
dia
IaRa+La dt +eb = Va ⇒

Torque of DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and current. since

flux is constant in this system, the torque is proportional to ia.

Fig.1.11: Armature controlled DC motor

T α i a.

Torque = Kt ia ⇒2

The mechanical system of the motor is shown in fig. the differential equation
governing the mechanical system of motor is given by
d2 θ dθ
j 2
+B
dt dt = T ⇒ 3

The back emf of DC machine is proportional to speed (angular velocity) of

shaft

27
 dθ dθ
∴ eb α dt ; back emf , eb = Kb dt
The laplace transform of various time domain signals involved in this system
are shown below.
L[Va] = Va(s) L[eb]= Eb(s) L[T] = T(s)

L[ia] = Ia(s) L[θ ] =θ (s).

The differential equations governing the armature controlled DC motor speed control
system are
dia d2 θ dθ
2
IaRa+La dt +eb = Va J dt + B dt =T
dθ
T= Kt ia eb = Kb dt
On taking laplace transform of the system differential equation with zero initial
conditions we get.
Ia(s)Ra+LasIa(s)+Eb(s) = Va(s) ⇒5

T(s) = Kt Ia(s) ⇒6

Js2 θ (s) +Bsθ (s) = T(s) ⇒ 7

Eb(s) = Kb sθ (s) ⇒ 8

On equating equations 6 and 7 we get,

Kt Ia(s) = (Js2+Bs)θ (s)
( Js 2 + Bs )
θ( s )
Ia(s) = Kt ⇒9

Equation (5) can be written as

(Ra+sLa) Ia(s)+Eb(s) = Va(s) ⇒ 10

substituting for Eb(s) and Ia(s) from equation (8) and (9) respectively in equation (10)
( Js 2 + Bs )
θ( s )
(Ra+sLa) Kt + Kb sθ (s) = Va(s)

( Ra+sLa )( Js 2 + Bs )+ KbKts
Kt θ (s) = Va(s)

28
The required transfer function is θ (s)/ Va(s)

θ(s ) Kt
=
∴ Va(s ) ( Ra+ sLa)( Js + Bs )+ KbKts
2
⇒ 11
Kt
2 3 2
= RaJs + RaBs+ LaJs + LaBs + KbKt

Kt
3
= s [ JLas +(JRa+ BLa) s+(BRa+KbKt )]

Kt /JLa
JRa+ BLa BRa+ KbKt
s [ s 2 +( )s+( )]
= JLa JLa ⇒12

The transfer function of armature controlled dc motor can be expressed in another

standard form as shown below.

θ(s ) Kt
=
∴ Va(s ) ( Ra+ sLa)( Js + Bs )+ KbKts
2

Kt
sLa Js 2
Ra ( +1 )Bs(1+ )+ KbKts
= Ra Bs

Kt / RaB
KbKt
s [(1+sTa )(1+sTm)+ ]
= RaB ⇒ 13

where,La/Ra= Ta = electrical time constant

and J/B = Tm = mechanical time constant

1.4 Transfer Function of Field Controlled DC Motor

The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely

proportional to flux. In field controlled DC motor the armature voltage is kept constant
and the speed is varied by varying field current.
The speed control system is an electromechanical control system. The electrical
system consists of armature and field circuit but for analysis purpose, only field circuit
is considered because the armature is excited by a constant voltage.

Let ,

29
 Rf = Field resistance,Ω
Lf = Field inductance, H
if = Field current, A
Vf = Field voltage, V
T = torque developed by motor, N-m

Fig.1.12: Field controlled DC Motor

K tf = torque constant, N-m/A

J = moment of inertia of motor and load, Kg-m2/rad
B = frictional coefficient of motor and load, N-m/ (rad/sec)
The equivalent circuit of field is show
By Kirchoff s voltage law, we can write
dif
Rfif + Lf dt = Vf ⇒1
The torque of Dc motor is proportional to product to flux and armature
current. Since armature is current is constant in this system, the torque is
proportional to flux alone, but flux is proportional to field current.
Tα if, ∴ torque, T= Ktf if ⇒2

The mechanical system of the motor is shown in fig. the differential equation
governing the mechanical system of the motor is given by
d2 θ dθ
2
+B
J dt dt = T ⇒3
The Laplace transform of various time domain signal involved in this system are
shown below
L[if] = If(s); L[T] = T(s); L[Vf] = Vf(s); L[θ ] = θ (s).

30
The differential equations governing the field controlled DC motor are
dif d2 θ dθ
2
IfRf + Lf dt = Vf ; T = Ktf if ; J dt + B dt =T
On taking laplace transform of the system differential equation, we get
Rfif (s)+Lfs If(s) = Vf(s) ⇒4

T(s) = KtfIf (s) ⇒5

Js2θ (s)+ Bsθ (s) = T(s) ⇒6

Equating equation (5) and (6) we get,

Ktf If(s) = Js2θ (s) + Bsθ (s) ⇒7

( Js+B)
θ(s )
If(s) = s Ktf ⇒8
The equation (4) can be written as
(Rf+Lfs) If(s) = Vf(s) ⇒9
on substituting for If(s) from equation (8) in equation (9), we get
( Js+B)
θ(s )
(Rf+Lfs) s Ktf = Vf(s)
θ( s ) K tf
=
V f (s ) s ( R f + sL f )(B+ sJ)
K tf
sL f sJ Km
sR f ( 1+ ) B(1+ )
= Rf B = s (1+sT f )(1+sT m )

where , Motor gain constant, Km = Ktf / Rf B

Field time constant, T f = Lf /Rf
Mechanical time constant, Tm= J/B
1.5 Analogous system
Two equations of similar form are defined as analogous system. The
advantage of analogous system is if the response of one system is known then the
other system is also known without actually solving it.
Mechanical translational system Mechanical rotational system

Force - Voltage analogy (F-V Torque -Voltage analogy (T-V Analogy)

Analogy)

Force - Current analogy (F-I Torque -Current analogy (T-I Analogy)

31
 Analogy)

1.5.1 Mathematical model of the given mass-spring-dashpot system

d2 x
f m=M f =f m +f b + f k
dt 2
dx d2 x dx
f f =F f =M 2
+ B +Kx
dt dt dt
f k =Kx

Fig.1.13: Mass-spring-dashpot

1.6 Modeling of Mechanical Translational System

Element Diagram Force Balance Equation

d2 x
Mass (M) f = f m= M
dt 2
With one dx
f = f b =B
displacement dt
Dashpot
d
(B) With two f = f b =B ( x − x 2)
dt 1
displacements

With one
f =f k =Kx
displacement
Spring (K)
With two
f =f k =K ( x 1−x 2 )
displacements

1.6.1 Differential equations for the translational mechanical system

32
i) Free body diagram of Mass M1

By Newton s second law

f m1 + fb+ f k1= f 1
d2 x1 d ( x 1− x 2 )
M1 +B + K 1 x 1= f 1
dt 2 dt
d2 x1 d ( x 1− x 2 )
3 +4 +3x 1=10
dt 2 dt

Taking Laplace transform on both sides,

2 10
3s X 1 ( s ) + 4s ( X 1 ( s )−X 2 ( s ) ) +5X1 ( s )=
s
10
X 1 ( s ) [ 3s 2 + 4s+5 ] −4 sX2 ( s )=
s
10
4s X 2 ( s ) =X 1 ( s ) [ 3s +4s +5 ] −
2
s
X 2 ( s )=
1
4s [
X 1 ( s ) [ 3s 2 + 4s+5 ] −
10
s ]
−−−−−−−−−−( 1)

ii) Free body diagram of Mass M2

By Newton s second law

33
 f m2 + fb+ f k2=f 2
d2 x d ( x 2−x 1 )
M2 2 2 +B + K 2 x 2 =f 2
dt dt
d2 x2 d ( x 2− x 1 )
3 2 +4 +6x 2=6 sin 5t
dt dt

Taking Laplace transform on both sides,

2 30
3s X 2 ( s ) + 4s ( X 2 ( s )−X 1 ( s ) ) +6X 2 ( s )=
s 2 +25
30
X 2 ( s ) [ 3s 2 + 4s+6 ] −4 sX1 ( s )= −−−−−( 2)
s 2 +25

Substitute Equation (1) in equation (2)

1
4s [X 1 ( s ) [ 3s2 +4s+ 5 ] −
10
s ]
[ 3s2 + 4s+6 ]−4 sX1 ( s )=302
s +25
1 30
4s
2 [ ]
sX1 ( s ) [ 3s 2 + 4s+5 ] −10 [ 3s 2 +4s +6 ] −4 sX1 ( s )= 2
s +25
2
[ 3s 2 +4s +6 ] [ s ( 3s 2 +4s +5 ) X 1 ( s )−10 ]−16s 3 X 1 ( s )=120s
( s 2 +25 )
2
[ [ 3s 2 +4s +6 ] s ( 3s2 + 4s+ 5 )−16s 3 ] X 1 ( s )=[ 3s2 + 4s+ 6 ] 10+ 120s
2
( s + 25 )
[ 10 ( s2 +25 ) [ 3s2 + 4s+ 6 ] +120s 2 ]
[ [ 3s 2 + 4s+6 ] s ( 3s 2 + 4s+5 ) −16s3 ] X 1 ( s )=
( s2 +25 )
30s4 + 40s3 + 930s2 +1000s+1500
X 1 ( s )=
s ( s 2 +25 ) ( 9s4 +24s 3 +33s 2 + 44s+30 )

Example 1.1: Write the differential equations governing the mechanical

system as shown below and determine the transfer function.

34
Solution:

Let Laplace transform of f(t)=L[F(t)]=F(s)

Laplace transform of x=L[x]=X(s)

Hence the required transfer function is X(s)/F(s)

The system has two nodes and they are mass M2 and M1.The differential
equations governing the system are given by force balance equations at these
nodes.

Let the displacement of mass M1 be x1. The free body diagram of mass M1, is
shown in figure. The opposing forces acting on mass M1 are marked as fm, fb, fb1, fk,
and fk.

Free body diagram of mass M1

By Newton's second law ,

35
The free body diagram of mass M2 is shown in figure. The opposing forces acting on
M2 are marked as fm2, fb2,fb and fk.

36
Result:

The differential equations governing the system are

The transfer function of the system is

Example 1. 2: determine the transfer function

y 2( s )
f ( s ) of the system shown in figure

Solution:
The system has two nodes and they are mass M1
and M2.The differential equations governing the
system are the force balance equations at these
nodes.
Free body diagram of mass M1

37
 (2)

Free body diagram of mass M2

-------
(3)

38
Result
The differential equations of governing systems

The transfer function of the system is

1.6.2 Analogous electrical elements in force – voltage analogy and force–

current analogy of mechanical translational system.

Fig.1.14: mechanical translational system

F (t) → v (t) B1 → R1 v1 → i1M1 → L1 B1 → R2 v2 → i2

M2 → L 2 K → 1/C

39
 Fig.1.15: Electrical translational system

Mechanical
Translational Force – Voltage Analogy Force – Current Analogy
system

Force (f) Voltage (e) Current (i)

Velocity (v) Current (i) Voltage (e)

Displacement (x) Charge (q) Flux (Φ)

Frictional coefficient Conductance (G=1/R)

Resistance (R)
(B)

Mass(M) Inductance (L) Capacitance (C)

Stiffness(K) Inverse of capacitance (1/C) Inverse of inductance (1/L)

Newton s second law Kirchhoff s voltage law Kirchhoff s current law

(∑f = 0 ) ( ∑v =0 ) ( ∑i = 0 )

Example 1.3: Draw the Force-Current and Force-Voltage analogous circuits and
verify by writing mesh and node equations.

Solution:

i) Free body diagram of Mass M1

40
 d2 y1
f m1=M 1
dt 2
dy 1
f b =B1
1 dt
d
f b2=B2 ( y 1− y 2 )
dt
f k1=K 1 y 1
f k2=K 2 ( y 1− y 2 )

By Newton s second law,

f m1+ fb1 +fb+ f k1+ f k =0

d2 y1 dy1 d
M1 + B1 +B 2 ( y 1 − y 2 ) + K 1 y 1 + K ( y 1 − y 2 ) =0 −−−−( 1)
dt 2 dt dt

ii) Free body diagram of Mass M2

d2 y2
f m2=M 2 2
dt
d
f b2 =B2 ( y 2− y 1 )
dt
f k2 =K 2 ( y 2− y 1 )

By Newton s second law,

f m2+ fb2 +f k2=f ( t )

d2 y2 d
M 2 2 +B 2 ( y 2 − y 1 ) + K 2 ( y 2 − y 1 ) =f ( t ) −−−−( 2)
dt dt

Replace the displacements by velocities in differential equations,

d 2 y dv dy
= , =v, x=∫ v dt
dt 2 dt dt

dv 1
M1 + B1 v 1 + B2 ( v 1−v 2 ) + K 1∫ v 1 dt + K 2 ∫ ( v 1 −v 2 ) dt=0 −−−−( 3 )
dt

dv 2
M2 + B2 ( v 2 − v 1 ) + K 2 ∫ ( v 2 −v 1 ) dt= f ( t ) −−−−( 4 )
dt

Force-Voltage Analogy

41
  Two masses in mechanical system analogues to two meshes in electrical
system. f(t) in mechanical system represented by a current sources e(t) in
electrical system.
 M1,B1, B2, K1 and K2 connected to first node in mechanical system analogues to
elements in mesh 1.
 M2,B2 and K2 connected to second node in mechanical system analogues to
elements in mesh 2.
 B2 and K2 common between two nodes is analogues to elements common
between two meshes.
 The elements series in mechanical system analogues to elements series in
electrical system.
f (t )→e (t ) M 1 → L1 B1 → R1 K 1 → 1/ C1
M 2 → L2 B2 → R2 K 2 → 1/C 2
v 1 → i1
v 2→ i2
Force-Voltage Analogy circuit

Apply KVL to the circuit,

di 1 1 1
L1
dt
+ R 1 i 1 + R2 ( i 1 −i 2 ) +
C1
∫ i 1 dt +
C2
∫ ( i 1−i2 ) dt=0
di 2 1
L2
dt
+ R2 ( i 2 −i 1 ) + ∫ i −i dt=e( t )
C 2 ( 2 1)
Force-Current Analogy
 Two masses in mechanical system analogues to two nodes in electrical
system.

 f(t) in mechanical system represented by a current sources i(t) in electrical

system.

 M1,B1, B2, K1 and K2 connected to first node in mechanical system analogues to

elements in node 1.

 M2,B2,and K2 connected to second node in mechanical system analogues to

elements in node 2.
42
  B2 and K2 common between two nodes is analogues to elements common
between two nodes.

 The elements parallel in mechanical system analogues to elements parallel in

electrical system.

1 1
f (t )→i(t ) M 1→ C 1 B1 → K1→
R1 L1
1 1
M 2 →C 2 B2 → K 2→
R2 L2
v 1→ V 1
v 2→ V 2

Force-Current Analogy circuit

Apply KCL to the circuit,

dv 1 1 1 1 1
C1 + v 1+ ( v 1−v 2 ) + ∫ v 1 dt + ∫ ( v 1−v 2 ) dt =0
dt R1 R2 L1 L2
dv 2 1 1
C2 + ( v 2 −v 1 ) + ∫ ( v 2 −v 1 ) dt=i ( t )
dt R2 L2

1.7 Analogous electrical elements in torque – voltage analogy and torque –

current analogy of mechanical rotational system.

Mechanical rotational
Torque – Voltage Analogy Torque – Current Analogy
system

Torque (T) Voltage (e) Current (i)

Angular Velocity (ω) Current (i) Voltage (e)

Angular Displacement Flux (Φ)

Charge (q)
(θ)

Frictional coefficient (B) Resistance (R) Conductance (G=1/R)

43
 Moment of inertia(J) Inductance (L) Capacitance (C)

Stiffness of spring(K) Inverse of capacitance (1/C) Inverse of inductance (1/L)

Newton s second law Kirchhoff s voltage law Kirchhoff s current law

( ∑T= 0 ) ( ∑v = 0 ) ( ∑i = 0 )

Example 1.4: Write the differential equations governing the mechanical

rotational system shown in the figure and obtain the transfer function of the
system. Draw the torque-voltage and torque-current electrical analogous
circuit.

i) Free body diagram of moment of inertia of Mass J1

d2 θ1
T j1 =J 1
dt 2
dθ 1
T b =B1
1 dt
T k1=K 1 ( θ 1−θ 2 )

By Newton s second law,

T j1 +T b1+ T k1=T ( t )
d2 θ1 dθ1
J1 + B1 + K 1 ( θ1 −θ2 ) =T ( t ) −−−−( 1)
dt 2 dt

ii) Free body diagram of moment of inertia of Mass J2

44
 d2 θ 2
T j2 =J 2
dt 2
dθ
T b =B2 2
2 dt
T k1=K 1 ( θ 2−θ 1 )
T k2=K 1 ( θ 2−θ 3 )

By Newton s second law,

T j 2 +T b 2 +T k 1 + T k 2 =0
d2 θ2 dθ 2
J2 + B2 + K 1 ( θ2 −θ1 ) + K 2 ( θ2 −θ3 )=0 −−−−( 2)
dt 2 dt

Free body diagram of moment of inertia of Mass J3

d 2θ 3
T j3 = J 1 2
dt
dθ 3
T b = B3
3 dt
T k2= K 2 ( θ 3 −θ2 )

By Newton s second law,

T j3 +T b3 +T k2=0
d2 θ 3 dθ3
J3 + B3 + K 2 ( θ3 −θ2 ) =0 −−−−( 3)
dt 2 dt

Replace the angular displacements by angular velocities in differential

equations,

d 2 θ dω dθ
= , =ω, θ=∫ ω dt
dt 2 dt dt

dω 1
J1 + B1 ω1 + K 1 ∫ ( ω1 −ω 2 ) dt =T ( t ) −−−−( 4 )
dt

dω 2
J2 + B 2 ω2 + K 1∫ ( ω 2−ω1 ) dt + K 2∫ ( ω 2−ω3 ) dt=0 −−−−(5 )
dt

dω 3
J3 +B 3 ω 3 + K 3 ∫ ( ω3 −ω 2 ) dt =0 −−−−( 6)
dt

45
Torque-Voltage Analogy

 Three moment of inertia of masses in mechanical system analogues to three

meshes in electrical system.

 T(t) in mechanical system represented by a voltage sources e 1(t) of electrical

system.

 J1,K1,B1 connected to first node in mechanical system analogues to elements in

mesh 1.

 J2,K1,B1 and K2to second node in mechanical system analogues to elements in

mesh 2.

 J3,K2,B2 to third node in mechanical system analogues to elements in mesh 3.

 K1 common between nodes 1 and 2 is analogues to elements common

between two meshes 1 and 2.

 K2 common between nodes 2 and 3 is analogues to elements common

between two meshes 2 and 3.

T (t )→e (t ) J 1 → L1 B1 → R1 K 1 → 1/ C1
J 2 → L2 B2 → R2 K 2 →1 /C 2
ω1→ i1 B3 → R 3
ω2→ i 2

Torque-Voltage Analogy circuit:

Fig.1.16: Torque-Voltage Analogy circuit

Apply KVL to the circuit,

di 1 1
L1 + R 1 i 1 + ∫ ( i 1−i 2 ) dt=e(t )
dt C1

di 2 1 1
L2
dt
+ R 2 i2+
C1
∫ ( i 2−i 1 ) dt + ∫ ( i 2 −i 3 ) dt =0
C2

46
 di 3 1
L3 + R 3 i 3 + ∫ ( i 2 −i 3 ) dt=0
dt C2

Torque-Current Analogy

 Three moment of inertia of masses in mechanical system analogues to three

nodes in electrical system.
 T(t) in mechanical system represented by a current sources i(t) of electrical
system.
 J1,K1,B1 connected to first node in mechanical system analogues to elements in
node1.
 J2,K1,B1 and K2to second node in mechanical system analogues to elements in
node 2.
 J3,K2,B2 to third node in mechanical system analogues to elements in node 3.
 K1 common between nodes 1 and 2 is analogues to elements common
between two nodes1 and 2.K2 common between nodes 2 and 3 is analogues to
elements common between two nodes 2 and 3.

T (t )→i(t ) J 1 →C 1 B 1 → 1/ R1 K 1 →1 / L1
J 2 → C2 B2 → 1/ R2 K 2 →1 / L2
ω1→ v 1 B3 → 1/ R 3
ω2→ v 2

Torque-Current Analogy circuit:

Fig.1.17: Torque-Current Analogy circuit

Apply KCL to the circuit,

dv 1 1 1
C1 + v 1 + ∫ ( v 1 −v 2 ) dt=i ( t )
dt R1 L1

47
 dv 2 1 1 1
C2 + v 2 + ∫ ( v 2−v 1 ) dt + ∫ ( v 2 −v 3 ) dt=0
dt R2 L1 L2

dv 3 1 1
C3
dt
+
R3
v 3+
L2
∫ ( v 2 −v 3 ) dt=0
1.8 Block diagram
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions
performed by each component of the system and shows the flow of signals. The
basic elements of block diagram are block, branch point and summing point.
i) Basic connections for a block diagram
(i).Cascade (ii).Parallel (iii).Feedback
ii) Advantages of block diagram representation
(i).East to form the overall block diagram for the whole system by simply
connecting the blocks of each component.
(ii).The functional operation of the system is readily visualized by examining
the block diagram rather than the physical system itself.

iii ) Drawbacks of block diagram

(i).Interaction between blocks.

(ii).Concealment of important functions.

1.8.1 Basic Connections for Blocks

There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.

i) Series Connection
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two
blocks having transfer functions G1(s) G1(s) and G2(s) G2(s) are connected in series.

Y(S) =G1(s) G2(S)

Fig.1.18: cascade connection

ii) Parallel Connection

The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the

48
 following figure, two blocks having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are
connected in parallel. The outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing
point.

Fi
g.1.19: Parallel Connection

iii )Feedback Connection

As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback —
positive feedback and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback
control system. Here, two blocks having transfer functions G(s)G(s) and H(s)H(s) form
a closed loop.

Fig.1.20: Feedback Connection

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer
function of the negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.
C (s ) G ( s)
T . F= =
R ( s ) 1+G ( s ) H ( s )

1.8.2 Block Diagram Reduction Rules

Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having
many blocks, summing points and take-off points.

49
  Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify

 Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.

 Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.

 Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it toward
right.

 Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it toward
left.

 Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.

Note − the transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function
of the overall block diagram.
Example 1.5: Find closed loop transfer function of the system whose block
diagram is shown below.

Solution:
STEP 1: Moving the summing point before the block G 1

STEP 2: Moving the branch point before the block G 2

50
STEP 3:
i.Interchange the summing points two and three
ii.Combining the blocks in cascade
iii.Combining the blocks in parallel

STEP 4: Eliminate the feedback path and combining the blocks in cascade

STEP 5: Combining the blocks in cascade

STEP 6: Eliminate the feedback path

C G1 G2 G 3 +G 1 G 4
=
Transfer function = R 1+G 1 G 2 H 1 +G2 G 3 H 2 +G 4 H 2 +G 1 G2 G3 + G1 G4

51
Example 1.6: Determine the transfer function for the block diagram shown in
figure.

Solution:

STEP 1: Moving the branch point before the block and eliminating the feed
forward bath

STEP 2: Moving
the branch point
after the block

STEP 3: Eliminating the feedback path

52
STEP 4: Combining the blocks in cascade and eliminating the feedback path

STEP 5: Eliminating the feedback path

STEP 6: Transfer function

Example 1.7: Using block diagram reduction technique, obtain the transfer

C
function R

53
Solution:

STEP 1:i.Eliminating the feed forward bath

ii. Combining the blocks in cascade

STEP 2: Eliminating the feedback path

STEP 3: Combining the blocks in cascade

STEP 4:

Eliminating the feedback path

STEP 5: Combining the blocks in cascade

54
 C G1 G2 (1+G 3 )(G 4 +G5 )
=
Transfer function = R 1+(1+G3 ) (G4 +G5 ) H 2 +G2 H 1 (1+G3 ) (G4 +G5 )

1.9 Signal flow graph

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous

algebraic equations. By taking Laplace Transform the time domain differential
equations governing a control system can be transferred to a set of algebraic
equations in s-domain.

i) Transmittance of a branch
The transmittance is the gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one
node to another node in signal flow graph.
ii) Sink and source
Source is the input node in the signal for graph and it has only outgoing
branches. Sink is an output node in the signal flow graph and it has only incoming
branches.
iii) Non touching loop and path.

1. Non touching loop: The loops are said to be no touching if they do not have
common nodes.
2. Path: It is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of the branch
arrows. The path should not cross a node more than once.
iv) Two components of a signal flow graph
 Node – A node is s point representing a variable or signal.
 Branch – A branch is directed line segment that joining two nodes. The arrow
on the branch indicates the direction of signal flow.

Masons Gain formula

Masons Gain formula states that the overall gain of the system is
1
Δ
∑ Pk Δ k
Overall gain, T = k

K= Number of forward paths in the signal flow graph.

Pk =Forward path gain of kth forward path

55
Δ = 1 - [sum of individual loop gains] + [sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two non-touching loops] - [sum of gain products of all possible
Combinations of three non touching loops]+…
th
Δ k = Δ for that part of the graph which is not touching k forward path.
1.9.1 Basic properties of signal flow graph
(i).Signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems.
(ii).It consists of nodes and branches. A node is a point representing a
variable or signal. A branch indicates functional dependence of one signal on the
other.
(iii).A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to
all outgoing branches.
(iv) Signals travel along branches only in the marked direction and it is
multiplied by the gain of the branch.
(v).The algebraic equations must be in the form of cause and effect
relationship.
1.9.2 Draw the signal flow graph for the network.

Fig1.21: Signal Flow graph

1.9.3 Advantages of signal flow graph method

The advantage of using signal flow graph is to represent a control system is
that a gain formula or Mason s gain formula is available which gives the relationships
among the system variables without requiring a reduction of the graph.

56
 C (s )
Example 1.8: find R ( s ) for the signal flow graph shown below.

Step 1: Forward path gains.

There are two forward paths K=1

Forward path-1 P1:

Gain of forward path-1 P1 = G1G2G3G4G5

Step 2: Individual loop gains

There are five individual loops

Loop 1 Loop2 Loop 3 Loop 4 Loop 5

Loop gain of individual loop 1 P11= - G1H1

Loop gain of individual loop 2 P21= - G3H3
Loop gain of individual loop 3 P31= - G4H4
Loop gain of individual loop 4 P41= - G5H5
Loop gain of individual loop 5 P51= - G1G2G3H2

Step 3: Gain of products of non-touching loops

Gain of products of two non-touching loops

There are four combinations of two non-touching loops

First combination Second combination Third combination

57
Fourth combination Fifth combination

Gain product of first combination of two non-touching loops

P12=P11P21= (-G1H1) (-G3H3) = G1G3H1H3

Gain product of second combination of two non-touching loops

P22=P11P31= (-G1H1) (-G4H4) = G1G4H1H4

Gain product of third combination of two non-touching loops

P32=P11P41= (-G1H1) (-G5H5) = G1G5H1H5

Gain product of fourth combination of two non touching loops

P42=P21P41= (-G3H3) (-G5H5) = G2G5H3H5

Gain product of fifth combination of two non-touching loops

P52=P51P41= (-G1G2G3H2) (-G5H5) = G1G2 G3G5H2H5

Gain of products of three non-touching loops

There is only one combination of three non-touching loops

Gain product of combination of three non-touching loops

P123=P11P21 P41= (-G1H1) (-G3H3) (-G5H5) = -G1G3G5H1H3H5

Step 4: Calculation of Δ and Δk

58
Δ1=1.there is no part of graph which is not touching with first forward path.

Step 5: Transfer function

1 1
T= ∑
Δ K
Pk Δ k = ( P1 Δ 1 )
Δ
By Mason’s gain formula for the transfer function

K = 1 [We have only one forward paths]

1+G H +G H +G H +G H +G G G H +¿ ( G1G 3 H 1 H 3+G1 G 4 H 1 H 4 +G1 G5 H 1 H 5 + ¿ ) ¿ ¿¿¿

T=G1 G2 G3 G 4 G5 ¿ 1 1 3 3 4 4 5 5 1 2 3 2
¿ ¿¿ ¿
¿
¿
C (s )
Example1. 9: using mason’s gain formula, determine the transfer function R ( s ) .

Step 1: Forward path gains.

There are two forward paths K=2

Forward path-1 P1:

Gain of forward path-1 P1 = 1×5×4×2×10×1=400

59
Forward path-2 P2:

Gain of forward path-2 P2 = 1×10×2×10×1=200

Step 2: Individual loop gains

There are three individual loops

Loop 1 Loop2 Loop3

Loop gain of individual loop 1 P11= 4×−1=−4

Loop gain of individual loop 2 P21= 2×−2=−4

Loop gain of individual loop 3 P31= −1

Step 3: Gain of products of non-touching loops

Gain of products of two non-touching loops

First combination Second combination

Gain product of first combination of two non-touching loops P12=P11P21= 4×−4=16

Gain product of second combination of 2 non touching loops P22=P21P31= 4×−1=4

There are no possible combinations of three non-touching loops

Step 4: Calculation of Δ and Δk

Δ=1− ( P11+ P21 + P31 )=1−(−4−4−1 )=10

Δ1=1− (−1 )=2 Δ2=1− (−4 )=5

60
Step 5: Transfer function
By Mason’s gain formula for the transfer function

1 1
T= ∑
Δ K
Pk Δ k = ( P1 Δ 1 +P2 Δ 2 )
Δ K = 2 [We have two forward paths]

400×2+200×5 1800
T= = =100
18 18

Example 1.10: Find the overall gain C(s) / R(s) for the signal flow graph as
shown in fig.

Solution:
Step 1: Forward path gains
There are two forward paths. K=2.

Gain of forward path 1, P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4

Gain of forward path 2, P2 = G1 G2 G6

Step 2 : Individual loop gain

61
Step 3: Gain products of two Non-touching loops
There are two non touching loops.

Step 4: Calculation of
Δ and Δ k

Since there is no part of graph which is not touching forward path -1, Δ 1 =1

The part of graph which is not touching forward path 2 ,

Δ 2 =1 −G5

62
Step 5: Transfer function
By Mason’s gain formula for the transfer function

1 1
T= ∑
Δ K
Pk Δ k = ( P1 Δ 1 +P2 Δ 2 )
Δ K = 2 [We have two forward paths]

Example 1.11 Convert the given block diagram shown in fig. to signal flow
graph for and determine the closed loop transfer function C(s) / R(s).

Solution:
The nodes are assigned at input, output, at every summing point & branch
point as shown

The signal flow graph of the above system

63
Step 1: Forward path gains
There are two forward paths. K=2.

Step 2: Individual loop gain

Loop gain of individual loop -1 P11 = −G1 H

Step 3: Gain products of two Non-touching loops

There are no two non touching loops.

Step 4: Calculation of
Δ and Δ k

Step 5: Transfer function

By Mason’s gain formula for the transfer function
1 1
T= ∑
Δ K
Pk Δ k = ( P1 Δ 1 +P2 Δ 2 )
Δ K = 2 [We have two forward paths]

1.10 Synchros
A commonly used error detector of mechanical positions of Rotating shafts in AC
control systems is the Synchro. It consists of two electro mechanical devices.
 Synchro transmitter
 Synchro receiver or control transformer.

64
 The principle of operation of these two devices is sarne but they differ slightly in
their construction. The construction of a Synchro transmitter is similar to a
phase alternator.

Fig.1.22: Position of Rotor Coils

 The stator consists of a balanced three phase winding and is star connected.
 The rotor is of dumbbell type construction and is wound with a coil to produce a
magnetic field.When a no voltage is applied to the winding of the rotor, a
magnetic field is produced.
 The coils in the stator link with this sinusoidal distributed magnetic flux and
voltages are induced in the three coils due to transformer action. The three
voltages are in time phase with each other and the rotor voltage.

65
  The magnitudes of the voltages are proportional to the cosine of the angle
between the rotor position and the respective coil axis. When 6 > = 90° the axis
of the magnetic field coincides with the axis of coil S2 and maximum voltage is
induced in it as seen.In summary, it can be seen that the input to the
transmitter is the angular position of the rotor and the set of three single phase
voltages is the output.
 The magnitudes of these voltages depend on the angular position of the rotor
as given

Fig.1.23: Synchro rotor position

Hence

• Now consider these three voltages to he applied to the stator of a similar device
called control transformer or synchro receiver.

• The construction of a control transformer is similar to that of the transmitter except

that the rotor is made cylindrical in shape whereas the rotor of transmitter is
dumbbell in shape. Since the rotor is cylindrical, the air gap is uniform and the
reluctance of the magnetic path is constant.

• This makes the output impedance of rotor to be a constant. Usually the rotor winding
of control transformer is connected teas amplifier which requires signal with constant
impedance for better performance.

66
• A synchro transmitter is usually required to supply several control transformers and
hence the stator winding of control transformer is wound with higher impedance per
phase. Since the some currents flow through the stators of the synchro transmitter
and receiver, the same pattern of flux distribution will be produced in the air gap of the
control transformer.

• Thus the voltage induced in the rotor coil of control transformer is proportional to the
cosine of the angle between the two rotors.

1.11 AC servomotor
An AC servomotor is basically a two-phase induction motor except for certain
special design features.
1.11.1 Construction
The stator consists of two pole-pairs (A-B and C-D) mounted on the inner periphery
of the stator, such that their axes are at an angle of 90 0 in space. Each pole-pair
carries a winding. One winding is called reference winding and other is called control
winding.
The exciting current in the winding should have a phase displacement of 90 0. The
supply used to drive the motor is single phase and so advancing capacitor is
connected to one of the phase to produce a phase difference of 90 0.The rotor
construction is usually squirrel cage or drag-cup type.

Fig.1.24: AC Servor motor (stator)

The squirrel cage rotor is made of laminations. The rotor bars are placed on the
slots and short circuited at both ends by end rings. The diameter of the rotor is kept
small in order to reduce inertia and to obtain good accelerating characteristics.

67
1.11.2 Working principle of AC servomotor
The stator windings are excited by voltages of equal rms magnitude and 90 0
phase difference. These results in exciting currents i 1 and i12 that are phase displaced
by 900 and have equal rms values. These current gives rise to a rotating magnetic
fields of constant magnitude. The direction of rotation depends on the phase
relationship of the two currents (or voltage).
The exciting current shown in fig produces a clockwise rotating magnetic field
and a phase shift of 1800 in I1 will produce an anticlockwise rotating magnetic
field.The rotating magnetic field sweeps over the rotor conductors. The rotor
conductors experience a change in flux and so voltages are induced in rotor
conductor. This voltage circulates current in the short circuited rotor conductors and
the current create rotor flux.
Due to the interaction of stator and rotor flux, a mechanical force (or torque) is
developed on the rotor and so the rotor starts moving in the same direction as that of
rotating magnetic field.
A two-phase servomotor differs in the following two ways from a normal
induction motor.
 The rotor of the servomotor is built with high resistance, so that its X/R
(inductive reactance/Resistance) ratio is small which results in linear speed-
torque characteristics. But conventional induction motors will have high value
of X/R which results in high efficiency and non-linear speed-torque
characteristics). The speed-torque characteristics of normal induction motor
(curve –a ) and ac servomotor(curve b) are shown in figure.
 The excitation voltage applied to two stator windings should have a phase
difference of 900.

68
 Fig1.25: Speed Vs Torque characteristics of induction and Ac servomotor

 The control winding is excited by the modulated control signal and this voltage
is of variable magnitude and polarity. The control signal of the servo loop (or
the system) dictates the magnitude and polarity of this voltage.
 The control signal in control systems are usually of low frequency, in the range
of 0 to 20Hz. For production of rotating magnetic field, the control-phase
voltage must be of the same frequency as the reference-phase voltage and in
addition the two voltages must be in time quadrature. Hence the control signal
is modulated by a carrier whose frequency is same as that of reference
voltage and then applied to control winding.
 The ac supply itself is used as carrier signal for modulation process. The 90 °
phase difference between the control-phase and reference –phase voltages is
obtained by the insertion of a capacitor in reference winding.

Fig.1.26: Waveforms of control signal, carrier and modulated signal

1.12 Transfer function of AC servo motor
Let Tm = Torque developed by servomotor
q = Angular displacement of rotor
dθ
ω=
dt =Angular speed
Tj = Torque required by the load
J= moment of inertia of load and the rotor

69
 B= Viscous –frictional co-efficient of load and the rotor
K1=Slope of control –phase voltage vs Torque characteristics
K2 = Slope of speed – torque characteristics
dθ
T m =K 1 e c−K 2
Torque developed by motor, dt ….(1)
The rotating part of the motor and the load can be modeled by ,

d2 θ dθ
T l =J 2
+B
Load torque, dt dt ….(2)
At equilibrium the motor torque is equal to load torque.

d 2 θ dθ dθ
J 2 +B =K 1 e c −K 2
dt dt dt …(3)
On taking Laplace transform of equation (3)
J S 2 θ ( s ) + BS θ ( s )=K 1 E c ( s )−K 2 Sθ ( s )
[ J S2+ BS+ K 2 S ] θ ( s )=K 1 E c ( s )
K1
θ ( s) K1 B+ K 2 Km
= = = . .. . .(4 )
E c ( s ) S( J S+ B+ K 2 )
S
J
B+ K 2 [
S+1
S (τ m s+1 )
]
K1
K m= =Motor gain cons tan t
B+ K 2
J
τ m= =Motor time cons tan t
Where B+ K 2
The equation (4) is the transfer function of ac servomotor.
1.13 DC servomotors
A DC servo motor is used as an actuator to drive a load. It is usually a DC motor
of low power rating. DC servo motors have a high ratio of starting torque to inertia and
therefore they have a faster dynamic response. DC motors are constructed using rare
earth permanent magnets which have high residual flux density and high coercively.
As no field winding is used, the field copper losses am zero and hence, the
overall efficiency of the motor is high. The speed torque characteristic of this motor is
flat over a wide range, as the armature reaction is negligible.
Moreover speed in directly proportional to the armature voltage for a given
torque. Armature of a DC servo motor is specially designed to have low inertia. In

70
some application DC servo motors are used with magnetic flux produced by field
windings.
The speed of PMDC motors can be controlled by applying variable armature
voltage. These are called armature voltage controlled DC servo motors.
Wound field DC motors can be controlled by either controlling the armature
voltage or controlling rheostat field current. Let us now consider modeling of these two
types or DC servo motors.
The servomotors are used to convert an electrical signal (control voltage)
applied to them into an angular displacement of the shaft. They can either operate in a
continuous duty or step duty depending on construction. A servomotor should have the
following feature.
 Linear relationship between the speed and electric control signal.
 Steady state stability.
 Wide range of speed control.

 Linearity of mechanical characteristics throughout the entire speed range.

 Low mechanical and electrical inertia

 Fast response.
Advantages of DC servomotors are the following

 Higher output than from a 50 Hz motor of same size

 Linearity of characteristics are achieved easily
 Easier speed control from zero speed to full speed in both directions.
 High torque to inertia ratio that gives them quick response to control signals.
 DC servomotors have light weight, low inertia and low inductance armature
that can respond quickly to commands for a change in position or speed.
 Low electrical time constants
 DC motors are capable of delivering over 3 times their rated torque for a short
time but AC motors will start at 2 to 2.5 times their rated torque.

71
 Fig.1.27: Classification of DC Servomotor
1.13.1 Permanent Magnet DC Motors

In this type of motors, the field winding is replaced by permanent magnets to

produce the required magnetic field. Permanent magnet motor are economical for
power ratings up to a few KW.
The following are some of the advantages of permanent-magnet motors.
 A simpler, more reliable motor because the field power supply is not required.
 Higher efficiency due to the absence of field losses
 Field flux is less affected by temperature rise.
 Less heating, making it possible to totally enclose the motor
 No possibility of over speeding due to loss of field.
 A more linear torque Vs speed curve.
 Higher power output at the same dimensions and temperature limitations.
The disadvantages of permanent magnet motors are the magnets deteriorate with
time and de-magnetized by large current transients.
1.13.2 Electo-Magnetic Field Motors
These motors are economical for higher power ratings, generally above 1KW.
Special features
 The number of slots and commutator segments is large to improve
commutation.

 poles and compensating windings are provided to eliminate sparking.

72
  The diameter to length ratio is kept low to reduce inertia.

 Oversize shafts are employed to withstand the high torque stress.

 Eddy currents are reduced by complete lamination of the magnetic circuit and
by using low steel

1.14 Transfer function of field controlled DC servomotor

73
 Fig.1.30: Field controlled DC servomotor

Assumptions

74
75
1.14.1 Transfer function of armature controlled DC servomotor

Fig.1.31:
Armature controlled DC servomotor.

Assumptions:

76
77
1.15 Application of control system
1.15.1 Temperature control system
The output in the system is the desired temperature. The temperature of the
system is raised by heat generated by the heating element. The output temperature
depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains ON.

Fig.1.32: Open loop temperature control system

The ON and OFF of the supply is governed by the time setting of the relay. The
temperature is measured by the sensor which gives an analog voltage corresponding to
the temperature of the furnace. The analog signal is converted to digital signal by an
A/D converter.
In this system if there is any change in output temperature then the time setting of
the relay is not altered automatically.

78
1.15.2 Closed loop control system
The control system in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity
so as to maintain the desired output value is called closed loop control system.
Advantages
 The closed loop systems are accurate.
 The sensitivity of the systems may be made small to make the system more
stable. The closed loop systems are less affected by noise.
Disadvantages
 The closed loop systems are complex and costlier.
 The feedback in closed loop systems may lead to oscillatory response.
 The feedback reduces the overall gain of the system.
 Stability is a major problem in closed loop system and more care is needed to
design a stable closed loop system.
Example for the closed loop control system
 Traffic signal system
 Liquid level control system
 Temperature control system
1.15.3 Closed loop Temperature control system
The electric furnace shown in fig. is an closed loop system. The output in the
system is the desired temperature. The temperature of the system is raised by heat
generated by the heating element. The output temperature depends on the time
during which the supply to heater remains ON.

Fig.1.33: Closed loop temperature control system

The ON and OFF of the relay is controlled by the controller which is a digital
system. The desired temperature is input to the system through. The temperature is

79
measured by the sensor which gives an analog voltage corresponding to the
temperature of the furnace. The analog signal is converted to digital signal by an A/D
converter.
The computer reads the actual temperature and compares with desired
temperature. If it finds any difference then it sends signal to switch On or OFF the
relay through D/A converter and amplifier. Thus this system automatically corrects
any changes in output temperature.

80