FRACTURE CHARACTERIZATION IN

BASEMENT RESERVOIR OF HEERA

FIELD,, WESTERN OFFSHORE
OFFSHORE,, INDIA

Under
nder the Supervision of:

MR. S.K. MUKHERJEE (CHIEF GEOLOGIST),

CoD-BASEMENT EXPLORATION,

WOB,, ONGC, MUMBAI

BY: ADITYA BHATTACHARYA

VthSemester, M.Sc. Tech. (Applied Geology)

Session: 2018-2019

IIT (ISM),Dhanbad
ADMISSION NUMBER: 16MC000265
 Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited
Centre of Delivery Basement Exploration
6C, Priyadarshini Building, Eastern Express Highway, Sion, Mumbai- 400022, India

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. ADITYA BHATTACHARYA has
undergone Summer Training from 01.06.2018 to 02.07.2018 (4
weeks) at Centre of Delivery-Basement Exploration, Western
Offshore Basin, Priyadarshini, ONGC,Mumbai under the supervision
of Mr. S.K. MUKHERJEE, Chief Geologist, CoD-Basement
Exploration Group.
His performance in training assignment has been excellent and
conduct was good.

Place: Mumbai (S.K.Mukherjee)

Date: 02.07.2018 Chief Geologist
CoDBEx, ONGC,Mumbai
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge and extend my heartfelt gratitude to Head-Skill Development
Centre-ONGC, Mumbai for their administrative support and for giving me this wonderful
opportunity to attend internship at ONGC, Mumbai.

I render my sincere thanks to my respected mentor Mr.S.K.Mukherjee, Chief Geologist,

Centre of Delivery-Basement Exploration, ONGC for not only giving me an opportunity to
undergo this internship but also becoming an inspiration. It was his sincere guidance, worthy
and impactful teaching and constant encouragement which led to the successful completion
of the training. It has been a wonderful experience working with him.

It is my proud privilege and pleasure to thank Mr.R.S.Dirghangi, GM-Head-CoDBEx and

Mr.S.N.Chitnis, GM- Head GOG, CODBEx for their encouragement and motivation to dig
deeper into the study.

I am deeply thankful to Mr.Manmohan Sharma, (Sr.Geologist) and Mr. Vikrant Kalpande,

(Sr. Geologist) of Geology Operations Group for his tireless support and guidance without
whom this project would never have seen the light of the day.

I would like to thank Mr. V. Rajasekar (DGM-Wells), Mr. M. Bhakuni (DGM-Drilling),

Mr.S.C.Rao (Chief Geophysicist), Miss. PayalKataruka (Geologist), Mrs.Kanchan N. Kadam
(DySG), Mr.Sutanu Sarkar (DySG-Wells), Mr. B.K. Mangaraja (DGM-Geophysics) and
Mr.Deelip Kumar Singh (Sr. Geophysicist) for their friendly guidance and valuable
suggestion during the tenure of this internship.

I deeply acknowledge Mr.R.N.Kundu, I/C-Geology Labs., Panvel for giving us a brief

knowledge on processing and studing cores. I am grateful to Mr.PallavBaruah (Supdgt.-
Geol.), Miss. Almas Ismail Shah (Sr. Geol.), Ms.Tarulata Das (Geol.) for their amicable
guidance on various aspects of core and micropalaeontology. I am thankful to Miss.
AvisiktaBera (Chemist), Mr.M.S.Bedi (Chief Chemist), Ms. Dolly N. Valeccha (Chemist),
Ms.BhagyashreeBaruah (Chemist) who have introduced us to various aspects of
geochemistry.
I am very thankful to all those who have helped directly or indirectly to make this project
successful.
CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

PART-A

1. Introduction
2. Petroleum System in Basements
2.1 Mechanisms for oil and gas migration to basement are
2.2 Cap Rocks/Seals for Basement accumulations can be
2.3Reservoir Quality
3. Pre-requisites for Basement Exploration
3.1 Criteria to observed in identifying a basement prospect are
3.2 Fracture Characterization
4. Evidences for Fracture in the Basement
5. Log Signatures in the Basement

PART-B

6. Case Study9
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objective
6.3 Geological Settings and Stratigraphy
6.4 Tectonics
6.4.1 PannaBasseinHeera Block
6.5 Generalized Petroleum System of Heera-PannaBassein Block
6.5.1 Source Rock
6.5.2 Reservoir Rock
6.5.3 Cap Rock
6.5.4 Entrapments
6.6 Analyses and Case Study
6.7 Conclusions
References

APPENDIX- I

1. Workflow Regional
2. Petrophysics
2.1 Workflow
2.2 Characterization
2.3 Acoustic Theory of Wave Propagation

APPENDIX-II

3. Sesimic Methods
3.1 Workflow
3.2 Characterization
3.3 Ant Track
APPENDIX- III

4. Drilling, Pore Pressure, XLOT

4.1 Drilling
4.2 Pore Pressure
4.3 Leak Off Test
4.4 Interpretation
5. Casing Design Policy
6. GTO

APPENDIX –IV

7. Lab Studies
 PART- A
1. INTRODUCTION

In geology, the terms basement and crystalline basement are used to define the rocks below
a sedimentary platform or cover. "The surface beneath which no sedimentary rock is
found."Basement is usually older, deformed igneous or metamorphic rocks, which seldom
develops the porosity and permeability necessary to serve as a hydrocarbon reservoir, and
below which sedimentary rocks are not common. Basement rocks typically have different
density, acoustic velocity, and magnetic properties from overlying rocks.

Exploration and production from basement play has unique challenges because of
unconventional nature of reservoir. These are more difficult and expensive to explore while
their evaluation is more complex than conventional reservoirs. Exploration and development
of these plays was dominated by post-drill methods like- Analysis and integration of well
data, especially core, borehole image logs, dipole sonic and dynamic data (mud losses,
production logs, well tests etc.) which provide information of the fractures with sufficient
accuracy at well location. Recognition and prediction of fracture pattern is the key to the
basement exploration and specific to the task seismic imaging or processing and
interpretation efforts is required.

Figure 1: Hydrocarbon occurrences in Basements of India

2. PETROLEUM SYSTEM IN BASEMENT

2.1Mechanisms for oil and gas migration to basement are

 Overlying organic rock from which the oil was expelled during compaction.
 Lateral off the basement but topographically lower organic rock from which oil was
squeezed into an underlying carrier bed through which it migrated up dip into the
basement rock.
 Lower lateral reservoirs from which earlier trapped oil was spilled due to tilting or
overfilling.

2.2Cap Rocks/Seals for Basement accumulations can be:

 Relatively tight (low permeability) sedimentary rock.

 Tight zone in the basement rock, as in the Mara field in Venezuela
 Where a thick oil column extends from an oil-water interface within the basement
through a continuous reservoir of permeable material like wash and basal sandstone,
until a tight rock is reached somewhere above the base of the sedimentary section.

2.3Reservoir Quality

Reservoir quality and production rates from basement depend on the presence of connected
open fractures, as the matrix porosity and permeability are generally very small. Bulk fracture
porosity values of 0.1-1% are typical for fractured reservoirs including basement, and
production usually depends on features offering enhanced permeability such as fault damage
zones, fracture corridors or extensive weathered/ brecciated zones at top of basement or
within fault cores, and secondary porosity such as dissolution porosity.

3. PRE-REQUISITES FOR BASEMENT EXPLORATION

 Basin Evaluation- A method that relies on both the assessment of the basin’s source
potential and the sediment to logical trap type classification of the basin to yield an
estimate of the total basin reserves and a field size distribution is described.
 Regional Tectonic History (Major fault patterns and lineaments- role of gravity,
magnetic and LANDSAT images)
 Stress History (Palaeo stresses vs Present day stresses)
 Petroleum system of the basin.
3.1 Criteria to observed in identifying a basement prospect are

Figure 2: Key criteria for identifying basement prospects

For basement exploration, the key lies in proper detection and mapping of fractures.
Therefore fracture characterization is of prime importance for detailed fracture network map

3.2 Fracture Characterization

 Static approach involves determining in-situ fracture location, density and orientation
using well bore imaging tools, petrophysical anomalies, core & drilling information.
 Dynamic approach involves using of acoustic data (Stonely waves) for relative
fracture conductivity at well bore (verified by PLT and injection tests).

4. EVIDENCES FOR FRACTURE IN THE BASEMENT

Some direct indicators of presence of fractures in basement during drilling are

 Increased ROP
 Mud loss and decrease in stock tank level
 Gas shows and fluorescence ( hydrocarbon indicators)

5. LOG SIGNATURES IN THE BASEMENT

Typical conventional logs useful for basement fracture characterization are:

 Deep and shallow resistivity logs, MSFL (Micro spherically focussed logs)
 Gamma ray logs (especially for basalts)
 Density logs
 Caliper logs
 Sonic logs

Special logs such as FMI (Formation Micro Imaging) and DSI (Dipole Shear Imager) are
used extensively in basement fracture characterization.
 .PART-B

6. CASE STUDY
6.1 INTRODUCTION

Mumbai Offshore Basin, a pericratonic rift basin in the western continental shelf of India,
covers about 148,000 km2 from coast to 200 m isobath. The basin is divided into six tectonic
blocks (Tapti-Daman, Diu, Heera-Panna-Bassein, Mumbai high-Deep Continental Shelf
[DCS], Ratnagiri, and Shelf Margin), and the sedimentary fill ranges from 1100-5000 m.
Several large oil and gas fields have been discovered in this basin, and the presence of
hydrocarbons has been established in the multiple pay zones belonging to L-III limestone
reservoir of Miocene age (only in Mumbai high), Mukta (early Oligocene), Bassein (middle
Eocene), Panna (Paleocene to early Eocene) reservoirs, and Daman (early Miocene-late
Oligocene) and Mahuva (early Oligocene) formations in Tapti Daman block.

The Heera structure forms a major paleo high along the Heera East main fault unconformably
overlain by late Cretaceous basalt flows. The Heera Field has experienced thick Paleogene
and Neogene sedimentation over a predominantly trappean floor. Locally, the Tertiary
sediments directly overlie Precambrian metamorphic basement without intervening Deccan
Trap as observed in few wells.

6.2 OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to build a comprehensive fracture characterization model for
Heera basement reservoir using discrete as a well as deterministic tools.

6.3GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS AND STRATIGRAPHY

Mumbai offshore basin, a divergent passive continental margin basin, is located on the
continental shelf off the west coast of India. The basin is bounded by the western coastline of
India in the east, Saurashtra arch in the north, Vengurla arch in the south, and west margin
basement arch in the west (Figures 3 and 4). The basin was formed due to extensional
tectonics at the time of rifting of the Indian plate from Madagascar during Late Jurassic-Early
Cretaceous period. Large-scale volcanic eruptions, which covered most of the basin, followed
this episode. As the rifting continued, the immature sediments deposited at the toe of faults as
alluvial fans, filled the initial morphotectonic depressions during Paleocene. This was
followed by the first marine incursion towards the close of Paleocene and beginning of early
Eocene. Thus, early Eocene marks a widespread transgression. Sediments were deposited in
deltaic to restricted marine to shallow marine environments. Sedimentation during this period
caused some adjustments in the basin. The early Oligocene transgression covered most parts
of the basinal area and inundated parts of Mumbai high. A major unconformity is noted at the
top of lower Oligocene. Sea level rise during early Miocene submerged large areas of the
basin and terminated the . Oligocene delta progradation. The middle Miocene transgression
marks the last phase of the widespread carbonate sedimentation in the Mumbai high–DCS
area (Basu et al., 1982; Zutshi et al., 1993).
The basin has a NW-SE-trending horst-graben geometry. The grabens are bounded by normal
faults, and the horsts/ridges are dissected by NE-SW trending cross faults. On the basis of its
structural configuration and its nature, as well as the type of sediment fill, the basin is divided
into six tectonic blocks: Tapti-Daman, Diu, Heera-Panna-Bassein, Bombay high-DCS,
Ratnagiri, and Shelf Margin blocks.

The main reservoir rocks in the basin are the limestones ranging in age from Eocene to
middle Miocene. Clastic sequence of Paleogene also hosts the hydrocarbons. The extensive
post-Miocene shale acts as a regional cap rock in the basin. The local shale interbeds within
limestones act as a local cap rocks for different pay zones. However, in Ratnagiri block,
compact and tight limestones may also act as cap rocks for hydrocarbon accumulations in
fractured limestone reservoirs.

Figure 3: Regional structure and selected oil and gas fields of Bombay geologic province (from Wandrey,
2004), with general area of study (larger, pink polygon) and area of study (smaller, yellow polygon)
Figure 4. Structural and tectonic elements, with selected fields, of Mumbai offshore basin

Figure5: Generalized stratigraphy of the Bombay-Cambay-Kutch area (modified from Mishra

and others, 1997; ONGC, 1983; Biswas and others,1982)
6.4TECTONICS

6.4.1 Panna-Bassein-Heera Block

This block located east of Mumbai High/Platform and south of Surat Depression has three
distinct N-S to NW-SE trending tectonic units which lose their identity in Miocene. The
western block is a composite high block dissected by a number of small grabens. The Central
graben is a syn sedimentary sink during Paleogene and Early Neogene. The eastern block is a
gentle eastward rising homocline.

The tectonic architecture encompasses extension related NNW-SSE trending normal faults
and a number of E-W trending fault sets (figure 6). Apart from these, curvature attributes
have demonstrated presence of two conjugate fault trends in the ENE-WSW and WNW-ESE
orientation in Heera field. Intersection of these fault sets has given rise to intense fracture
swarms in basement. It is envisaged that hydrocarbon was migrated from the kitchen in
adjacent Vijaydurggraben which is southern extension of Central Graben, and accumulation
is mainly structural (Malviya, S.C. et.al, 2012). Regional maximum horizontal stress in this
area is oriented N 60°W and the primary acting stress regime is strike slip. Present day in-situ
stresses control the dilatancy factor of fractures by causing critical shear on selected fracture
orientations (Mukherjee, S.K. et al, 2016).

Fractures appeared on several basement intervals in almost all wells drilled to basement in
Heera field. Fractures display a dominant NW-SE trend with variations to WSW-ENE. It is
likely that fractures are under sampled due to borehole bias as a result of the highly inclined /
horizontal nature of most of the wellbores with FMI images. A number of wells in the eastern
part of Heera field flowed oil or indicated presence of hydrocarbon but permeability was
found to be highly variable across wells. This is the indication that fracture transmissivity is a
function of the orientation of fractures visà-vis the principal stress directions.

Figure 6 : Tectonic architecture of Heera Basement

6.5 GENERALIZED PETROLEUM SYSTEM OF HEERA-PANNA BASIN

6.5.1 Source Rock

Paleocene and lower Eocene rocks probably contributed the largest volumes of oil and gas to
the TPS. The primarily terrestrially sourced material, consisting of types-II and -III kerogen,
is similar to, but not as rich in total organic carbon (TOC). Eocene through lower Miocene
shales in and surrounding the Bombay offshore area have TOC values ranging from 0.5 to 2.0
percent, with higher values measured for Eocene shalesin the Dahanu Depression. It is widely
perceived that the Central GrabeninPanna-Bassein-Heera block and VijaydurgGraben in
Ratnagiri block had contributed to huge hydrocarbon accumulations in many structural
features like Panna, Bassein, Heera, South Heera etc. lying on the western horst block
suggesting a major westward hydrocarbon accumulation.

6.5.2 Reservoir Rock

In the Bombay-High area, oil and gas is produced from fractured basement through middle
Miocene reservoirs, with the most prolific being the platform carbonates such as the lower
Miocene L-III limestone. The Early Oligocene clastics of Surat depression (Mahuva
Formation). Deposition of thicker carbonate facies over the horst blocks in Panna-Bassein-
Heera blocks and Ratnagiri blocks. (Bassein, Mukta and Heera formations).

6.5.3 Cap Rock

Shale encompassing the coarser clasticfacies in the Paleocene section, widespread

transgressive shale overlying the Middle Eocene Bassein Formation, alternation of shale and
tight limestone over early Oligocene Mukta Formation, widespread intervening shale layers
within Early Miocene Mumbai formation over Mumbai High and in DCS area, post Middle
Miocene clay/claystone of Chinchini Formation over parts of Heera etc. had provided
effective seal for the underlying hydrocarbon accumulations in the Mumbai offshore basin.

6.5.4 Entrapments

As mentioned earlier, Mumbai offshore basin has been endowed with a wide variety of
entrapment situations like-structural closures with independent four way closures of very
large, large, medium and small sizes, fault closures and faulted closures with effective fault
sealing, strati-structural features like Paleogene wedges against rising flanks of paleo highs,
mud mounds, carbonate build-ups, unconformity controlled traps, Paleogene and Neogene
carbonate wedges against the rising Eastern and JaygadHomoclines. Mumbai Offshore Basin
Introduction Tectonic History Generalized Stratigraphy Petroleum System Petroleum Plays

6.6 ANALYSES AND FRACTURE CHARACTERIZATION

Predictive fracture intensity and genetic models of Heera basement reservoir suggest better
basement fracture sweet pods in proximity to fault damage zone of Heera east fault and at
junction of ENE-WSW cross faults. The observations from model is reasonably justified in
the basement wells drilled close to the major east bounding fault with highest fracture
intensity, and have flowed hydrocarbon from basement.
The minimum horizontal stress (SH min) estimated from Leak Off Test (LOT) and Pressure
Integrity Test (PIT) data from drilled wells (not all in basement) suggests a strike slip stress
regime in Heera field. It was also inferred that the fracture set oriented in NW-SE direction
(Dharwar grain) have a better tendency to slip.

A collaborative research project between ONGC and the School of Petroleum Engineering,
University of New South Wales (UNSW), Australia, was carried out for hydrocarbon
prospect evaluation of basement in Heera field using an unconventional workflow, to chart a
roadpath for Heera basement exploration and exploitation. To test the efficacy of the UNSW
model, one well-F was side-tracked from a platform well with 300m penetration in basement
in UNSW demarcated 2nd least prioritized sector C. From a fracture prediction standpoint,
the well was extremely useful in assessing the model confidence in predicting fracture
locations as there is a good match between the seismic and the interpreted fractures.
Petrophysical evaluation demonstrated that 19 long fractures and 7 short fractures were
intersected by the wellbore but it only penetrates a single grid cell with permeability greater
than 9.5mD in UNSW model. Gross fracture strikes are oriented almost N-S and not aligned
with the maximum horizontal stress orientation. Poor well test performance indicates that the
well may be poorly connected with fractures and faults (figure 7a and 7b)

Figure 7(a) Petro-physical fracture characterization in Well-F showing changes in dominant

fracture strike orientations with depth; and (b) 3D representation of fractures intercepted in
Well-F. S.K. Mukherjee, V. Rajasekar and S.N. Chitnis, Unlocking Heera Basement Reservoir
Potential:

Post in-house stochastic geo-cellular modelling, an inclined Well-G was side tracked from a
platform well in UNSW demarcated maximum permeability sector ‘A’ to test the fracture
model. Fracture clusters encountered in the well were close to depths predicted from the
conceptual model. Data collation from Lithoscanner log, FMI and UBI log, and sonic scanner
anisotropy data led to the identification of NW-SE oriented critically stressed fracture swarms
in the top 70m of basement though minor hydrocarbon shows were observed during drilling
(figure 8). Litho scanner derived mineralogical facies (further integrated with MSCT cores)
identified the depths hosting critically stressed fractures as zones of high-to-low felsic
concentrations. Intervals with significant near wellbore damage seen by the Sonic Scanner
were perforated in open hole to aid further chemical or hydraulic stimulation and the well
flowed hydrocarbons in significant quantity.

Figure 8: Image and Sonic scanner composite in Well-G showing critically stressed fracture
zones. S.K. Mukherjee*, V. Rajasekar and S.N. Chitnis, Unlocking Heera Basement Reservoir
Potential:

Analyses of fracture intensity of pre-modelling wells, A to E, which flowed or indicated

hydrocarbon from basement reveal significant clustering of discrete fractures with some in
slip mode. Predictive fracture model calibrated fairly with actual well data in two post- model
wells, Well-F and G, where basement has been drilled in excess of 200m. Real time
monitoring demonstrated that these wells have cut through discrete fracture patches as
predicted in the model. Analyses of seismic derived discontinuities in conjunction with image
and shear log interpretation in wells drilled post modelling, matches admirably with the
fracture intensity data (figure 9).
Figure 9: Fracture calibration in well G using Ant track, modelled fracture intensity and image
logs. S.K. Mukherjee*, V. Rajasekar and S.N. Chitnis, Unlocking Heera Basement Reservoir
Potential:

6.7 CONCLUSIONS

Basement exploration in strike slip regimes close to the Heera east fault is besot with intense
technological challenges right from seismic and petro-physical characterization for static
modelling, permeability and porosity characterization for dynamic modelling; geo-
mechanical modelling for optimizing well paths and fine tuning development location
placement; well stimulation and completion designs, each of which are intensely knowledge
driven core areas with unique solutions required for each sector.

Fracture density and intensity models point towards presence of fracture sweet pods close to
Heera east fault top. Weathering has played a major role in redefining fracture porosity in top
80-100m of basement in Heera. Permeability model based on permeability tensors
demonstrate best permeability zones close to the east bounding fault. Reservoirs are primarily
Type-II reservoirs where fluid flow can be attributed to fracture as well as matrix porosity.

Geo-mechanical model for Heera high establishes an overall strike slip stress regime with
maximum horizontal compressive stress axis trend varying from NW-SE to ENE-WSW.
Rotation of stresses between fault blocks is evident. Fracture sets oriented in NW-SE
direction have high dilation tendency as they are preferentially oriented and critically stressed
in present day stress regime. Hence, these sets are most likely to be in open mode acting as
conduit to fluid flow. Wells drilled at high angle in Heera basement are likely to be more
effective for fracture intersection and reservoir drainage owing to active stress pattern
changes along depth.

Integrated conceptual 3D fracture model calibrated with point data is the best method to
optimize basement well locations by predicting to fair degree of accuracy the fracture
intensity expected at the well bore. In difficult basement reservoirs of Heera, technology
leverage in the form of judicious selection of formation sampling methods will be the best bet
for making this reservoir commercially exploitable.
REFERENCES

 Wandrey, C.J. (2004), Bombay Geologic Province Eocene to Miocene Composite

Total Petroleum System, India
 Mukherjee,S.K., Rajasekar, V. and Chitnis,S.N. Unlocking Heera Basement
Reservoir Potential: A Relook Based on Innovative Fracture Modelling
 Biswas, S. K., 1982. Rift Basins in Western margin of India with special reference to
hydrocarbon prospects with special reference to Kutch Basin, Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol.
Bull., v.66 (10), pp. 14971513.
 Hydrocarbon Prospect Evaluation of Basement-Heera Field, UNSW Report, 2015.
 Malviya, S. C., Maheshwari, M. K., Dimri, P.P., Rath, B. K., 2012. Tectono
sedimentation model of Paleogene and Neogene sequences in Heera and South Heera
field, KDMIPE unpublished report, March 2012
 Mukherjee, S.K., Rao,S.C., Chitnis,S.N. and Ray,B.B., 2016. An Integrated Approach
Towards Characterising Metamorphic Basement Reservoirs: A Case Study From
Mumbai High South Basement Reservoir. ONGC Bulletin, Volume 51 Num 2, pp.62-
77.
 AshaniKundan*, A.K. Vinod, D. Ghosh, Vikrant Kalpande, 2017. Extended Leak-Off
Tests (EXLOT) & Its Applications to Geomechanical Study: Field examples of
Western Offshore Basin, ONGC, India
 ONGC unpublished reports
 Rider, Malcolm, 2012. The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs
 APPENDIX-I

1. WORKFLOW REGIONAL

Figure 10: Basement Fracture Modelling: Broad Overview

Figure 11: General workflow model for fracture characterization in Basement

2. PETROPHYSICS
2.1 WORKFLOW

Figure 12: Workflow model for Petrophysics

2.2 CHARACTERIZATION

2.2.3 WELL LOGGING

Well logs present a concise, detailed plot of formation parameters versus depth. From these plots,
interpreters can identify lithologies, differentiate between porous and nonporous rock and quickly
recognize pay zones in subsurface formations. The ability to interpret a log lies in recognizing the
significance of each measurement.

2.2.3.1 Types of Logging

a) Resistivity Logs: Resistivity logging measures the subsurface electrical resistivity, which is the
ability to impede the flow of electric current. This helps to differentiate between formations filled
with salty waters (good conductors of electricity) and those filled with hydrocarbons (poor conductors
of electricity). Resistivity and porosity measurements are used to calculate water saturation.
Resistivity is expressed in ohms or ohms/meter, and is frequently charted on a logarithm scale versus
depth because of the large range of resistivity. The distance from the borehole penetrated by the
current varies with the tool, from a few centimeters to one meter.

b) SP Logging: The spontaneous potential (SP) log was one of the earliest measurements
used in the petroleum industry, and it has continued to play a significant role in well log
interpretation. Most wells today have this type of log included in their log suites. Primarily,
the SP log is used for determining gross lithology (i.e., reservoir vs. nonreservoir) through its
ability to distinguish permeable zones (such as sandstones) from impermeable zones (such as
shales)

c) Gamma Ray Logging:Gamma ray (GR) logs measure the natural radioactivity in
formations and can be used for identifying lithologies and for correlating zones. Shale-free
sandstones and carbonates have low concentrations of radioactive material and give low
gamma ray readings. As shale content increases, the gamma ray log response increases
because of the concentration of radioactive material in shale. However, clean sandstone (i.e.,
with low shale content) might also produce a high gamma ray response if the sandstone
contains potassium feldspars, micas, glauconite, or uranium-rich waters.

d) Caliper Logging: A caliper log is a well logging tool that provides a continuous measurement of
the size and shape of a borehole along its depth and is commonly used in hydrocarbon exploration
when drilling wells. The measurements that are recorded can be an important indicator of cavings or
shale swelling in the borehole, which can affect the results of other well logs.

e) Density Logging: The density log measures the bulk density of a formation by bombarding it
with a radioactive source and measuring the resulting gamma ray count after the effects of Compton
Scattering and Photoelectric absorption. This bulk density can then be used to determine porosity.

f) Neutron Porosity Logging: The neutron porosity log works by bombarding a formation with
high energy epithermal neutrons that lose energy through elastic scattering to near thermal levels
before being absorbed by the nuclei of the formation atoms. Depending on the particular type of
neutron logging tool, either the gamma rayof capture, scattered thermal neutrons or scattered, higher
energy epithermal neutrons are detected. The neutron porosity log is predominantly sensitive to the
quantity of hydrogen atoms in a particular formation, which generally corresponds to rock porosity.

g) Sonic Logging:A sonic log provides a formation interval transit time, which typically a function of
lithology and rock texture but particularly porosity. The logging tool consists of a piezoelectric
transmitter and receiver and the time taken to for the sound wave to travel the fixed distance between
the two is recorded as an interval transit time.

h)Electrical Image Logging:Microresistivity imaging devices were developed as an

advancement on dipmeter technology, which they have mostly superseded. Traditionally,
they have required a conductive borehole fluid, but it will be seen later that this requirement
has been obviated by oil-based-mud imaging tools. To be seen on the images, fractures must
show some form of electrical contrast that is open or filled with mud (Figure 13) be
cemented, or have associated displacement.
Figure 13:: Electrical image of a near vertical, open fracture in a carbonate grainstone with
foresets

i)Acoustic Logging: Historically, the primary and the most routine uses of acoustic logs in
reservoir engineering havee been

 Porosity determination
 Identification of gas bearing intervals
 Cement evaluation

2.3 ACOUSTIC THEORY OF WAVE PROPAGATION

The waveform recorded at the logging tool’s receivers is a composite signal containing
different energy modes, each with a different frequency, velocity, and amplitude. For
borehole logging, the modes of primary interest (Fig. 14)) are, in order of arrival:

 Compressional
 Shear
 Stoneley (tube) waves

The waveform is recorded as acoustic amplitude as a function of time.

Figure 14: Generalized acoustic waveform showing the wave signature of different energy
modes
2.3.1 Compressional waves

Compressional (P, primary, or pressure) waves are longitudinal waves that are transmitted
through an elastic formation by compression or pressure. Particle motion is parallel to the
direction of wave propagation ((Fig. 15).
). They can travel through solids, liquids, and gases
and are the fastest wave type——they
they represent the acoustic first arrival. Of all acoustic wave
types, they are the most reliable because they are least affected by:

 Faults
 Unconsolidated formations
 Borehole fluids

Figure 15: Direction of particle motion in compressional and shear waves and wave
motion generated by monopole and dipole transmitters

2.3.2 Shear Waves

Shear (S, secondary) waves are transverse waves that are transmitted by lateral displacement
of particles in a rigid elastic formation. Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of
motion (Fig. 15). ). Normally, shear waves are the second arrival in an acousti
acoustic wave train. In
most reservoir rocks, shear waves generally have higher amplitudes than compressional
waves but lower velocities, by as much 40 to 50%. There are two types of borehole shear
waves—direct
direct and indirect, also known as refracted or induced. In
Indirect
direct shear waves are
induced in a formation through a process known as mode conversion in which some of the
compressional energy is transferred from the borehole fluid into the rock formation.

2.3.3 Stoneley Waves

Stoneley (tube) waves are high

high-amplitude guided waves that are generated by a radial
(symmetric) flexing of the borehole as the acoustic energy passes from the borehole fluid into
the rock formation. They propagate at low frequencies along the fluid
fluid-rock
rock interface at the
borehole wall; hence, they
ey are sensitive to the rock properties adjacent to the borehole wall.
They are the slowest acoustic mode. They can be measured in both open and cased boreholes,
but in cased holes Stoneley-wave
wave features are primarily controlled by the ccasing rigidity.
 APPENDIX-II

3. SEISMIC METHODS

3.1 WORKFLOW

Figure 16: Workflow for Seismic Methods

3.2 CHARACTERIZATION

3.2.1 Seismic data and their acquisition, processing, and interpretation

This section defines seismic data and a suite of related concepts such as signalto-noise ratio
(SNR or S/N), various seismic gathers, common midpoint (CMP) binning and fold, stacking,
pre-stack versus post-stack data, and pre-processing versus advanced processing. The
relationship between acquisition, processing, and interpretation of seismic data is discussed
here, since these three processes interrelate and complement each other to constitute the
discipline of subsurface seismic imaging.

3.2.2Digital seismic data

Seismic data are physical observations, measurements,or estimates about seismic sources,
seismic waves, and their propagating media. We focus on the analysis of data on body
Figure 17: Relationship between data acquistion, processing and interpretation

waves, mostly P-waves, in their transmission, reflection, diffraction, refraction, and turning
processes. The processing of other seismic data and many non-seismic data often follows
similar principles. The purpose of acquiring and processing seismic data is to learn something
about the Earth’s interior. To understand certain aspects of the Earth, we initially need to
figure out some specific relations between the intended targets and measurable parameters.
Then our first step is to conduct data acquisition designed for the problem, our second step to
use data processing to identify and enhance the desired signal, and our third step to conduct
data interpretations based on the processed data. In reality, the processes of data acquisition,
processing and interpretation are interconnected and complement each other; their
relationship may be viewed as shown in Figure 17.

3.2.3 Seismic Attributes to Fracture Characterization

Among the various geophysical techniques available for characterizing faults and fractures,
3D seismic attributes have proven to be some of the most useful. One of the greatest strengths
of 3D seismic is the dense, regular sampling of data over the region of interest, providing
images that accurately represent the areal extent of the features. When seismic amplitude
changes associated with the features of interest are not noticeable on vertical sections,
horizontal time or horizon slices often yield distinctive patterns that are easily recognizable.
Among the more valuable seismic attributes are those sensitive to reservoir impedance,
thickness, or geomorphology. Dip-magnitude, dip-azimuth, and coherence attributes have
been used for the detection of faults and fractures since the early to mid-1990s.

Various Seismic attributes have been developed which enhances subtle features such as
faults and fracture systems. The seismic attributes of variance, coherence, curvature are all
useful indicators of faults and fractures. These attributes derived from seismic dataset
following along a horizon or surface is displayed graphically. Variance measures the
difference between seismic traces while coherence measures the similarity and therefore
these have a reciprocal relationship. Variance emphasizes the unpredictability of seismic
horizons-their edges and interruptions while coherence emphasizes their predictability: their
connectedness and continuity. High variance and low coherence may indicate faults or
fractures zones, clusters or swarms. The curvature attribute at points on a horizon can be
measure of structural strain. Areas in which curvature is high may have been subjected to
high strain to transform them into areas of flexure, folding, faulting or high fracture intensity.
Coherence and curvature provide complementary structural information. Integration of more
than one attributes and advancement in visualization techniques has made possible detection
of fault and fractures.

3.3 ANT-TRACK

Several attributes enhance clarity of faults on seismic data such as: variance attributes, ant
attributes, chaos attributes, curvature attributes etc. among all, ant attributes show better
result in delineating faults. The effective implementation of ant attribute can be achieved
when the output of other fault sensitive attributes are used as an input data. In this work, the
seismic data used was carefully conditioned using structural smoothing to remove residual
background noise and to improve the spatial continuity of seismic signal. Then, chaos and
variance attributes which are sensitive to faults are applied to the seismic data set; and the
outputs from these processes are used as our input data to run the ant attribute with which the
faults were clearly seen that were difficult to display on the raw seismic data set. The Ant
Tracker Attribute indeed enhances faults and fractures in 3D data set that makes work easier
for the interpreter

Discontinuity evaluation software can help automate fault interpretation and attempt to map
features that are on a scale approaching a seismic wavelength. Ant Tracking is such a
technique which takes analogy of the behaviour of ants. Ant tracking methodologies produce
a new seismic cube called Ant Track cube for extraction of fault networks. The principle of
the Ant Track method is automatically re-picking the variance attributes which have the same
character. The process is divided into four main stages: seismic conditioning, edge detection,
edge enhancement and interactive interpretation. The advantage of using the Ant Track cube
is that faults and fractures appear more explicitly (Fig 18). The ant track cube can be analysed
qualitatively or quantitatively. Noise or patterns caused by lithology or by the specific
orientation of fractures can be filtered out.

Figure 18: Multi-attribute Ant Tracking

 APPENDIX- III

4. DRILLING, PORE PRESSURE AND LEAK-OFF TESTS

4.1 DRILLING

The well is created by drilling a hole 12 cm to 1 meter (5 in to 40 in) in diameter into the
earth with a drilling rig that rotates a drill string with a bit attached. After the hole is drilled,
sections of steel pipe (casing), slightly smaller in diameter than the borehole, are placed in
the hole. Cement may be placed between the outside of the casing and the borehole known as
the annulus. The casing provides structural integrity to the newly drilled wellbore, in addition
to isolating potentially dangerous high pressure zones from each other and from the surface.

With these zones safely isolated and the formation protected by the casing, the well can be
drilled deeper (into potentially more-unstable and violent formations) with a smaller bit, and
also cased with a smaller size casing. Modern wells often have two to five sets of
subsequently smaller hole sizes drilled inside one another, each cemented with casing.

Figure 19: An annotated schematic of an oil well during a drilling phase

To drill the well

 The drill bit, aided by the weight of thick walled pipes called "drill collars" above it,
cuts into the rock. There are different types of drill bit; some cause the rock to
disintegrate by compressive failure, while others shear slices off the rock as the bit
turns.
 Drilling fluid, a.k.a. "mud", is pumped down the inside of the drill pipe and exits at
the drill bit. Particular functions of the drilling mud include cooling the bit, lifting
rock cuttings to the surface, preventing destabilisation of the rock in the wellbore
walls and overcoming the pressure of fluids inside the rock so that these fluids do not
enter the wellbore.
 The generated rock "cuttings" are swept up by the drilling fluid as it circulates back to
surface outside the drill pipe. The fluid then goes through "shakers" which strain the
cuttings from the good fluid which is returned to the pit. Watching for abnormalities
 in the returning cuttings and monitoring pit volume or rate of returning fluid are
imperative to catch "kicks" early. A "kick" is when the formation pressure at the depth
of the bit is more than the hydrostatic head of the mud above, which if not controlled
temporarily by closing the blowout preventers and ultimately by increasing the
density of the drilling fluid would allow formation fluids and mud to come up through
the annulus uncontrollably.
 The pipe or drill string to which the bit is attached is gradually lengthened as the well
gets deeper by screwing in additional 9 m (30 ft) sections or "joints" of pipe under the
kelly or topdrive at the surface. This process is called making a connection, or
"tripping". Joints can be combined for more efficient tripping when pulling out of the
hole by creating stands of multiple joints.

This process is all facilitated by a drilling rig which contains all necessary equipment to
circulate the drilling fluid, hoist and turn the pipe, control downhole, remove cuttings from
the drilling fluid, and generate on-site power for these operations.

Figure 20: Drilling considerations workflow

4.2PORE PRESSURE

Basic Definitions

Hydrostatic Pressure: Pressure exerted by the weight of a static column of fluid (column
of water or column of mud) connected to the atmosphere.
Overburden Pressure: Pressure exerted by the weight of overlying sediments, including
the weight of the pore fluids.
Pore Pressure: is the pressure exerted by the pore fluids. (Normal Pressure, Sub Normal
and Abnormal pressure)
Fracture Pressure: is pressure required to initiate a fracture. It is also known as fracture
initialization pressure (FIP), fracture opening pressure (FOP), and rupture pressure.
Terzaghi’s Relationship: states that the total stress is jointly supported by the pore fluid
and the rock matrix. Overburden Pressure = Pore pressure + Effective Stress
 Effective Vertical Stress: is the stress applied to the rock matrix. Effective Stress =
Overburden Pressure - Pore Pressure

Figure 21: Pore Pressure Terminologies

4.3 LEAKOFF TEST (LOT)

Leakoff tests are performed beneath cemented steel casing in order to test theintegrity of the set
cement and determine the drilling fluid density that can be withstood by theformation.
The bottom of the casing is set in shale where possible. After the cement sets (hardens), 10-20 feet of
new interval are drilled, and drilling fluid is pumped into the wellbore at a constant rate between 1/4 -
1 barrel/min (0.04 - 0.16 mS/min). Pumping continues until the rate of pressure increase slows,
indicating formation breakdown

4.3.1Extended LeakoffTest(XLOT)
The procedures are similar to routine leakoff tests performed to evaluate casingcement
integrity and formation strength, except for multiple leakoff cycles, longer data
collectiontimes, and more precise data acquisition and analysis.
XLOT is mainly done to obtain horizontal stress data for use in wellbore stability predictions.

4.4 INTERPRETATION

A) Leak-Off Point (LOP): The point at which fracture occurs and slope of graph deviates
toward right, directing that mud has started going inside the formation through a small stable
fracture. This is also called Fracture Initiation Point (FIP).

B) Formation Breakdown Pressure (FBP):The peak pressure where formation breakdown

happens is called Formation Breakdown Pressure (FBP). At FBP, the fluid is flowing into
fracture from wellbore faster than pump is supplying which results in pressure drop after
FBP.
C) Fracture Propagation Pressure (FPP):The pumping pressure drops after the FBP to a
relatively constant value called the Fracture Propagation Pressure (FPP) where the fracture is
propagating away from the wellbore into the far field stress region.

1200.00 FPP
LOP ISIP
FCP RTS
1000.00
2nd ISIP
PUMP PRESSURE (Psi)

800.00 FRP

600.00

400.00

200.00
1ST CYCLE 2ND CYCLE
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
TIME (MINUTES)

Figure 22: Extended Leak Off Test

D) Initial Shut In pressure (ISIP): When fractures propagate for some volume pumped,
pump is shut off and pressure on gauge is observed, this is shut in phase where rapid drop in
pressure occurred because of the loss of pump friction pressure and the loss of fluids to the
fractures and called Initial Shut In pressure (ISIP).

E) Fracture Closure Pressure (FCP): The change of slope after ISIP in the plot and this
pressure point is called Fracture Closure Pressure (FCP).

To verify the values obtained from first cycle, it is imperative to re-pressurize the wellbore, to
obtain correct value of Fracture Reopening Pressure (FRP) and FCP as well as to know
residual tensile strength (RTS) of the rock formation left. In hydraulic fracturing terminology,
the breakdown pressure of the second cycle i.e. second FBP is also referred to as Reopening
or ReFrac Pressure (RFP).
5. CASING DESIGN POLICY

Before going for drilling of well, certain analysis has to be made for planned drilling and
completion of well. One such important job is designing of casing policy.

Basement is usually completed barefoot to avoid implications arising out of cementation jobs.

Casing design depends on many factors and most important factor is pore pressure. It is the
pore pressure and fracture pressure together which determines the well design and a major
part of well design consists of designing the correct mud window. Pressure in a well is
divided into different compartments on the basis of pore pressure and fracture pressure. For
carrying out casing design one of the important parameters which are necessary to determine
is mud window. Mud window differentiate the different grades and types of casing required
for the well.

The change in mud window gives the different setting depths of different size of casing.
Typical drilling requirement includes:

 A minimum bit diameter for adequate directional control and drilling performance.
 Available downhole equipment
 Rig specification
 Available blowout prevention (BOP) equipment

These requirements normally impact the final hole or casing diameter. Because of this casing
sizes should be determined from inside outward starting from the bottom of the hole. The
design sequence is usually, as follows:

 Proper tubing size is selected, based upon reservoir inflow and tubing intake
performance
 The required production casing size is determined, considering completion
requirements.
 The diameter of the drill bit is selected for drilling the production section of the hole,
considering drilling and cementing stipulations.
 The smallest casing through which the drill bit will pass is determined.
This process is repeated for all casing sizes.
6. GEOTECHNICAL ORDER

Geo Technical Order (GTO) is a very important piece of document in oil well drilling. The subsurface
data (formation boundaries, pressure, objective etc.) are the basis on which drilling plan is prepared.
On this basis casing policy and mud systems are designed. The GTO includes everything in graphical
form starting from formation tops to mud parameters to drilling progress plan for each phase of
drilling. In one glance one can have the complete well plan through GTO.

GTO is about:

•Geological Data

•Pore Pressure Prediction

•Casing Design

•Mud Program

•Depth vs Days

•Details about Well head, BOP, Draw works & mud pumps
 APPENDIX-IV

7. LABORATORY STUDIES
A core sample is a cylindrical section of (usually) a naturally occurring substance. Most core samples
are obtained by drilling with special drills into the substance, for example sediment or rock, with a
hollow steel tube called a core drill. The hole made for the core sample is called the "core bowling.
Analysts use cores to characterize pore systems in the rock and model reservoir behaviour to optimize
production based on the analysis of core porosity, permeability, fluid saturation, grain density,
lithology, and texture.

Conventional cores, also known as whole cores, are continuous sections of rock extracted
from the formation during otherwise standard drilling operations. The coring bit is hollow so
that as it cuts through the formation it creates and captures a solid cylinder of rock that can be
brought to the surface as a single piece.

Sidewall cores (SWCs) are plugs of rock cut from the wellbore wall. These cores are usually
acquired by wireline-conveyed tools; SWC operations are less expensive and time-consuming
than those of conventional coring and can recover cores from multiple zones of interest in a
single wireline run. Because SWCs are typically obtained after logging tools have been run,
geologists can use log measurements to pick the depths at which the SWCs should be taken.

Figure 23 : Core Samples of Limestone