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12f2X5 Course materials
12f2X5 Course materials
UNIT IV TRANSISTORS 12
Principle of operation of PNP and NPN transistors – study of CE, CB and CC configurations and
comparison of their characteristics – Breakdown in transistors – operation and comparison of N-
Channel and P-Channel JFET – drain current equation – MOSFET – Enhancement and depletion
types – structure and operation – comparison of BJT with MOSFET – thermal effect on
MOSFET.
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
REFERENCES:
INTRODUCTION
ELECTRIC CURRENT
If the work done in moving a charge of one coulomb between the two points is
one joule, then the potential difference between the two points is one volt.
V = dW / dQ W- Work done
Q Charge
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE:
ELECTRICAL POWER:
P==- V I watts/sec
== I2 R
NETWORKS:
Any arrangement of the various electrical energy sources along with the different
circuit elements is called an electrical network
The following terms are used in the network.
i) Network element
ii) Branch
iii) Junction point
iv) Node
v) Mesh or Loop
TYPES:
i) : Linear network
v) Active Network:
A circuit which contains a source of energy is called active network.( Voltage and
current sources are energy sources)
OHMS LAW:
When the temperature remains constant,current flowing through a circuit is
directly proportiona to the potential difference across the conductor.
V∞ I
V=IR Where V => Voltage
I => current
R => Resistance
Limitations:
Not applicable to Non-metallic conductor
Not applicable to Non-Linear devices
Not applicable to Temperature variant circuits.
KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
1.KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
The sum of currents flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of currents
flowing away from it.
In a closed circuit the sum of the potential drops is equal to the sum of the
potential rise
There are two basic ways in which to connect more than two circuit components:
Series and Parallel.
• For analysis, series resistors/impedances can be replaced by an equivalent
resistor/ impedance.
• Parallel resistors/impedances can be replaced by an equivalent resistor/
impedance.
SERIES RESISTANCE
Two elements are in series if the current that flows through one must also flow
through the other.
SERIES Req = R1 + R2
R1 R2
When the resistors are connected in series then the current passes through all the
resistors are same.
VOLTAGE DIVISION RULE
Req = R1+R2
I= V/(R1+R2)
V1 = I R1
= (V/(R1+R2)) R1
= V . R1/(R1+R2) Similarly,V2 = V. R2 / (R1+R2)
PARALLEL RESISTANCE
Two elements are in parallel if they are connected between (share) the same two
(distinct) end nodes.
PARALLEL
R1
R2
When the two resistors are connected in parallel, then the potential across the
resistors are same
CURRENT DIVISION RULES
V=I1R1 = I2R2
I2 = I1R1 / R2
I = I1 + (I1R1 / R2) = I1 (R1 +R2)/R2
I1 = I.R2 / (R1+R2) , Similarly I2 = I.R1/(R1+R2)
INDUCTORS
CAPACITORS
NETWORK THEOREMS:
THEVENIN'S THEOREM:
Any circuit with sources (dependent and/or independent) and resistors can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single voltage source and a single
resistor.
• Thevenin’s theorem implies that we can replace arbitrarily complicated networks
with simple networks for purposes of analysis.
To Calculate Voc :-
Remove the Load resistance RL and Calculate the potential across the point AB by
any one method
To calculate Rth:-
i) Remove the Load resistance
ii) Short circuit the voltage source by replacing it by its internal resistance.
iii) Open circuit the current source if any
iv) Calculate the equivalent circuit resistance viewed from its terminal
AB(across the load resistance)
NORTON'S THEOREM:
Any linear network,across any terminal AB can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit that consisting of a current source IN in parallel with the Norton’s resistance
Where IN is the short circuit currentacross the terminalafter replacing the
loadresistance.The RN is the equivalent resistance for the network viewed from its
terminal( Equal to the Rth)
To Calculate IN:-
Replace the load resistance and short circuit the terminals.Now the current flow
through the terminalis called Short circuit current or Norton’s Current
To Calculate RN :-
Same as that of Rth
Super Position Theorem is not valid for power responses. It is applicable only
for computing voltage and Current responses.
Duality:
Two electrical networks which are governed by the same type of equations are
called duality.
For the networks to be duals it is necessary that the variables & elements of one
network should also be the duals of variables & elements of other networks.
Star-Delta Transformation:
In general terms:
Rdelta = (sum of Rstar pair products) / (opposite Rstar)
Delta-Star Transformation
A delta network of three impedances RAB, RBC and RCA can be transformed into a star
network of three impedances RA, RB and RC connected together at common node N by
the following equations:
In general terms:
Rstar = (adjacent Rdelta pair product) / (sum of Rdelta)
Transient State:
If a network contains energy storage elements, with change in excitation, the
current and voltages change from one state to another state is called transient state. The
behavior of the voltage or current when it is changed from one state to another state is
called transient state.
Transient Time:
The time taken for the circuit to change from one steady state to another steady
state is called the transient time.
Natural response:
If we consider a circuit containing storage elements which are independent of
sources, the response depends upon the nature of the circuit, it is called natural response.
Transient response:
The storage elements deliver their energy to the resistances, hence the response
changes with time, gets saturated after sometime, and is referred to the transient response.
Laplace Transform:
The Laplace transform of any time dependent function f(t) is given by F(s).
Where S→A complex frequency given by S=σ + jω
Order of a System:
The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation
governing the system. If the system is governed by nth order differential equation, than the
system is called nth order system.
Resonant Circuit
The circuit that treat a narrow range of frequencies very differently than all other
frequencies are referred to as resonant circuit.
The gain of a highly resonant circuit attains a sharp maximum or minimum at its
resonant frequency.
Resonance
Resonance is defined as a phenomenon in which applied voltage and resulting
current are in phase.
Bandwidth
The Bandwidth is defined as the frequency difference between upper cut-off
frequency (f2) and lower cut-off frequency (f1).
Selectivity
Selectivity is defined as the ratio of bandwidth to the resonant frequency of
resonant circuit.
Q factor
The quality factor, Q, is the ratio of the reactive power in the inductor or capacitor
to the true power in the resistance in series with the coil or capacitor.
Parallel Resonance
A parallel circuit is said to be in resonance when applied voltage and resulting
current are in phase that gives unity power factor condition.
Parallel resonance is also known as Anti resonance.
At anti resonance the parallel resonant circuit acts as current amplifier.
Reactance curves
The graph of individual reactance versus the frequency is called Reactance Curve.
Types of Tuned circuits
Energy Bands
The range of energies possessed by an electron in a solid is known as Energy
band.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
A Semiconductor which is in its extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor.
If potential difference is applied across intrinsic semiconductor, the electrons
will move towards the positive terminal while the holes will drift towards the
negative terminal.
The total current inside the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to free
electrons and holes.
Extrinsic Semiconductors
The conductivity can be increased by the addition of a small amount of suitable
metallic impurity. It is also known as impurity semiconductor.
The process of adding impurity atoms to the intrinsic semiconductor is called
doping.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free electrons
or holes in a semiconductor.
Two types of impurity atoms are added to the semiconductor.
Pentavalent impurity atoms - containing five valance electrons
Trivalent impurity atoms - containing three valance electrons
Extrinsic semiconductors are classified as,
N-type Semiconductor
P-type Semiconductor
N-type Semiconductor
A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor is
known as N-type Semiconductor.
When a pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it displaces
some of its atoms. E.g. ARSENIC (As), ANTIMONY (Sb)
In N-type semiconductor, major part of the current flows due to the movement
of Electrons. Therefore electrons in an N-type semiconductor are known as
majority carriers and holes as minority carriers.
P-type Semiconductor
Conductivity of a semiconductor
Each hole-electron pair created two charge carrying particles is formed. One is
negative of mobility µn (free electron) and the other is positive of mobility µ p (hole).
These particles move in opposite direction in an electric field.
σ = Conductivity of semiconductor
Where,
3/2
2πmn KT
Nc = 2
h2
Concentration of holes (p)
Drift Current
Drift current is defined as the flow of electric current due to the motion of the
charge carriers under the influence of an external electric field applied across the
semiconductor material.
Diffusion Current
In a semiconductor material, the charge carriers have the tendency to move from
the region of higher concentration to that of lower concentration of the same type of
charge carriers. This movement of charge carriers takes place resulting in a current called
diffusion current.
The average distance that a charge carrier can diffuse during its lifetime is called as
diffusion Length L.
Theory of PN Junction Diode
The N-type material has high concentration of free electrons and, P-type material
has high concentration of holes. At the junction, there is a tendency for the free N-type of
diffuse over to the P-side and holes from the P-side to the N-side. This process is called
diffusion.
Thus a barrier is set up against further movement of charge carriers. This is called
Potential barrier or Junction barrier (VB).The potential barrier is of the order of 0.1V
to 0.3 V.
The mobile charges have been depleted in this region. It is known as depletion
layer.
ZENER DIODE
Symbol
Anode Cathode
The operation of zener diode is same as that of ordinary p-n diode order forward
biased condition, whereas under reverse biased condition breakdown of the junction
occurs.
Breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is heavily
doped, depletion layer will be thin and consequently breakdown occurs at lower reverse
voltage and further, the breakdown voltage is sharp. The breakdown voltage can be
selected with the amount of doping.
The sharp increase in current under breakdown condition is due to the following
two mechanisms.
Avalanche breakdown
Zener breakdown
Avalanche breakdown
When doping concentration is less like in ordinary diode then under reverse
biased condition a small amount of reverse saturation current flows and is constant as
long as the temperature is constant.
When the reverse voltage is increased width of the depletion layer increases at the
same time the electrons due to force of attraction by the plates acquire some high velocity
and during their motion inside the diode they collide with the electrons in covalent bonds
and bring them out.
Due to this multiplication process a large current flows and this kind of
breakdown is called Avalanche multiplication or breakdown. Once when this
breakdown occurs the diode gets damaged.
Zener breakdown
When doping is heavy then in reverse bias even-before the minority charge carries
acquire sufficient velocity the breakdown occurs and is known as Zener breakdown.
In reverse bias under heavy doping condition the width of the depletion layer will be
very thin strong electric field exists inside the diode. When reverse voltage increased at
once electric field the electrons which are present in the covalent bond are brought due to
strong force of attraction. Now, suddenly a large amount of current flows. Nothing but
Breakdown occurs. In Zener diode first zener breakdown occurs and later avalanche
breakdown.
Voltage regulator
Introduction of transistors
Transistor is a semiconductor device that can amplify electronic signals such as radio and
television signals.
n-p-n transistor
It is formed by sand witching p-type semiconductor between two n-type semiconductor.
p-n-p transistor
It is formed by sand witching n-type semiconductor between two p-type semiconductor.
Forward bias of J1 causes the holes in the P-type emitter to flow towards the base.
Reduces the potential barrier at the junction
Holes cross the junction & penetrate into the N-region. This constitutes emitter
current IE.
Width of the base region is very thin & lightly doped; hence a small amount of the holes
recombine with free electronss of N-regions. This constitutes base current IB & is very small.
Rest of the Holes drift across the base and enter the collector region and are swept
away by the negative collector cathode. This constitutes collector current IC.
Current conduction I in NPN transistors is by movement of holes.
Current conduction in the external circuit is in opposite direction of the electrons.
Forward bias of J1 causes the electrons in the N-type emitter to flow towards the
base.
Reduces the potential barrier at the junction
Electrons cross the junction & penetrate into the P-region. This constitutes emitter
current IE.
Width of the base region is very thin & lightly doped; hence a small amount of the
electrons recombine with free holes of P-regions. This constitutes base current I B & is very
small.
Rest of the electrons drift across the base and enter the collector region and are
swept away by the negative collector anode. This constitutes collector current I C.
Current conduction I in PNP transistors is by movement of electrons.
Current conduction in the external circuit is by Holes( Opposite direction of
electron movement)
Types of configuration
Common Base configuration
Common Emitter configuration
Common Collector configuration
Common Base configuration
Input is connected between emitter & base. Output is connected between collector
&base.
Emitter-base junction is forward biased. Collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Emitter current IE flows in the input circuit. Collector current I C flows in output
circuit.
The ratio of collector current I C, to emitter current IE, is called the Current
amplification factor (α).
If there is no input ac signal, then the ratio of IC to IE is called dc alpha (αdc).
ac alpha refers to the ratio of change in IC to change in IE.
The higher the value of α, better the transistor. α can be increased by making base
thin and lightly doped.
Characteristics of CB configuration
The performance of transistors, when connected in a circuit, may be determined
from their characteristic curves that relate different d.c. currents and voltages of a
transistor.Such curves are known as Static characteristic curves.
Input Characteristics
The curve drawn between Emitter current and Emitter – Base voltage for a given
value of collector-Base voltage is known as input Characteristics.
For a given value of VCB,the curve is just like a forward-biased PN junction.
With an increase in the value of V CB,it conducts better. This is because of the
effect called early effect or Base width modulation.
Output Characteristics
The curve drawn between Collector current and Collector – Base voltage for a
given value of emitter current is known as output Characteristics.
The collector current varies with VCB for very low voltage but transistor is never
operated in this region.
Input is connected between base & emitter. Output is connected between collector
& emitter.
Emitter-base junction is forward biased. Collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Base current IB flows in the input circuit. Collector current I C flows in output
circuit.
CE is commonly used because its current, voltage and power gains are quite high
and output to input impedance ratio is moderate.
The rate of change in collector current I C, to change in emitter current IE, is called
amplification factor (β).
Input Characteristics
The curve drawn between Base current and Base – Emitter voltage for a given
value of collector-emitter voltage is known as input Characteristics.
For a given value of VEC,the curve is just like a forward-biased PN junction diode.
Input resistance is larger in CE configuration than in CB configuration. This is
because the input current IB increases less rapidly with increase in VBE .
An increment in the value of VCE, causes the input current IB to be lower for a
given level of VBE . This is because of the effect called early effect.
Output Characteristics
The curve drawn between Collector current I C and Collector – emitter voltage V CE
for a given value of base current IB is known as output Characteristics.
Output characteristics in CE configuration have some slope while CB
configuration has almost horizontal characteristics. This indicates that output
resistance in case of CE configuration is less than that in CB configuration.
COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION
Input Characteristics
To determine the input Characteristics, VEC is kept at a suitable fixed value.
The base-collector voltage VBc is increased in equal steps and the corresponding
increase in IB is noted.
This is repeated for different values of VEC.
Breakdown in Transistors
Avalanche Multiplication
Reach-Through (or) Punch through
Avalanche Multiplication
The maximum reverse bias voltage which can be applied before breakdown
between collector and base terminals of the transistor under the condition that the
emitter is open-circuited.
It is represented by the symbol BVCBO (for CB configuration).
This breakdown voltage is a characteristic of the transistor alone.
Breakdown occurs because of the avalanche multiplication of current I CO that
crosses the collector junction.
As a result of this multiplication, the current becomes MI CO in which M is the
factor by which the original current ICO is multiplied by the avalanche effect.
At a high voltage BVCBO, the multiplication factor M becomes infinite and the
region of breakdown is then attained.
The current increases abruptly and large changes in current accompanies small
changes in voltage.
FEATURES OF FET
The FET has several advantages over the conventional transistor.
Its operation depends upon the flow of majority carrier only. So, it is called as
Unipolar device.
It is relatively immune to radiation.
It exhibits a high input resistance, typically many mega ohms.
It is less noisy than a tube of a Bipolar Transistor.
It exhibits no offset voltage at zero Drain current.
It has thermal stability.
TYPES OF FET
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) (or)
Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET)
CONSTRUCTION OF JFET
JFET is a three terminal semiconductor device in which current conduction is by
one type of carrier either Electrons or holes.
The JFET consists of a P-type or N-type silicon bar.
The bar is made up of N-type material which is known as N-channel JFET and if
the bar is made up of P-type material, it is known as P channel JFET.
The current in FET is carried by the majority carriers.
One end of the channel is called the source and the other is called the drain.
Operation of JFET
FET works under the three conditions.
When VGG applied and VDD=0
When VDS applied and VGG=0
When VDD applied and VGG is applied.
Where,
VGG – Gate supply voltage.
VDS– Drain Source voltage.
VDD– Drain supply voltage.
Characteristics of JFET
A family of curves that relate the current and voltage are known as
characteristics curve.
There are the two important characteristics of a JFET.
Transfer characteristics
Drain characteristics
Types of MOSFET
Depletion – type MOSFET
Enhance – type MOSFET
Construction of MOSFET
Two highly doped n regions are diffused into a lightly doped p type substrate.
These two highly doped regions are represents source and drain. In some cases
substrate is internally connected to the source terminal.
The source and drain terminals are connected through metallic contacts the n-
doped regions linked by an n-channel.
The gate is also connected to a metal contact surface but remains insulted from
the n-Channel by a very thin layer of dielectric material, Silicon Dioxide.
This layer act as one parallel plate capacitor.
Thus, there is no direct electrical connection between the gate terminal and the
channel of a MOSFET increasing the input impedance of the device.
Characteristics of MOSFET
The different characteristics of a D-MOSFET are
Drain characteristics
Transfer characteristics
UNIT-V SPECIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Tunnel Diodes
When the impurity concentration is of the order of one part to 10 3 parts then
tunnel diode is formed.
This diode has negative resistance region.
Due to which it is used as an oscillator.
This diode is uses the tunneling phenomenon.
Tunneling
The process that an electron from n-side of a pn diode directly penetrates through
the junction into the p-side of diode is called tunneling. It is a quantum –mechanical
behaviors.
Operation
When a tunnel diode is under unbiased condition then there will not transfer of
electrons from n-side to p-side hence the net current will be zero.
When the diode is reverse biased under this condition the electrons from n-side
are attracted by the positive plate and hence move away from the junction.
As a result the energy level in the n-side decreases when compared to the
unbiased state.
Now, there will be some empty state in valence band of p-side quite opposite to
the empty conduction band.
Hence tunneling takes place from p to n-side.
As reverse bias is increased this current increase.
Characteristic curve:
Applications
Tunnel diode is used as Ultra-high speed switch.
Used in relaxation oscillator.
Used as an amplifier.
Used as logic memory storage device.
Used as microwave oscillator.
Advantages
High speed operation
Ease of operation
Low noise
Low cost
Low power
Disadvantages
It is two terminal device, there is no isolation between the input and output circuit.
Voltage range over which it can be operated is 1 V or less.
PIN DIODE
It has highly improved switching time in comparison with a PN diode.
PIN diodes are used in microwave switches.
In PIN diode high resistivity intrinsic layer is sandwiched between the P and N
regions. This results in improved switching time.
Quite often instead of I-region we actually use either a high resistivity P-region is
called π region and the high resistivity N-region is called γ region.
The I-region has typically resistivity of 10 Ωm.
Applications of PIN Diode
Used as pulse and phase shifter.
Used as SPST and MPST switches.
Used in amplitude modulation.
Used as photo detectors in fiber optic systems.
Used as T-R switch.
Used as attenuator and duplexer.
VARACTOR DIODE
Varactor diode is a specially manufactured reverse biased PN junction diode with
a suitable impurity concentration profile.
It is also called as varicap or voltacap.
It is used as a variable reactance capacitance.
Applications
Used as a tuning device in receivers.
It is used in High frequency.
It is used in adjustable band-pass filter
It is used in FM modulation.
It is used in automatic frequency control devices.
It is used in parametric amplifier.
SCR
SCR consist of four semiconductor layers forming a PNPN structure.
It has three PN junctions namely J1, J2, J3.
There are three terminals called anode (A), cathode (K) and the gate (G).
The anode terminal is taken out from P 1 layer, and the gate (G) terminal from the
P2 layer. It conducts the current in forward direction only.
Operation of SCR
SCR is forward bias with a small voltage, it is in ‘OFF’ and no current flows
through the SCR.
The applied forward voltage is increased, a certain critical voltage called forward
break over voltage (VBO).It reaches at the junction J2 breakdown. At this case the
SCR switched ‘ON’ position.
If the SCR is reverse bias, the junction J 1 and J3 are reverse bias and junction J 2 is
forward bias.
It has found that most of the voltage will drop across junction J1 only.
When the applied reverse voltage is small, the SCR is OFF, and there is no
current flow through the device.
SCR characteristics
It is the relationship between the anode –cathode voltage and anode current at
different gate current.
Two types of V-I characteristics
Forward Characteristics
Reverse Characteristics
Forward Characteristics
It is the current drawn between anode-cathode voltage (V AK) and anode current
(IA) at different gate current.
Adjust the gate current to zero value by keeping the switch open.
Increase the applied voltage across the SCR in small suitable steps at each step.
Note the anode current & plot the graph.
Reverse Characteristics
The reverse characteristic is obtained by reversing the connections of the d.c.
supplies VAA and VGG .
Adjust the gate current to any suitable value.
Increase the reverse applied voltage in suitable steps.
Note the anode current for each steps.
Now we plot a graph with anode current and anode cathode voltage.
Latching
Once the SCR is turned ON, it starts to conduct and remains in conduction state
even when the gate signal is removed. This ability of the SCR to remain conducting, even
when the gate signal is removed, is known as latching.
Turning OFF
One of the following methods is applied to turn OFF the SCR.
Reversing polarity of anode-to-cathode voltage called as Gate turn OFF switch
(GTO).
The second method is anode current interruption. Changing anode current by
means of momentarily series or parallel switching arrangement.
Third method is forced commutation. In this, the current through SCR is reduced
below the holding current.
Applications of SCR
Power control device
Relay control
Regulated power supplies
Static switches
Motor control
Battery charges
Heater controls
Phase controls
For speed control of DC shunt motor
Advantages of SCR
SCR controls large current in the load by means of a small gate current.
SCR size is very compact.
Switching speed is high.
Applications of DIAC
Temperature control
Triggering of TRIAC
Light dimming circuits
Motor speed control
Applications of TRIAC
Heater control
Phase control
Light dimming control
Static switch to turn a.c. power ON and OFF.
Speed control of motor.
Applications of LASCR
Optical light controls
Phase control
In relays
Motor control
LASER DIODE
The term Laser comes from the acronym for light amplification for
stimulated emission of radiation.
The Laser medium can be a gas, liquid, amorphous solid or
semiconductor.
Two commonly used Laser structure
PN homojunction laser
Double hetrostructure laser
Laser Action
The light traveling through a semiconductor, then a single photon is able to
generate an identical second photon.
This photon multiplication is the key physical mechanism of lasing.
The carrier inversion is the first requirement of lasing.
It is achieved at the PN junction by providing the conduction bandwidth electrons
from the N-doped side and the Valence band with the holes from the P-doped
side.
The photon energy is given by the band gap, which depends on the semiconductor
material. The optical feedback and the confinement of photon in an optical
resonator are the second basic requirement of lasing.
PHOTODIODE
It is a light sensitivity device used to convert light signal into electrical signal.
It is also called Photo detector.
The light energy fall on the junction through lens, when, the PN photodiode
junction is reverse bias.
The hole-electrons pairs are created.
The movement of the hole-electron pairs in a properly connected circuit results in
current flows.
The current is proportional to the intensity of light and the frequency of the light
falling on the junction of the photo diode.
It is used in demodulator, encodes and light detectors systems.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
The photo transistor is a light detector.
It combines a photodiode and phototransistor.
The phototransistor cannot be directly used in control applications. Because, it
produces a very low current.
Before applying to control circuit the current should be amplified.
A lens focuses the energy on the base-collector junction.
It has three terminal, but only two leads are generally used (emitter and collector).
The base current is supplied by the current created by the light falling on the
Base-collector photodiode junction.
In phototransistors, the current is dependent mainly on the intensity of light
entering into the lens and the voltage applied to the external circuit.
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE SENSORS
Photoconductive sensor is also called as Light Depending Resistor (LDR).
It is made of thin layer of semiconductor material (cadmium sulfide).
There is no light falls on the sensor the resistance is very high and the current is
low.
Hence, the voltage drop across R is high. It is used in control circuits to control
the current.
PHOTOVOLTAIC SENSORS
It is a light-sensitive semiconductor device, and it produces a voltage, when the
voltage increases and the intensity of light falling on the semiconductor junction
of this photovoltaic cell increases.
It consists of a piece of semiconductor material (silicon or germanium).
The photovoltaic cells are produced more power, as in solar cells. These are
called photovoltaic devices.
It is used in light meters.
Advantages of LED
They are smaller in size.
Its cost is very low.
It has long life time.
It operates LED’s are available in different colours at low cost.
even at very low voltage.
Response time of LED is very fast in the order of 10 9 seconds.
Its intensity can be controlled easily.
It can be operated at a wide range of temperature (0-70˚) C.
Applications of LED
Used for numeric display in pocket calculators.
Used for applying input power to lasers.
Used for entering information into optical computer memories
Used for solid video displays.
Used in image sensing circuits.
Advantages of LCD
Low power is required
Good contrast
Low cost
Disadvantages of LCD
Speed of operation is slow
LCD occupy a large area
LCD life span is quite small, when used on d.c. Therefore, they are used with a.c.
suppliers.
Applications of LCD
Used as numerical counters for counting production items.
Analog quantities can also be displayed as a number on a suitable device. (e.g.)
Digital multimeter.
Used for solid state video displays.
Used for image sensing circuits.
Used for numerical display in pocket calculators.
12F2X5- ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTRON DEVICES
UNIT – I
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
1.Define current?
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electron charge.The direction of
current flow depends on the flow of charge.
I = dq / dt amp
Where ‘q’ is the charge in coulombs
2.What is voltage?
The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit called voltage.
The unit of voltage is volt. It is represented by V OR v.
Voltage = W/Q = workdone/Charge
(or)
If the workdone in moving a charge of one coulomb between the two
points is one joule, then the potential difference between the two points is one volt.
V = dW / dQ W- Work done
Q Charge
3.Define power.
The rate of doing work of electrical energy or energy supplied per unit time is
called the power. The power denoted by either P of p. It is measured in Watts. (W).
Power = work done in electric circuit/Time
P = dw/dt = dw/dq . dq/dt
P = VI
4.What is network?
Interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements is called an electric network.
Circuit
Element Voltage Current Power
Resistance V = iR i=V/R P = vi
Inductance V = L di /dt i = 1/L ∫ vdt P = Li di / dt
Capacitance V = 1/c ∫ idt i = C dv / dt P = CV dv / dt
RMS value
Form factor (Kf) = ______________
Average Value
22.Define peak factor.
Peak factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum value to the rms value.
Maximum value
R1R2
Resistance in parallel Req = __________
R1+R2
27.Two inductors with equal value of “L” are connected in series and parallel what
is the equivalent inductance?
L1L2
Inductance in parallel Leq =_______
L1+L2
28.Two capacitors with equal value of “C” are connected in series and parallel.
What is the equivalent capacitance?
C1C2
Capacitance in series Ceq = __________
C1+C2
Capacitance in parallel Ceq = C1 + C2
29.Write down the formula for a star connected network is converted into a delta
network?
30.Write down the formula for a delta connected network is converted into a star
network?
31.Write few advantages of sinusoid waveform?
The response of the sinusoidal input for second order system is sinusoidal.
The wave form can be written in terms of sinusoidal function according to fourier
theorem.
The derivatives and integral also sinusoidal.
Easy for analyses.
Easy to generate.
More useful in power industry.
39.What is impedance?
The ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current is called impedance.
It is denoted as Z and it is measured in Ohms.
40.Obtain the equivalent impedance and reactances for series and parallel
connections.
Impedance in series Z eq = Z1 + Z2
41.Define admittance.
The reciprocal of impedance is called admittance. It is denoted as Y and it is
measured in Siemens (S).
Admittance (Y) = _1__ = __I_
Z V
Y1 Y2
Admittance in series Y eq = ____________
Y1 + Y2
If the branches in the network has a voltage source, then it is slightly difficult to
apply nodal analysis.One way to overcome this difficulty is by applying the supernode
technique.In this case, we have to choose super node.A supernode is constituted by two
adjacent node that have common voltage source.
63 Define duality.
Two electrical network which are governed by the same type of equations are
called duality.
1 σ1 + j∞
L-1 [F(s)] = f (t) = _________ ∫ F (s) e st ds
2Лj σ1 - j∞
and
V1 (s)
Z 12 (s) = ____________
I2 (s)
15. Define network function.
A network function N (S) is defined as the ratio of the complex amplitude
of an excponential output P (S) to the complex amplitude of an exponential input Q (S).
R
Upper half power frequency, f2 = f r + ____
4Л L
24. Write down the formula for inductive reactance and capacitive reactance?
1
Capacitive reactance is given by XC = _________
2Л fc
Where
F supply frequency
L Inductance of the coil
C Capacitance of the capacitor.
25. Give the expression for quality factor of series RLC Circuit.
Quality factor is Q = 1 / R √ L /C
26. Give the expression for quality factor of parallel RLC Circuit.
Quality factor is Q = R √ C / L
UNIT III SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
2. Define Potential.
A potential of V volts at point B with respect to point A, is defined as the work
done in taking unit positive charge from A to B , against the electric field.
6. What is the relation for the maximum number of electrons in each shell?
Ans: 2n2
25. Why n - type or penta valent impurities are called as Donor impurities?
n- type impurities will donate the excess negative charge carriers ( Electrons) and
therefore they are reffered to as donor impurities.
27. Give the relation for concentration of holes in the n- type material?
pn = ni
2 /ND
Where
pn - concentration of holes in the n – type semiconductor
ND - concentration of donor atoms in the n – type semiconductor
28. Give the relation for concentration of electrons in the p - type material?
np = ni
2 /NA
Where
np - concentration of electrons in p- type semiconductor
ND - concentration of acceptor atoms in the p – type semiconductor
29. Define drift current?
When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor, the holes move towards the
negative terminal of the battery and electron move towards the positive terminal of the
battery. This drift movement of charge carriers will result in a current termed as drift
current.
30. Give the expression for drift current density due to electron.
Jn = q n μnE
Where,
Jn - drift current density due to electron
q- Charge of electron
μn - Mobility of electron
E - applied electric field
31. Give the expression for drift current density due to holes.
Jp = q p μp E
Where, Jn - drift current density due to holes q - Charge of holes
μp - Mobility of holes E - applied electric field
34. What is the other name of continuity equation? What does it indicate?
The other name of continuity equation is equation of conservation of charge.
This equation indicates that the rate at which holes are generated thermally just equals the
rate at which holes are lost because of recombination under equilibrium conditions.
49. How does the avalanche breakdown voltage vary with temperature?
In lightly doped diode an increase in temperature increases the probability of collision of
electrons and thus increases the depletion width. Thus the electrons and holes needs a
high voltage to cross the junction. Thus the avalanche voltage is increased with increased
temperature.
50. How does the zener breakdown voltage vary with temperature?
In heavily doped diodes, an increase in temperature increases the energies of valence
electrons, and hence makes it easier for these electrons to escape from covalent bonds.
Thus less voltage is sufficient to knock or pull these electrons from their position in the
crystal and convert them in to conduction electrons. Thus zener break down voltage
decreases with temperature.
UNIT IV
TRANSISTORS
1. What is a transistor (BJT)?
Transistor is a three terminal device whose output current, voltage and /or power
is controlled by input current.
3. What is FET?
FET is abbreviated for field effect transistor. It is a three terminal device with its output
characteristics controlled by input voltage.
7. What is JFET?
JFET- Junction Field Effect Transistor.
16 marks-Hints
UNIT V
1. What is a TRIAC?
TRIAC is a three terminal bidirectional semiconductor switching device. It can conduct
in both the directions for any desired period. In operation it is equivalent to two SCR’s
connected in antiparallel.
7. What is a DIAC?
DIAC is a two terminal bidirectional semiconductor switching device. . It can conduct in
either direction depending upon the polarity of the voltage applied across its main
terminals. In operation DIAC is equivalent to two 4 layer diodes connected in
antiparallel.
8. Give some applications of DIAC.
1. To trigger TRIAC
2. Motor speed control
3. Heat control
4. Light dimmer circuits
9. What is a SCR?
A silicon controller rectifier (SCR) is a three terminal, three junction semiconductor
device that acts as a true electronic switch. It is a unidirectional device. It converts
alternating current into direct current and controls the amount of power fed to the load.