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Foundations of Statistics
4th Edition

Dr Glenda Francis
Dr Andi Garing
 Module 1 Critical Thinking in Statistics

MODULE1
Introduction to Critical Thinking in Statistics
In both your personal and your professional life you'll often come into contact with statistics.
Open a newspaper, surf the internet or turn on the radio or the television and you're going to
fmd examples - anything from an advertising campaign trying to convince you to use a
particular anti-dandruff shampoo, to a report on the strength of opposition to some
government policy. Did you know that Labor voters prefer to watch soapies, while Liberal
voters prefer cop shows? Can this be true? - well according to a report I heard on the radio, it
is - but should I believe them? Some statistics reported in the media defmitely come into the
category of'lies, damned lies and statistics'but some represent well conducted studies with
important consequences. How can we tell which is which? One of the aims of this text is to
convince you of the value of good statistical studies while proofmg you against being misled
with statistics.
Throughout this text you'll meet a lot of statistical'jargon'. The language in statistics is very
precise, and terms you thou迦 you understood, like'population'and'significant', are used in
rather different ways in statistics to how they are used in everyday English. So in some ways
learning about statistics is like learning another dialect and your language skills will be far
more important than your mathematical skills.

1. 1 Statistics in Everyday Life

Statistics is all about answering questions. Let's briefly look at a couple of statistical studies
which have had a positive effect in our society. We're all aware that alcohol affects skill, and
this finding has resulted in laws against drink driving which have led to a reduction in the
road toll. The studies which established the effects of alcohol on driving skill were analysed
with statistics, and it was these statistics which convinced the politicians to act. Another
outstanding example of statistics being put to good use is in the search for causes of sudden
infant death syndrome (SIDS). Using statistical techniques researchers were able to identify
several risk factors for SIDS. Raising public awareness of these risk factors has substantially
reduced the incidence of SIDS.
"Awareness of the risk factors, and programs encouraging people to avoid the risk factors -
especially those aimed at getting parents to sleep babies on their backs - has resulted in a
70 per cent drop in SIDS cases over the past decade in Australia."1

1 . 2 Detecting Bias
So what distinguishes the good statistical studies from the bad? Let's start by looking at a
research question of our own, and explore how we might go about answering it. In 2000, 60%
of Australians reported having access to a computer at home. Has this percentage increased?
How would we go about answering this question? We could start by asking some people if
they had access to a computer at home. Suppose we put this question to a group of people and
recorded their responses. Rather than trying to analyse the data by hand, we'll use a statistical
package SPSS2, an IBM company —IBM SPSS Statistics release 23 (2015)3, (SPSS stands for
' Statistics Package for the Social Sciences'.) You'11 find instructions for using SPSS in
Appendix A, here we'll just show you the output and how to interpret it.

Peter Lavelle published 29/05/2003, http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/stories/2003/05/29/1831797.htm

2 IBM SPSS Statistics was formerly called PASW statistics

IBM Corp. released 2015. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 23.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.

Copyright ©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. Andi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1 Critical Thinking in Statistics

computer at home?

computer at home? • yes

口 no

Valid yes
Percent
88.3
I Valid Percent
88.3
l Cumulative
Percent
88.3
no 11.7 100.0
Total 100.0

So in this sample of 103 people, 8~.3% had a computer at home. That's a lot more than the
60% of Australians who reported having a home computer in 2000. Is this enough
information to convince you that the ownership of home computers has increased? This
question raises some important issues.

Populations and Samples

We are not just interested in the 103 people in our sample, we are interested in all adult
Australians. In the language of statistics, our 'population' is'all adult Australians'. This is the
complete set of things we're interested in. This use of the word'population' may be a little
different to what you're used to. Typically, if you ask people to use the term'population'
they'll come up with a sentence like - "The population of Australia is 20 million". You're
probably also familiar with the word'population'in the context of "The population of
Australia is all of the people in Australia". In statistics, a population might be all of the people
in a country, or all of the people in the shire of Yarra Ranges, or all of the members of the
local golf club. It depends on the question we are trying to answer. Someone working for the
Yarra Ranges Shire Council might want to know if the residents of the shire are happy with
the weekly rubbish collection service. In that case, the population they are interested in is all
of the residents in the Shire. If the local golf club wants to know how early in the morning the
members would like the club rooms to be open, then the population they are interested in is all
members of the golf club.
In these examples the population is 'all of the people we are interested in', but populations are
not necessarily people. If we want to answer the question'what is the shelf life of evercell
batteries', then our population is all evercell batteries. If we want to investigate what
percentage of Singapore households own a private car, then the population of interest is all
Singaporean households. So the'units of analysis' for a population don't have to be people,
~hey can be batteries or households or anything else. At the start of any statistical
mvestigation it's important to identify what population you are interested in and what the
'unit of analysis'is.

~EXERCISE 1.1 (Solution on page 255)

For each of the following scenarios, what is the population researchers are interested in?
What is the unit of analysis?
a. An Indonesian tourism authority wants to know the average length of stay for overseas
tourists visiting Indonesia.
b. A marketing organisation wants to know what proportion of Singaporean households
have an air conditioner.
c. An enterprising 10 year old wants to know the average amount of pocket money the
children in his class receive.
d. A shampoo manufacturer wants to know how effective their product is at removing
dandruff.
e. A consumer group wants to know the average number of kilometres "Beauyear" tyres
last.
2

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. Andi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1Critical Thinking in Statistics

~EXERCISE 1.2 (Solutiononpage255)

In which of the following scenarios, do you think there is bias in the way the sample has
been selected? In each case, start by thinking about what population the researchers are
interested in.
a. The Australian Government wants to know what proportion of Australian wheat
fam记rs want to have a'single desk'for export wheat sales. They make a list of all
Australian wheat farmers and randomly select a sample of 100. Each of these 100
farmers are contacted by phone and asked for their opinion.
b. The Australian Government wants to know what proportion of Australian wheat
farmers want to have a'single desk'for export wheat sales. They put a questionnaire
on the Australian Wheat Board's website asking people's opinion and 45 people
respond to the questionnaire.
c. An Indonesian Tourism authority wants to know the average length of stay for
overseas tourists visiting Indonesia. They spend two hours one Saturday morning at
Bali International airport interviewing all people departing on international flights.
They interview 165 overseas tourists who are returning home at the end of their visit.

Other Sources of Bias

The way in which the measurements are made or the questions are asked can also introduce
bias into a study. If I was to ask students'how committed are you to your studies?'the
chances are I would hear that everyone was'very committed'- who's going to tell their
lecturer they're not particularly committed to their studies! If people are asked to report on
their own attitudes or behaviours they tend to give what they believe are socially acceptable
responses. There are some self-reported measures that are notoriously untrustworthy. Ask
people how much alcohol they drink, or how many cigarettes they smoke each week and the
responses just don't match up with sales of alcohol and cigarettes. People may be embarrassed
about their consumption of alcohol and so under-report it, or they may be genuinely unaware
of how much they're actually drinking. The same thing happens with cigarettes.
Another potential source of bias is the way the questions in surveys are phrased. In one study4
conducted in the United States, responses to two different questions were compared. When
people were asked 'Do you think the United States should allow public speeches against
democracy?' 75% agreed. But when the question posed was'Do you think the United States
should forbid public speeches against democracy'over half of the respondents (54%) thought
such speeches should be forbidden. So more than half the respondents thought they should be
forbidden but more than half also thought they should be allowed!
Several studies done on eye witness reports raise questions about how reliable eye witness
testimony is in court cases. One great experiment was to show people a video of a car crash. 5
Some of the participants were asked'About how fast were the cars going when they hit each
other?' Others were asked'About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each
other?'The average speed estimate for the frrst question was 34.0 mph, the average speed
estimate for the second question was 40.5 mph. Quite a substantial difference!

4 For more information on subjective survey data, see Bertrand, M. & Mullainathan, S. "Do People Mean What
They Say? Implications for Subjective Survey Data" Economics and Social Behavior
5 Loftus, E. & Palmer, J. 1974 "Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example of the Interaction
Between Language and Memory" Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour 13, 585-589
4

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. A ndi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1 Critical Thinking in Statistics

Even the order in which questions are asked can have an effect. The response to'How happy
are you with life in general? ' might depend on what other questions the respondents have just
been asked. Previous questions might remind them of some aspect of their life they are
particularly happy (or u呻appy) with, which tends to colour their response to the'general
happiness'question.
Problems with the way measurements are taken or with the way questions are asked can
introduce substantial bias. These effects might be unintentional or deliberate, and they might
be obvious, as in a leading question'Should refugees be subjected to the appalling conditions
in detention centres?'or far more subtle.
~EXERCISE 1.3 (Solution on page 255)
Comment on any obvious bias in the following measurements.
a. A research organisation is conducting a study on healthy eating habits. In this study the
respondents are asked to report on the number of take away meals they ate last week.
b. In a study on healthy lifestyles, a nurse records the weight of each of the participants
each week.
c. A market researcher asks shoppers to try out a new product for cleaning glass surfaces.
After the trial he asks'Is this remarkable product better than your normal cleaner?'
d. A market researcher asks a sample of television viewers: "Do you enjoy life style
programs?"

When you're looking at a statistical report in anything from a newspaper to a scholarly

journal, you should start by asking where the report originated. Who sponsored the report?
Who conducted the study? A report indicating high levels of dissatisfaction with the
government's new industrial relations policy might be viewed with some scepticism if the
study was conducted by the Australian Council of Trade Unions. A report on the effectiveness
of a new medication for treating insomnia might have been far more convincing if the study
had not been funded by a pharmaceutical company.
That's not to say that reports funded by pharmaceutical companies or trade unions are
necessarily biased or misleading. With a properly conducted study the motivation of the
researcher should have no impact on the results, so a study conducted by someone with a
vested interest is not necessarily biased. But if the organisation conducting or funding the
study does have a vested interest in the results, you'll want information on exactly how the
study was conducted before accepting the reported conclusions. Even with the best of
intentions, the researcher might bring some unconscious bias into the study.

So what's the overall conclusion here? Whenever you are looking at the results from any
statistical study, you need to think critically. You should always be looking for possible bias.
Here are a few specific things to keep in mind:

1. How were the individuals or objects in the study selected?

2. Exactly what measurements were made or what questions asked?

Copyright©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. A ndi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1 Critical Thinking in Statistics

~EXERCISE 1.4 (Solution on page 256)

Abersville is a fictitious town situated in a beef producing region of Australia. The
Abersville Meat Industry Council (AMIC) are concerned that the consumption of red meat
in Australia has been declining over the past 5 years, leading to the closure of the local
abattoir. They commission a study to explore current attitudes towards red meat, in order
to convince the abattoir owners that the abattoir should be re-opened. The study was
conducted by some of the retrenched abattoir workers, who are in need of employment.
Interviewers go to the local Abersville shopping centre and interview some of the passing
shoppers. In order to bring people's attention to the fact that they 're doing a survey about
meat, they stand close to the butcher' s shop. They begin the interview by describing the
benefits ofred meat in the diet, then ask the following questions:
How often do you eat red meat?
1. Everyday
2. On 6 days of the week
3. On 4 days a week or less

The closure of the abattoir has destroyed the livelihoods of many people m our
community, do you agree that it should be re-opened?
1. Yes
2. No

When they analyse the data they report back to AMIC that 97% of the respondents eat
meat every day, and that 95% agreed that the abattoir should be re-opened. AMIC feels
very encouraged. In a letter to the owners of the abattoir they report that interest in red
meat is very high with 97% of Australians eating red meat at least once a day. They also
report that 95% of people support the re-opening of the abattoir.
List all the possible sources of bias you can see in this study. (I can see at least 8). As an
extension question, and a challenge for you —come up with an equally ludicrous scenario
involving even more bias than this one :-).

Samples versus Populations

When we collect data from a sample, we're usually more interested in what's happening in
the population, rather than what's happening in the sample. For example, when we calculated
the percentage of students in our sample who had access to a computer at home, it wasn't just
the 103 students in our sample that we were interested in. We really wanted to estimate what
proportion of all Swinburne students had access to a computer at home.
If the way we select our sample is biased, or if our measurements are biased, the sample won't
tell us anything about the population we're interested in. But what if we use a good unbiased
method of selecting our sample, and the measurements we make or questions we ask don't
introduce any bias; what can our sample tell us about the population? This is something we'll
spend a lot of time exploring, starting in Module 3. For now, let' s just say that the sample
gives us some idea about the population, but it can 't tell us precisely what' s happening in the
population. So if 88% of the students in our sample have access to a computer at home, then
it's reasonable to assume that the percentage of (all) Swinburne students with access to a
computer at home is high, but it probably isn't exactly 88% .

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. A ndi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1 Critical Thinking in Statistics

1. 3 Percentages and Proportions

Suppose we conducted a survey in our local neighbourhood and reported that only 70 of the
people interviewed supported the planting of more trees in the neighbourhood. How useful is
this piece of information? If you said "absolutely useless", you'd be absolutely right! Unless
you know how many people we interviewed, you don't have any useful information. If I
interviewed only 70 people then this represents 100% in favour of more tree planting, but if I
interviewed 1000 people, this represents a very low level of support.
This is where we need to present either the proportion, or the percentage, rather than the
actual number of people who support the proposal. You've probably calculated proportions
and percentages before, but just to refresh your memory:
Frequency
Proportion =
Total Number

So if 70 out of 1000 people supported tree planting, the proportion of people who support
more tree planting would be:

p roportwn = 70 = 0.07
1000

To get the percentage, just multiply this value by 100. In this case, the percentage of people in
favour of more tree planting was .07 x 100, that is, 7%. (We don't really require much more
mathematical skill in this text, so if you can calculate percentages your maths skills are fine!)
Proportions and percentages give you the same information, but in reports percentages roll off
the tongue more easily; "The proportion of respondents who support the proposal is only .07"
doesn't sound as good as "Only 7% of respondents support the proposal".
Let's look at another couple of examples where percentages are more useful than just the
number of cases. Consider the following excerpt from an article titled "Everyone enjoying
,,6
boom times: Costello

"More people were in work than ever before in Australian history and there were two
million more jobs than a decade ago, Mr Costello told ABC Radio."

Two million more jobs sounds like a lot, but how does this compare to the increase in the
number of adult Australians over that time? We might prefer to know how the proportion of
people in full time employment has changed over that period. (We might also have other
questions about those 2 million jobs: were they all full time jobs or were some of them part
time?)
Here's another example, this one comes from the intemet7, and looks at the number of
industrial accidents reported (I can't tell you what country the figures refer to - there was no
indication on the website of the source of these figures!) In 2005 there were 1300 industrial
accidents reported in the ' construction'industry but only 456 accidents reported in the
'shipbuilding and ship repair'industry. Does this tell us that it's more dangerous to work in
construction than in ship building? Not really- it depends on how many workers there are in

节 ： //www.thea e.com.au/news/NATIONAL/Eve one-en·o· -boom-times-

Costello/2007/02/ 13/1171128940734.html accessed 18/2/07

htt ://www.mom. ov.s / ublish/etc/medialib/mom libra /Work lace Safet /files6.Par.67751.File.tm /Numbe
roflndustrialAccidentsbylndustry19962005.pdf accessed 25/2/07
7

Copyright©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. Andi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1 Critical Thinking in Statistics

each of these industries. If there are far more workers in the construction industry, then we 'd
expect far more industrial accidents in that industry. If we want to make an informed
comparison, we need to know what percentage of workers in each industry are involved in
industrial accidents.
While we often need to know the percentage rather than the number of cases, there are some
situations where it's the actual number that is more important. To take a trivial example, if I
invite 50 people to my birthday party, I want to know how many are going to come, not what
percentage of those I invited are coming. If we go back to our original example about access
to computers at home - when I'm trying to estimate how many copies of the SPSS software I
need to order, I need to know how many students in my subject have access to a computer at
home, not what percentage.

屯 EXERCISE 1.5 (Solution on page 256)

a. In a random sample of 70 shoppers in a supermarket, 60 agreed that they would rather
be doing something else. What is the percentage of the shoppers in this sample who
would prefer to be doing something else?
b. Twenty people attended a training session. After the session they were asked to
evaluate the usefulness of the training. Six attendees described the training as
"helpful". What proportion of attendees thought the training was helpful?
c. Only 15 of the 20 students emolled in a tutorial came to the tutorial in the first week.
What proportion of the students emolled in the tutorial attended?
d. Of the 60,000 people attending a football match, 43,000 were wearing their club
colours. What percentage of those attending the match were wearing their club
colours?

屯 EXERCISE 1.6 (Solution on page 256)

a. In a study of high school students, 73 of the students interviewed had experienced
bullying over the internet. What further information would we need in order to draw
any useful conclusions?
b. A newspaper reported that 13 drivers pulled over by the police on the previous night
were "over the legal limit". What further information would you like to have?

Copyright ©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. Andi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1 Critical Thinking in Statistics

岛 EXERCISE 1.7 (Solution on page 256)

A local council receives an application for a commercial development in a quiet Melbourne
suburb. They want to estimate the proportion of local residents who will be opposed to the
development. Thirty of the local residents are randomly selected and asked "Do you think
this inappropriate commercial development should go ahead?" (Note: If the sample is
properly selected, 30 is a reasonable size sample for this study.)
a. What is the population the local council is interested in?
A. All people opposed to the development
B. All 30 people who were interviewed
C. All local residents
D. All residents of Melbourne suburbs
b. The information collected from this sample is
A. Probably biased
B. Probably unbiased
c. Of the 30 respondents, 26 say that they are opposed to the development. What
proportion of these respondents oppose the development? Give your answer to 2
decimal places e.g. .34
d. What can we conclude from this sample statistic?
A. We cannot say anything about the proportion of local residents who oppose the
development
B. The proportion of local residents who oppose the development is the proportion I
calculated
C. A high proportion of local residents oppose the development, but it may not be
exactly the proportion I calculated.

屯 EXERCISE 1.8 (Solution on page 257)

A local council receives an application for a commercial development in a quiet
Melbourne suburb. They want to estimate the proportion of local residents who will be
opposed to the development. Thirty of the local residents are randomly selected and asked
"Do you support or oppose the application for this commercial development?" (Note: If the
sample is properly selected, 30 is a reasonable size sample for this study.)
a. The information collected from this sample is:
A. Probably biased
B. Probably unbiased
b. Twenty five of the 30 people interviewed say that they are opposed to the
development. What proportion of these respondents oppose the development? Give
your answer to 2 decimal places e.g.. 34
c. What can we conclude from this sample statistic?
A. We cannot say anything about the proportion of local residents who oppose the
development
B. 83% oflocal residents oppose the development
C. A high percentage of local residents oppose the development, but it may not be
exactly 83%

Copyright©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. A ndi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

1 . 4 Summarising Data
Suppose a reporter wanted to write a report in their magazine about how much time
Australians spend doing housework. They might start by collecting a lot of information from
a carefully selected sample of Australian adults, but how would they present this information?
It certainly wouldn't make much sense to the readers if they just printed all of the raw data
they'd collected without analysing it in some way. We need some tools for summarising
information. Some of these tools, like percentages and the mean (average) you've no doubt
met before, but some, like percentiles and boxplots you may not have seen.

Some Tools
SPSS
Instead of slogging through lots of tedious calculations on a calculator, and drawing graphs by
hand (I was always hopeless at drawing graphs!) we'll get SPSS to do the analysis for us. In
the SPSS data file What_Analysis.sav, we have some relevant data about the lives of
Australian adults - including information on hours of housework - which is based on data
gathered in a government survey. Here's a view of the first part of the data file:

, sex a~e marital I hrstv ~ ethnic educlrs I occst I hr

1 』 I
11 。 20 5 2.
2 1 50 1
3 。 45 2 2.0 2 16 2
4 38 3 4.5 1 12 3
5 1 19 5 3.5 3 11
6 1 27 2.0 1 11
7 1 46 1 3.5 1 9
8 23 5 4.5 2 12
9 1 40 1 3.0 3
10 1 41 1 2.0 1 7
11 11 仁1 勹仁 1 7 亭

You can see that instead of recording'Male'and 'Female'for sex, number codes have been
used. This is a very common practice. Before we can interpret this information, we need to
know what each of the number codes represents. In this case, sex has been coded female = 0,
male = 1. This was a totally arbitrary choice, we could have used male = 1, female = 2, or
even male = 21, female = 37 ifwe wanted to, but it's best to keep the codes simple!

10

Copyright©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. A ndi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

This coding is recorded as part of the SPSS data file. If we wanted to know what'marital'

represented, and how it was coded, we could just click on 斗圃 in the icon bar and select
'marital'in the list of variables:

Variables
Variable Information:
identification nu... 1.. marital
sex[sex) Label: Marital status
# age in years [age) Type: F5
l.larital status [... Missing Values: 9
, - 『-.一

# hours spent wat.. Measurement Level: Nominal

Value Labels:
1 married
2 separated
3 divorced
4 widowed
一、
worksituation la... I 11 115 never married
~旦respondent mco... 1 ..-

巨 呜邑丘

Once again, the choice of codes was totally arbitrary!

So how do we go about summarising the information in this data file? We need a few
statistical tools.

Output from the FREQUENCIES procedure - Frequency Tables

To begin with, let's look at sex. We can get SPSS to produce a frequency table for this
variable (see Appendix A2, page 223, for details of how to produce each of the outputs
discussed in this section):

sex
Cumulative
Percent
Valid female 55.4
male 100.0
Total

Of the 444 people in the study, 55.4% were female.

11

Copyright ©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. Andi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

Let's also look at the frequency table for marital status:

Marital status
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid married 281 63.3 67.5 ~ 67.5
separated 14 3.2 3.4 70.9
divorced 18 4.1 4.3 75.2
widowed 28 6.3 6.7 82.0
never married 75 16.9 18.0 100.0
Total 93.7 100.0
Missing 9 \ 4:: 6.3
Total 100.0

The frequency table tells us at percentage of people were in each catego . But there are two
columns in the table givin~ ercentages - one headed'Percent'anf ne headed'Valid
Percent'. Which one should w use? In most cases it's the'Valid Percent'that we're interested
in. This tells us that of the 416 people who answered the question, 67.5% said they were
married.

Output from the FREQUENCIES procedure - Pie Charts and Bar Charts
As well as the frequency table for these two variables, we might also want some sort of
graphical representation. So first let's look at Pie Charts.

sex Marital status

· 如~
m血
. • m:,mcd
口 之立
口 d....:仄心
. w,cb八

口 ～心r mom<ld

Figure 1.2. Pie chart for sex. Figure 1.3: Pie chart fo r marital status.

From the pie chart for sex (Figure 1.2) we can see at a glance that there were more females in
the study than males. This gives a quick instant picture of the distribution. But the pie chart
for marital status (Figure 1.3) is not quite so useful. It's a bit too cluttered, and doesn't give a
nice clear picture of what's happening.1 When there are more than two or three categories, pie
charts are not very effective. There is an alternative whic~gives a much clearer picture of the
distribution when there are more than 2 or three categon es. This alternative is a percentage
bar chart. In a bar chart, each category in the variable is represented in a separate column, and
the height of the column represents the percentage of responses in that category. The
percentage bar chart for marital status is displayed in Figure 1.4.

1 Note that the pie chart produced by SPSS version 20 includes the 'missing values'category, and the
percentages shown would not the 'valid percentage'. We would have to edit the pie chart to remove the missing
value segment. Instructions for doing this are included in Appendix A2. In SPSS version 23 the missing value
segment is not included in pie charts.
12

Copyright ©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australi a Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. AndiGaring, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

Marital status
From the bar chart, it's obvious that
60 the most common marital status was
'married'. (In statistics, this is called
芒只》』

4 the mode.)
。
<Id

In a bar chart, if there are no responses

20
for a category, that category doesn't
show on the bar chart. So, for example,
。

married separated divorced widowed never

if no one in our sample said they were
married
widowed, the barchart would only
Marital status
have four columns — widowed
Figure 1.4: Percentage bar chart for marital status. wouldn't appear on the graph.

屯 EXERCISE 1.9 (Solution on page 257)

a. Use the SPSS FREQUENCIES procedure to produce a frequency table and a
percentage bar chart for occupation. (Data in What_Analysis.sav.)
b. What's the most'typical'occupation in this sample? Is this easier to see from the bar
cha门； or the frequency table?

c. Of the people in this sample who gave their occupation, what percentage were semi-
professional/managerial?
d. Now use the FREQUENCIES procedure to produce a pie chart for occupation. Do you
think the pie chart or the bar chart gives a clearer picture of the distribution of
occupation?

屯 EXERCISE 1.10 (Solution on page 258)

a. Produce a frequency table, a percentage bar chart, and a pie chart for'work situation
last week'. The data is in What_Analysis.sav. (You'll have to run the
FREQUENCIES procedure twice- once for each chart.)
b. What's the most'typical'work situation in this sample? Which part of the output did
you use to answer this?
c. Of the people who responded to this question, what percentage were working full
time? Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
d. Which graph do you think is more useful here, the bar chart or the pie chart?

~EXERCISE 1.11 (Solution on page 258)

The Beneffi Wellness Centre offers three different types of massage: relaxation, pregnancy
and remedial. Over the course of a week they record the number of clients booking in for
each type of massage. The information is recorded in the massage.sav data file.
a. Produce a frequency table and a percentage bar chart for type of massage.
b. What was the most common type of massage at the Beneffi Wellness centre?
c. What percentage of clients booked in for a remedial massage.
d. Explain why the "Percent" and the "Valid Percent" columns are identical in this
frequency table.

13

Copyright©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. Andi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

Output from the EXPLORE procedure - Histograms

Now let's have a look at the distribution of time spent watching TV (hours/day). For this
variable we'll use a different graph, called a histogram. (Instructions for producing and
modifying histograms are given in Appendix A3, page 226.)
HistoQr am

0 1 23 4 56789

hours spent w忒ching TV each d ay

Figure 1.5: Distribution of time spent watching TV.1

Histograms look similar to bar charts, but there are some really important differences. In a bar
chart, each bar represents one category, and each bar is labelled individually. With a
histogram, what we're doing is grouping the data. Note that each of the columns in the
histogram has the same width. So the first column in the histogram tells us how many people
watched from O up to but not including 1 hour of television each day (about 8), and the
second column tells us that about 20 people watched between 1 and 2 hours per day (up to but
not including 2 hours) etc. Looking at this histogram we can see that most people watched
between about 2 to 6 hours per day. Histograms don't give us very specific information about
what's'typical'. We'll g et much more detailed infom画on when we look at some summary
statistics.
Histograms give a very good overall impression of the shape of the distribution. You can see
that there's one central peak and the hours of TV are fairly evenly spread on each side of this
peak. We say the distribution is approximately symmetric. Distributions can have all sorts of
different shapes:

40 The histogram in Figure 1.6 represents the level

3020 of anxiety recorded for a sample of students just
A:iua』

before they were about to sit an exam. This

distribution has two peaks; we call it'bimodal'.
n
Lb

There were a lot of students with quite low levels

La

10
of anxiety, but there was another large group of
。 students with high levels of anxiety.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Anxiety before exam

Figure 1.6: Bimodal histogram.

1 Note that the histogram in Figure 1.5 has been modified to have an interval width of 1 and an 'anchor'ofO.
14

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (978148861 3432), Dr. Andi Garing, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

125 The histogram in Figure 1. 7 shows the distribution

>, 100 of'level of enthusiasm for statistics'. You can see
l
巴
75
50
that the bulk of students had high levels of
enthusiasm, but the tail of the distribution drags out
u.
25 to the left with a few students having extremely low
。 levels of enthusiasm. We call this'negatively
10 20 30 40 50 skewed'.
Enthusiasm for Statistics
Figure 1.7: Negatively skewed histogram.

2500
The histogram in Figure 1.8 represents house prices,
K3C

anbaJ:l75
in thousands of dollars. The tail end drags off to the
right, with a few unusually high values (outliers).
50250
We call this'positively skewed'.

400 600 800 1000

House prices in $'000
Figure 1.8: Positively skewed histogram.

Let's look at just one more. Using the data in the What_Analysis.sav data file, produce a
histogram for the variable'Time to travel to work (minutes)'. SPSS produces the histogram in
Figure 1.9.

25
20
AouanbaJ:l
1510 Note that the distribution is approximately
symmetric
50

10 15 20 25 30
Time to travel to 叩rk (Minutes)
Figure 1.9: Distribution of travel times.
40
If you are not using Version 23 of SPSS you 302010
,<;::,uanbaJ.::t
may get a somewhat different looking
histogram for this distribution, like the one in
Figure 1.10. This histogram looks like it has
three peaks. However, this is just a result of the
inappropriate way SPSS has grouped the values
。

together into the columns. If you changed the

column width to 1, the histogram will look like 10 15 20 25 30 35
that in Figure 1.9. Instructions for changing the Time to travel to work
column width are given in Appendix A3 (Minutes)
(page 226). As a general rule, always check that Figure 1. 10: Histogram for travel times
the column width is a whole number. produced in earlier SPSS
versions

15

Copyright©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. AndiGaring, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

~EXERCISE 1.12 (Solution on page 259)

Describe the shape of each of the following distributions

40
8 20
505
11

否 U$beLL
3020 64
A:luan

A:iuanbw:1
』
LbLa

2
10

。
。

。
10 20 30 40 50 60 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7 .0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Feeling of well being ENERGY/ENTHUSIASM marks

~EXERCISE 1.13 (Solution on page 259)

Compare the bar chart and the histogram for'Number of basketball matches attended'
shown below. How do the two graphs differ? Which gives a clearer impression of the
distribution of number of matches attended?
25201510
20

5 11
505
芒

uanbaJ:t
33』
8d

50
。

5 10 15 20 0 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Number of basketball matches Number of basketball matches
attended last year attended last year
Histogram Bar Chart

Output from the EXPLORE procedure - Summary Statistics

Histograms give a detailed visual representation of distributions, but sometimes it's helpful to
be able to summarise this information. For example, consider the distribution of time taken to
get to work shown in Figure 1.9. We'd like to be able to give people a quick idea of typical
travel times. It's very tempting to just pick out the tallest column in the histogram and say
that's the most common time. So in this case, if you look closely at the histogram, you'll see
that the tallest column is the one centred at 17 minutes. We could report that the most
common time taken to travel to work is from 16.5 to 17.5 minutes - but does this really look
like the centre of the distribution? - no - it looks a bit too low. In fact, if you look at the
histogram for the same data, shown in Figure 1. 10, you'd have come up with a different
'typical value' - you would have said that the most common travel time was from 20 to 21 ¼
minutes. Just changing the way the values are grouped together into the columns can
drastically change the'modal class'. Giving the modal class is a very unreliable way of
measuring what's'typical'- that is, of measuring where the distribution is centred.

16

Copyright©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. AndiGaring, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

There is a much more reliable way of indicating what the typical travel time is. You've
probably met it before - the mean. To calculate the mean, you just add up all of the values and
divide by how many cases you had. So, for example, suppose I asked 5 people how long they
took to travel to work, and their answers were: 18 min, 20 min, 22 min, 20 min and 20 min.
Then the mean would be :

18 + 20 + 22 + 20 + 20 100
Mean= =— = 20
5 5
So in this small sample the average time taken to travel to work was 20 minutes. This is easy
when you have just 5 cases, but it can be pretty tedious if you are dealing with hundreds of
cases. Fortunately for us, we don't need to do any calculations by hand at all —SPSS will do
all of the calculating for us. Part of the output we get from the EXPLORE procedure (see
Appendix A3, page 226) is a table of summary statistics:

Descriptives
Std.
Statistic Error
Time to travel to Mean 19.98 .318
work (Minutes)
95% Confidence Lower Bound 19.35
Interval for Mean
Upper Bound 20.61
5% Trimmed Mean 19.94
Median 20.00
Variance 25.249
std. Deviation 5.025
Minimum 8
Maximum 33
Range 25
Interquartile Range 7
Skewness .102 I I .154
Kurtosis -.259 .307

For the moment we're only interested i a few of these statistics, and I'磷highlighted them in
the table. In this sample, the aver~ e taken to get to work was 19 .98 minutes. There is
another statistic here which weals ells us what's'typical' —the median. The median tells us
that half of the respondents spent 20 minutes or less travelling to work1. In this case the mean
and the median are very similar. This is because the distribution is symmetric.
So we've got a couple of statistics that tell us where the distribution is centred, but we might
also like some infom画 on about how spread out the travel times are. The simplest thing to
look at here would be the smallest and largest values. These are given as the minimum and
maximum in our table of descriptive statistics. The people in this sample took between 8
minutes and 33 minutes to travel to work each day.
芦 statistic for measuring spread, called the variance, and a related
statistic, called the standard eviation. The variance takes into account all of the data, not just
the two end points. It measures how much the values vary about the mean.

1 To calculate the median by hand you would start by writing the values in order from lowest to highest. The
median is then the middle value. So in the example with 5 cases given above, the values ordered from lowest to
highest are: 18, 20, 20, 20, 22. The median is 20; the middle value. If there are an even number of cases, then the
median is half way between the two middle values.
17

Copyright ©2016 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. AndiGaring, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

For the mathematically minded, here's how it's calculated for the small sample of 5 cases we
had before. You won't need to calculate the variance by hand (that's what SPSS is for!) but
seeing how it's calculated can help you to understand what it's measuring.

Travel time Difference between travel

time and the mean, squared
(1) 忙汀 凶T- 汀 8
Vanance
. = =— =2
18 (18-20)2=4 n —1 4
20 (20-20)2 = 0
22 (22 —20)2=4 Tue~symbol used here means
20 (20-20)2 = 0 'sum'or'add up'
20 (20-20)2 = 0
Standard Deviation=~Variance
8

So the variance is calculated by looking at how much each individual score differs from the
mean; squaring those differences, and averaging them. Basically it's a measure of how much
the scores vary about the mean. The descriptive statistics table gives both the variance, and
the standard deviation. The bigger the standard deviation (or the variance) the more spread out
the distribution. In our travel time example, the standard deviation, given in the Descriptives
table, is 5.028.

~EXERCISE 1.14 (Solution on page 259)

From the following SPSS output, give the mean and standard deviation for the test marks.
What is the lowest mark recorded in this sample?

Descriptives
Statistic Std. Error
marks Mean 63.34 1.144
95% Confidence Lower Bound 61 .07
Interval for Mean Upper Bound 65.61
5%Trimmed Mean 63.32
Median 63.00
Variance 126.956
Std. Deviation 11 .267
Minimum 36
Maximum 90
Range 54

~EXERCISE 1.15 (Solution on page 259)

Use SPSS to find the mean and standard deviation for age and time to travel to work. The
data is in the What_Analysis.sav data file.

18

Copyright ©2016 Pearson Australia (a divisionof Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. AndiGaring, Foundations of Statistics, 4th Edition
 Module 1: Critical Thinking in Statistics

Output from the EXPLORE procedure - Percentiles and Boxplots

The EXPLORE procedure also gives us some other useful statistics - percentiles.
Percentiles
Percentiles
5 10 25 so 75 90 95
W(DeeifginhtiteiodnAverage Time to travel to work 11 .55 13.00 17.00 20.00 24.00 26.00 29.
1) (Minutes) \
Tukey's Hinges Time totravel to work 17.00 20.00 24.00
(Minutes) \ 、｀

How do we interpret these percentiles? Start with the 10th percentile, 13 minutes. This tells us
that only 10% of the people in our sample took 13 minutes or less to travel to work. The 25th
percentile tells us that 25% of the people in our sample took 17 minutes or less to travel to
work, and so on. So the median, which we introduced earlier, is the 50th percentile.
There's a bit more new terminology to learn here. The 25th percentile is also referred to as the
first'quartile ' and the 75 th percentile is also called the third quartile - one quarter of the
scores are lower than the first quartile and three quarters of the scores are lower than the third
quartile.
Percentiles are very useful for placing an individual case within a distribution. So, for
example, if your travel time was at the 90th percentile, it would indicate that relative to other
people you took a long time to get to work. In fact, only 10% of people took longer than you
did.
Using percentiles can also help us to summarise the distribution - which leads us to our last
graph - the boxplot. Boxplots give a "5 number summary" of the distribution. They display
the minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile and maximum. The boxplot for travel times
is given in Figure 1.11.

35

30

25

——
24 min. ,~ —
,,

20 min.
20 Il一·—
~
l

17 min.
15
~ —·
10

5
Time totravel to work
(Minutes)
Figure 1. 11: Boxplot for travel times.

The numbers down the left hand side of the boxplot are travel times. The boxplot tells us at a
glance, that 50% of people in the sample took 20 minutes or less to travel to work, and the
middle 50% of travel times were between about 17 and 24 minutes. This gives us a feel for
both what is typical and for how variable travel times are. Boxplots don't contain as much
detail about the shape of the distribution as histograms, but they're really useful when you
want to compare several distributions.

19

Copyright©2016 PearsonAustralia (a divisionof Pearson Australi a GroupPtyLtd) ISBN (9781488613432), Dr. AndiGaring, Foundations of Statistics, 4thEdition
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Ayoapó, 236
Ayolas, Juan de, 333, 334
Azogues, 117, 133
Azuay, 116, 117, 132, 133, 139, 145

Babahoya, 117, 139;

R., 127
Bahia, (Ec.), 136;
(Brazil), 374, 375, 381, 387, 388, 397, 398, 400, 406, 412, 415,
416, 417, 419, 428, 429, 430, 432
Bahia de Caraquez, 136, 137
Bahia Blanca, 269, 301, 302, 303, 307, 309, 310, 312, 314, 316,
318, 325, 326
Bahia Honda, 36
Bajada Grande, 305
Balatá, 43, 89, 107, 110
Balmaceda, 246
Balsa, 226, 227
Balzar R., 127
Ballenita, 131, 136, 144
Ballivián, 210
Bananas, 41, 111
Banco, 34, 36
Baños, 139
Baquedano, 266
Baragua R., 65
Barbacoas, 26, 36, 43
Barcelona, 55, 68, 79, 82, 88, 93, 94
Barima, 108
Barinas, 55, 71, 84, 94
Barquisimeto, 55, 59, 66, 81, 83, 84, 91
Barranca Bermeja, 47
Barrancas, 76, 91
Barranqueras, 329
Barranquilla, 10, 12, 13, 22, 30, 32, 33, 35, 47, 51
Barretos, 424
Baudó, Serranía de, 15, 17, 18
Baurés R., 383
Baurú, 409
Bauxite, 99, 107, 111
Bayovar, 163
Beagle Channel, 300
Beans, 88
Beer, 329
Belém, 375, 402
Belgrano, 303
Bello Horizonte, 375, 405, 408
Benalcazar, Sebastian de, 115
Beni, See El Beni
Beni R., 159, 212, 218, 219, 224, 227, 237, 242, 383, 384, 413
Berbice R., 103, 104
Bermejo R., 212, 226, 284, 288, 289, 312
Bermudez Asphalt Lake, 69, 94, 95
Berrío Puerto, 35, 36
Bio-Bio, 247, 259;
R., 252, 263, 275, 277
Bismuth, 201, 235
Bitumen, 108
Blanco Cape, 122
Blancos, 355
Bobures, 82, 87
Boca de Ceniza, 30
Boca de Navios, 61
Bocas del Drago, 69
Bocono, 72
Bodega Central, 34
Bodegas, 139;
R., 127
Bogotá, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 28, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 46,
51
Bolívar, (Col.), 9, 10, 22, 24,
(Ven.), 55, 72, 73, 74, 84, 88, 89,
(Ec.), 116, 117, 133
Bolívar Ciudad, 27, 31, 55, 73, 78, 83, 90, 92
Bolívar, Gen., 8, 54, 150
Bolivia, 4, 14, 53, 114, 148, 150, 158, 159, 205-244, 248, 292,
306, 309, 310, 332, 383, 409, 412, 413, 455
Boquete, 267
Borax, 200, 268, 275
Borja, 124, 138,
(Par.), 342
Boyacá, 9, 10, 12, 27, 37, 54
Bragança, 402, 412; 408
Brazil, 1, 2, 4, 61, 101, 112, 115, 192, 218, 242, 245, 289, 331,
333, 334, 339, 342, 343, 355, 372-434, 452, 453
Brazo, 76
Bucaramanga, 10, 28, 34, 35, 37, 38
Bucay, 136
Buenaventura, 12, 24, 26, 30, 31, 36, 37, 48
Buenos Aires, 175, 223, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288,
289, 290, 291, 298, 301, 305, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 316,
317, 318, 319, 320, 322, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331,
334, 343, 350, 355, 361, 364, 403, 411, 454, 456, 457
Buenos Aires Lake, 288, 300, 313
Buga, 36, 38

Caapacá, 352
Caazapá, 335
Cabedello, 400, 412, 417
Cabellos, 367
Cabildo, 265
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 373
Cacao, 42, 86, 106, 110, 141, 188, 241, 415
Cacequy, 392, 411
Caceres, 34
Cachaca, 416
Cacheuta, 326
Cailloma, 168, 200
Cajabamba, 165, 198
Cajamarca, 149, 152, 161, 164, 169, 184, 193, 197, 200
Calabozo, 55, 70, 71
Calacoto, 238
Calama, 267, 272
Calamar, 10, 30, 32, 34
Calamara R., 127
Calantura, 182
Caldas, 10, 12, 23, 35, 40, 50
Caldera, 264, 265, 266
Calera, 265
Caleta Coloso, 266
Cali, 10, 13, 25, 34, 36, 37, 45, 46, 48
Caliche, 270
Callao, 152, 154, 158, 162, 167, 175, 176, 177, 188, 261
Callapó, 227
Camaná, 168
Camaquám, 430
Camaquán Lake, 62
Cambao, 38
Camerones Bay, 304
Camocím, 412
Campana, 301, 318
Campos, 397, 411, 416, 429
Candelaria, 313, 334
Canelas, 139
Canelones, 356, 360
Cañar, 116, 117, 133
Cañete, 186
Caño Macareo, 78
Caño Pedernales, 76
Caoba, 90
Capure, 95
Caquetá, 10, 26;
R., 17
Carabaya, 199
Carabobo, 54, 55, 66, 70, 77, 78, 91, 93
Caracas, 54, 55, 57, 60, 63, 77, 79, 80, 83
Caracoles, 234
Carache, 72
Caraguatay, 335
Carapeguá, 342
Caraquez Bay, 131
Carara V., 37
Caráz, 166, 167
Carchi, 116, 117, 133
Carenero, 79, 80
Carhuáz, 166
Carhue, 310
Cariaco Gulf, 68
Carmen de Patagones, 310, 330
Carnaüba Wax, 423
Caroni R., 61, 73, 74, 92
Carora R., 65
Cartagena, 10, 12, 22, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38
Cartago, 25, 34, 36, 39
Cartavio, 186
Carúpano, 69, 77, 83, 84, 94
Carrizal, 265, 273
Casanare, 27, 38, 48
Casapalca, 196
Casiquiare R., 17, 26, 62, 76, 89
Casma, 167
Castilletes, 82, 94
Castro, 277;
Gen., 54, 69
Catacaos, 163
Catamarca, 283, 294, 321, 322, 324
Catatumbo R., 16, 28, 31, 48, 62, 64, 81, 84
Cattle, 44, 91, 108, 111, 143, 193, 240, 277, 278, 315, 350, 368,
391, 424, 425, 426
Cauca, 9, 10, 12, 25, 40, 41;
R., 16, 23, 32, 34, 35, 38, 50;
V., 15, 18, 19, 31, 35, 37, 38, 39, 42
Cauquenes, 247
Caura R., 61, 74, 90
Cautín, 247, 259, 276
Cayapas Indians, 118, 119
Cayenne, 112, 113
Cayo, 136
Ceará, 375, 400, 412, 421, 423, 428, 429
Central Valley, 257, 258, 264
Centro, 66, 67
Cerro Azul, 168
Cerro de Pasco, 152, 159, 170, 179, 182, 195, 198, 200
Cerro Largo, 356, 357, 363, 370
Cerro Potosí, 232, 233
Cerro Quespesisa, 199
César R., 34, 36
Christ of the Andes, 296
Church, George Earl, 412
Cicapra R., 93
Climar R., 359
Coal, 45, 93, 145, 198, 236, 274, 325, 370, 431
Cobija, 210, 243
Coca, 188, 242
Coca R., 126
Coconuts, 42, 88
Cochabamba, 207, 209, 216, 218, 224, 225, 227, 230, 236, 242,
243
Coche, 69, 70, 94
Codera Cape, 60
Coffee, 7, 40, 86, 106, 110, 142, 143, 188, 241, 414
Cojedes, 55, 70, 77, 93;
R., 59
Cojoro, 78
Colastiné, 289, 301, 305
Colchagua, 247, 258, 276
Collins, P. T., 413
Colombia, 4, 7-52; 76, 78, 91, 114, 124, 133, 148, 149, 174, 373
Colón, 31, 83
Colonia, 356, 357, 361, 365
Colonia Las Heras, 313
Colonia Sarmiento, 313
Colonia Suiza, 361
Colonias del Gran Chaco, 207, 220
Colonias del Noroeste, 207, 219, 237, 243
Colorado R., 290, 299, 310
Colorados, 355
Colquechaca, 217
Colquipocro, 167, 200
Columbus, 8, 53, 69, 100
Collahuasi, 223, 268
Collay, 145
Commewynne R., 109
Comodoro Rivadavia, 275, 300, 304, 313, 325, 330
Concepción, (Chile), 246, 247, 259, 263, 264, 275, 276; (Par.),
335, 337, 342, 343, 344, 349
Concepción del Uruguay, 307, 365
Concordia, 285, 298, 307, 316, 362, 367
Conchi, 268
Condoto R., 49
Confuso R., 340
Constitución, 264
Copacabana, 215, 236
Copaiba, 107
Copiapó, 247, 248, 256, 264, 265, 407
Copper, 28, 45, 93, 144, 194, 195, 234, 271, 295, 300, 352, 370,
429
Copra, 106
Coquimbo, 247, 251, 256, 261, 263, 265, 270, 273, 274, 276
Córdoba, 281, 283, 285, 287, 288, 290, 296, 307, 308, 310, 316,
319, 325, 329
Corentyn R., 102, 104, 105, 109
Corn, 43, 88, 111, 142, 143, 190, 241, 319, 349
Coro, 55, 65, 79, 81, 84, 91, 94
Corocoro, 215, 222, 234, 235, 237
Coroico, 215, 224
Coronel, 236, 261, 263, 264, 274, 275
Coropuno Mt., 168
Corumbá, 218, 220, 231, 289, 343, 365, 404, 407, 409, 428
Corral, 273
Corriente R., 125
Corrientes, 283, 288, 297, 304, 305, 306, 311, 321, 322, 328, 331,
337, 339, 343, 348
Cotabambas, 199
Cotopaxi Mt., 123, 125, 126, 137
Cotton, 42, 88, 187, 321, 349, 418
Crato, 412
Cristóbal Colón, 69
Cruzeiro do Sul, 405, 406
Cruz Grande, 273
Cua, 83
Cuareim R., 367
Cuatro Ojos, 227
Cuba, 186
Cubagua, 69
Cúcuta, 10, 13, 28, 36, 37, 38, 84
Cuchivero R., 74
Cuenca, 117, 119, 122, 123, 124, 132, 138, 139, 184
Cumaná, 55, 65, 68, 79, 83, 84, 88, 90, 94, 98
Cundinamarca, 9, 10, 28, 40, 45
Cuñapiru, 370
Cupisnique, 198
Curaçao, 31, 57, 66, 78, 79, 83, 90, 96
Curaray R., 126, 137
Curicó, 247, 258
Curityba, 375, 393, 394, 410
Cuyabá, 289, 375, 403, 407;
R., 386, 407
Cuyuni R., 92, 108
Cuzco, 149, 152, 154, 159, 171, 172, 179, 180, 183, 184, 188,
190, 193, 197, 199, 201, 203, 211, 383
Chacarilla, 234, 235
Chaco, 223, 283, 293, 306, 312, 321, 322, 329, 331, 333, 336,
340, 342, 344, 345, 346, 349, 350, 351, 352
Chachani Mt., 180
Chachapoyas, 152
Chala, 154, 168, 171
Challapata, 216
Chama R., 82
Chanchamayo V., 188
Chañaral, 265
Chaparé R., 227
Charles Isl., 133
Charrúa Indians, 354
Chatham Isl., 133
Chaves, 406
Chaves Isl., 133
Chibchas, 27
Chicama V., 164, 185, 186
Chicla, 177
Chiclayo, 152, 164
Chicle, 43, 90
Chicha, 42, 241
Chile, 2, 4, 53, 114, 121, 122, 128, 151, 157, 158, 187, 191, 193,
205, 242, 245-279, 313, 323, 373
Chilete, 164
Chili R., 180
Chiloé, 122, 247, 260, 275, 276, 277
Chillán, 247
Chillo V., 137
Chimbo R., 127
Chimbote, 159, 165, 166, 167, 176, 183, 186, 198
Chimborazo, 116, 117, 133, 139
Chimborazo Mt., 122, 123, 133;
Pass, 137
Chimoré R., 227
Chinchillas, 193, 239
Chinchipe R., 124
Chiquinquirá, 37
Chiquitos, Sierra de, 211, 383
Chirimoias, 143, 190
Chita, 27, 139
Chlorolque Mt., 234
Chocó, 10, 23, 35, 43, 49, 50
Chone, 137
Chonos Isls., 260
Chorillos, 154, 183
Chubut, 283, 299, 304, 311, 323, 325
Chuño, 241
Chuquiaguillo, 230, 231
Chuquisaca, 206, 207, 217, 223, 237;
R., 167

Dairy Industry, 328, 361, 368

Daule R., 127, 142
Delegación Nac. en el Oriente, 207, 219
Delta Amacuro, 55, 76, 94
Delta Orinoco, 56, 95, 97
Demarara R., 103, 104
Desaguadero R., 212, 226, 234, 235
Deseado, 304, 313;
R., 313
Diamante, 313
Diamantina, 429
Diamantino, 383, 386
Diamonds, 94, 107, 108, 429
Dique, 30, 31
Dividivi, 89
Doce R., 430
Dolores, 355
D’Orbigny, 210
Dulce R., 295
Durán, 136
Durazno, 356, 364, 367

East Coast, 280-433

East Indians, 102, 105, 111
Ecuador, 4, 8, 14, 15, 24, 38, 114-147, 148, 157, 163, 188, 251,
373
El Beni, 207, 218, 243
El Callao, 73, 74, 84, 93
El Canto, 154
El Dorado, 92
El Misti, 158, 180
El Oriente, 116, 117, 123, 134, 219
El Oro, 116, 117, 132, 139, 144
El Valle, 9, 10, 24, 40, 50
El Vigia, 84
Embarcación, 223, 293, 306, 312
Emeralds, 7, 50
Encarnación, 311, 335, 342, 343, 352
Encontrados, 72, 81, 84, 85, 96
Ené R., 170, 183
Ensenada, 301, 302
Entre Rios, 283, 288, 298, 305, 311, 313, 319, 329, 331
Escalante R., 62, 64, 81, 85
Esmeralda, 75, 76
Esmeraldas, 116, 117, 118, 128, 130, 131, 136, 142, 145
Esmeraldas R., 127, 130
Espejos Spring, 238
Esperança, 409
Esperanza Rapids, 227
Espirito Santo, 375, 397, 411, 414, 432
Essequibo R., 101, 104, 105
Esteros, 210
Etén, 164, 175
Eucalyptus, 234;
timber, 145, 324, 364

Facatativá, 33, 34, 37

Falcón, 54, 55, 65, 79, 88, 93, 94, 97
Federal District, 54, 55, 56, 66, 67
Fernando de Noronha Isl., 406
Ferreñafe, 164
Ferrobamba, 197
Fibre Plants, 42, 91, 107, 146, 422
Fish, 108, 144, 194, 278, 398, 400
Flandes, 37
Florencia, 10
Flores, 356, 364;
General, 355
Florianopolis, 375, 393
Florida, 355, 356, 364
Flour, 329, 427
Forestry, 43, 89, 106, 113, 143, 191, 242, 277, 323, 345, 370, 419
Formosa, 283, 293, 304, 306, 313, 321
Fortaleza, 375, 401, 412
Fragosa, 407
Francia, Dr. J. G. R., 334
Fray Bentos, 307, 356, 362, 369
Friburgo, 411
Frigoríficos, 44, 92, 278, 318, 350, 352, 368, 369
Frio Cape, 380, 386
Fruit, 106, 143, 189, 241, 276, 323, 349, 370, 419
Fundición, 36
Furniture, 328

Galápagos Isls., 116, 117, 121, 133

Galera Tunnel, 177;
Volcano, 25
Garay, Juan de, 281, 305
Garcas R., 429
General Lopez, (town), 318
Georgetown, 101, 103, 104
Girardot, 33, 34, 35, 37
Goajira Penin., 15, 21, 36, 46, 56
Goats, 45, 65, 91, 143, 239, 278, 315, 368, 426
Gold, 7, 45, 49, 92, 107, 111, 112, 145, 199, 229, 274, 324, 370,
428
Gomez, General, 92
Gorgas, General, 128
Goya, 298, 313
Goyaz, 339, 375, 381, 385, 388, 404, 411, 428, 429
Goyaz Mts., 380, 381
Goyllarisquisga, 179, 182, 184, 196
Granadillas, 143
Gran Chaco, 220, 288, 338, 339
Grande R., 127, 407
Granja, 412
Greenheart, 106
Greenwich Park, 104
Grubb, W. Barbrooke, 337
Guacara, 67
Guadalupe, 164
Guaharibos Ind., 75
Guainía R., 17, 76
Guaira, 335
Guaire R., 63, 68;
V., 80
Guajará-Mirím, 225, 227, 243, 413
Gualaquiza, 139
Guanabara Bay, 395
Guanacos, 193, 329
Guanare, 55, 71, 84
Guanipa, 82
Guano, 194
Guanoco, 69, 82, 94, 97
Guanta, 68, 79, 82
Guapo, 68, 80
Guaporé R., 211, 212, 227, 383
Guaqui, 181, 221, 223, 236
Guaranda, 117
Guaranís, 335, 354
Guarapiche R., 70
Guarapuava, 425
Guárico, 55, 70, 80, 83
Guasipati, 73
Guatire, 83, 87
Guaviare R., 17, 27, 61, 75, 76
Guayana (Guiana), 56, 76, 86, 92
Guayana Highlands, 59, 60, 62, 72, 100, 379, 380, 384
Guayaquil, 117, 119, 120, 127, 128, 132, 135, 136
Guayaquil Gulf, 122, 124, 127, 128, 131, 163
Guayas, 116, 117, 131, 139;
R., 122, 127, 138, 156;
V., 142
Guiana, 100-113
Guiana Brazilian, 100, 380, 388
Guiana British, 73, 100, 101, 102-108
Guiana Dutch, 100, 101, 109-112
Guiana French, 100, 101, 112-113
Guiana Highlands, 379, 380
Guigüe, 80, 83
Guindí, 335

Hauri Hauri R., 199

Herva Matte, 393, 422
Higuerote, 80
Hogs, 92, 193, 240, 317, 368
Honda, 33, 47;
Rapids, 33
Horses, 45, 92, 194, 278, 317, 368, 426
Huacho, 167, 187, 201
Huailas V., 158, 159, 166, 167, 176, 179, 183, 198, 457
Huaina Potosí Mt., 222, 233
Huallaga R., 159, 160, 169, 170, 173
Huamachuco, 165, 188
Huancabamba, 184
Huancavelica, 152, 171, 197, 200
Huancayo, 171, 179, 183
Huanchaca, 224, 232
Huanchaco, 165, 186
Huanday, 164
Huanta, 188
Huánuco, 152, 161, 169, 170, 188
Huarás, 152, 165, 166
Huarmey, 167, 199
Huasaga R., 125
Huascarán Mt., 166
Huasco, 256, 265
Huatanay R., 172
Huayday, 198
Huaytiquina, 269, 313
Huigra, 136
Huila, 9, 10, 28, 51
Humboldt, Alexander von, 148
Hydroplane, 33

Iabaro R., 227

Ibagué, 10, 29, 35, 39
Ibarra, 38, 117, 133, 137
Ibicuy, (Arg.), 289, 301, 311;
(Par.), 352
Ica, 152, 167, 168, 187, 197, 198
Iguapé, Ribeira de, 386, 406
Iguassú Falls, 289, 306, 331, 342