UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

LIVESTOCK AND WILD ANIMALS

Unit objectives
At the end of the unit you should be able to:

 Explain the socio economic importance of livestock and wild animal species and breeds
 Classify livestock and wild animals
 Identify breeds and their adaptive features

INTRODUCTION

In your O’ level course you covered aspects in all the branches of Agriculture but in this A’ level
course you will specialize in animal science. This course will require you to study animals in a
greater detail than what you previously encountered in Animal Husbandry. Animal Science
encompasses a greater depth of study concerning the scientific aspects that are fundamental to
successful animal production. You will be required to look in greater detail, at aspects such as
Anatomy and physiology of farm animals, animal nutrition, animal breeding and genetics,
animal health, animal production as well as animal products and technology. This detailed study
will embrace both Livestock Husbandry and Wildlife Management.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Anterior- located towards the head of an animal

Apex predator- an animal at the top of the food chain

keystone predator-an animal that feeds on a fresh kill

Bloodmeal- a meal made of dried blood

Buff- a colour that is intermediate between white and light brown

cervico thoracically- located on the neck region of the vertebral column

conformation-the physical appearance of an animal embracing ,shape, size etc

dystocia-a condition whereby a female animal has difficulty in giving birth.

forager- an animal that feeds on fresh leaves and grass

harbinger-an animal that serves as a warning or a sign

mohair- curly hair obtained from angora goats.

Nocturnal- moving and hunting at night

pliable-easily moulded into shapes

polled-without horns

scavenger-an animal that feeds on dead animals from another animals kill

symbiosis-a relationship whereby two organisms benefit from one another

sexually dimorphic-there are visible differences in the appearance of the male and female of the
same species.

Tallow-fat from an animal,used in soap manufacture

Ungulates-hooved animals

SOCIO ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF LIVESTOCK AND WILD ANIMALS

1.LIVESTOCK
 The term livestock refers to domesticated animals which are further classified as:

a) Bovines - these are cattle

b) Ovine - sheep
c) Caprine - goats
d) Porcine - pigs
e) Avian - poultry

1.1 .CATTLE

This is the most important class of livestock due to the diverse uses of the live animal and the
variety of by-products obtained from the carcass. The immense value of cattle is attributed to the
following facts

 Cattle are a symbol of wealth and social status due to their non liquidity as a source of
income .Ownership of cattle is not affected by inflation, fluctuations in market prices or
gluts and shortages in the meat market, as they can be conveniently kept until the
conditions stabilize. Therefore they can be regarded as a bank.
 Cattle are useful in the payment of social obligations such as payment of bride price to in
laws , paying fines in village and chiefs courts, as well as for rituals such as the
appeasement of avenging spirits.
 Cattle are a critical source of draught power not only for tillage purposes, whereby they
are hitched to the mould board plough or cultivator but for pulling of heavy loads such as
firewood and water containers as well.
 Cattle may serve as collateral security when a rural farmer requires a loan from a bank.
 The by- products of cattle are numerous and valuable, Beef is an essential by product of
cattle in the food industry as well as in households in general, where it is a vital source of
protein.
 Blood from the carcass at slaughter is dried and made into blood-meal which is widely
used in livestock feeds.
 Bones are ground and added to livestock feeds w here they become a rich source of
Calcium or alternatively used in the crockery industry to manufacture utensils.
 The fat is useful in the soap industry where it is called” tallow.”
 Cattle hooves are an important source of glue.
 Milk produced by cattle is a vital raw material for the dairy industry.
 The tail of cattle is useful in the manufacture of brushes.
 Manure, from cattle is a vital organic fertilizer.
 Cattle hides are an important raw material for the leather industry.
 Horns, when cut and polished can be carved into jewellery and ornaments.
(a)Breeds of cattle in Zimbabwe:

Cattle can be classified as indigenous or exotic.

i. Indigenous breeds
These are found mostly in the communal areas as they can survive under harsh climatic
conditions such as drought. They have good disease resistance and are highly fertile.
They seldom face challenges in calving. the most common breeds are Mashona,
Afrikander, Tuli and Ngoni.

Mashona cattle

They originated in the Eastern parts of Zimbabwe. This is a small breed of cattle with a
compact conformation. It has short legs, a fine bone structure and a very long tail.
Common coat colours are Black and Brown. The hair is short and glossy and the ears are
small and pointed. The hump is cervico-thoracically located, moderate in size in the male
but quite small in the female. The udder is small and located towards the anterior end of
the animal. Mashona cattle tend to have a good feed conversion ratio. Over the years, this
breed has been successfully crossed with temperate breeds, Afrikander and Aberdeen
Angus. The breed is, hardy, disease resistant and calves easily .its fertility rate is also
very high. The breed is highly docile, thus making a good draught animal. They are not a
good milk breed.
Afrikander

The Afrikander is a large animal, muscular and drought resistant. This breed is tolerant to
seasonal climate fluctuations which include dry spells, low temperatures and wet spells. It
is also resistant to disease. The coat colour is usually a shade of brown. The hair is short
and glossy. The skin is loose to tolerate heat. This breed has a long head with small,
pointed ears. The male has short, strong horns while those of the female are twisted. The
breed takes long to mature but can be successfully crossed with other breeds. The
Afrikander can move for long distances in search of grazing. This breed can be
successfully used for commercial beef production .It does not usually experience calving
problems and has excellent mothering abilities It is resistant to ticks ,exhibits high levels
of fertility and has a quiet temperament.

Tuli

This is a large breed which comes in a variety of colours except black. It is naturally
polled .They have an exceptionally high fertility rate and are resistant to unfavourable
climatic conditions.Their thick hides enable them to withstand high temperatures. They
can move for long distances in search of grazing areas. It exhibits a high level of
adaptability and has a docile nature .It produces high quality beef

Nguni

The breed is reared for beef and also as a draught animal. The coat may be black, white
or brown. It has a thick pigmented skin with fine short hair. It has a rounded cervico-
thoracic hump that is more muscular than fatty. It exhibits a strong tolerance for heat and
light. Nguni cattle are excellent foragers with good disease resistance. This breed has a
long production life, giving birth to as many as ten calves in a lifetime. It is less prone to
dystocia than other breeds due to its slopy rump, small uterus and low calf mass at birth.
Furthermore, the weaning weight is good.

ACTIVITY 1
Go into the community and carry out a survey of the local breeds of cattle.Find
out about the following.
 Number of animals per household
 Age at first calving
 Milk yields
 supplementary feed,
 pests and diseases that affect them.

ii. Exotic breeds

Brahman
 This is a large breed that originated in India. It is characterized by a grey glossy coat and
large ears. The skin is loose, soft and pliable. The skin is loose to allow cooling. It also
sweats readily through sweat glands. The skin is black and pigmented .The male is
usually darker than the female. The head is long. The hump is large in the male and small
in the female. In the female, the udder is of moderate size. It is a beef breed with a high
dressing percentage. The breed can grow fairly well on poor, dry grazing. It also responds
well to feedlot management. When continuously handled, it can be a docile animal but if
handled once in a while, it tends to be vicious. It has a long productive cycle, it is rarely
troubled by ticks and exhibits strong resistance to diseases .It has been successfully
crossed with other breeds.

Hereford

This breed originated in the United Kingdom.

The Hereford is characterized by a red body, white face, underneck and underbody. It is a
beef breed that exhibits early maturity and has a unique tendency of getting fat at a tender
age therefore producing good quality baby beef. It is hardy and can thrive even when
subjected to heat stress.

Aberdeen Angus

This breed originated in Scotland. It is black in colour short, low set, wide and deep
bodied. It crosses very well with other breeds.

A comparison of indigenous and exotic breeds of cattle

Advantages of indigenous breeds over exotic breeds of cattle

 They are well adapted to the local climate and can survive under harsh conditions.
They are hardy.
 They show a marked resistance to tropical diseases
 Indigenous breeds do better than exotic breeds under low levels of feed and
inadequate water supplies
 Their general maintenance is cheaper.

Disadvantages of indigenous breeds

 Indigenous breeds produce poor quality beef as compared to exotic breeds.
This is especially noted in the offals, which tend to be darkish in colour
as well as very bitter, due to browsing on bitter herbage.
  Indigenous breeds have a very slow growth rate , taking several years to
mature.
 Indigenous breeds cannot be successfully fattened in pens as they develop
a condition called Laminitis, whereby the feet swell , resulting in difficulty
in walking.

Advantages of exotic breeds over indigenous breeds

 .They grow faster than indigenous breeds therefore giving returns in a short time
 Generally they have a better body conformation than indigenous breeds with a lower
meat to bone ratio.
 They yield high quality beef and higher milk quantities than indigenous breeds

Disadvantages of exotic breeds.

 Exotic breeds are expensive to feed and maintain. They usually require feedlot
management.
 Some exotic breeds find it difficult to adapt to the local climates
 Some breeds such as the Brahman are very big and where uncontrolled mating is
practiced they will mount small heifers thus stressing the female.
 They may not be resistant to local diseases , hence the need for vaccination.

EXERCISE 1
1 .Describe three unique features of the Brahman that enable the breed to adapt to
arid conditions.(6)
2. Explain the following terms
(a) feeed conversion rate(2)
(b)dressing percentage(2)
(c)dystocia(2)
(d)laminitis(2)
(e)Fertility rate(2)
3What are the distinguishing features of the following breeds
.Mashona cattle(3)
Nguni cattle(2)
Hereford(2)
4. State two disadvantages of indigenous cattle over exotic cattle(4)
 1.2.GOATS

 Goats are both browsers and grazers. They are mostly suited to dry areas .Goats are more
tolerant to adverse conditions than cattle as they can survive even on acacia bushes, fruits
and leaves.
 .Like cattle, they are also a good source of meat and milk.
 Goat hide produces good leather and in the case of the Angora goat, the fur is a source of
mohair which is very useful for making jerseys. Goat manure is a good organic fertilizer
 Goats enable smallholder farmers to supplement their income.
 They create employment especially for those without land
 They improve soil fertility due to addition of dung and urine to the soil
 They contribute to the crafts industry where their fibres are used
 They feed on crop residues that are not economically useful

i. Indigenous goats

Boer goat
 Boer goats are reared for meat. This is a big, muscular breed with short hair. It is usually
white in colour with a brown neck and head. They are normally horned with lop ears.
Twins or triplets are very common in the offspring. The goat has a good browsing ability
and is quite suitable for intensive production as it has a limited destructive effect on the
grass cover. Low maintenance is needed. Ovulation and kidding rates are very high
weaning rates are high as well. The goat has a high milk yield

Angora goats

This is a very small breed mostly reared for mohair production. The goat is white in
colour with long curly hair called mohair. The hair is used for making jerseys and
blankets. It is similar to coarse wool and it is a strong elastic fibre. Both sexes are horned.
In the female the horns are spiralled. It is a foraging animal and as such it can be raised
where the fields are poor. Angora goats are very delicate when small. The breed is not
suitable for Zimbabwean climate.

ii. Exotic goats

Saneen goats

This breed is reared for milk production. It is a medium to large, docile white breed. It
has a very high milk yield of up to seven litres. The coat is white, cream or buff in colour.
The hair is short and fine. It is very sensitive to excessive sunlight. The meat is of a good
quality with 3-4 percent fat.

Alpine goats

These goats range from pure white to gray, brown or black. They are short haired in both
sexes .They originated in France. Males have long hair along the spine and a beard.
Alpine goats are heavy milk producers. The milk contains 3-4 percent fat. The breed is
medium to large with rugged bone structure and plenty of vigor.

ACTIVITY 2
Keeping goats in an enclosure or feedlot is not recommended,Why is this so

1,3.SHEEP

Sheep are less common than goats and also have less tolerance for arid conditions .They
are grazers thriving in grassland areas. Sheep are a good source of meat and wool.

i. Dorper sheep

This breed is a good mutton producer. The breed has a long breeding season and is not
seasonally limited. It is highly fertile, with lambing intervals of eight months. Dorper
ewes can lamb three times in two years if forage conditions are good and they are well
managed. Dorper lambs grow rapidly; have a high weaning weight and a very high
carcass quality. The breed does very well in arid conditions. The skin is very thick and
valuable. Sheep skin accounts for 20 percent of the carcass value.

1.4.PIGS

Pigs are non ruminants animals raised for meat. The coarse hair at the tail end make
excellent brushes and pig droppings make excellent manure.
 i. Indigenous pigs

Mukota pigs

They originate in Mutoko district in Zimbabwe They are black in colour and long nosed.
They can be left free ranging but this can result in uncontrolled mating. They are adapted
to heat stress, can survive with inadequate nutrition and are highly resistant to diseases.
They can be fed on maize, sadza and by products of the beer brewing industry. Their
water requirement is fairly low and they have an enlarged caecum for hind gut
fermentation. The Sow has efficient mothering skills and the litter size is usually 7-9
piglets. The meat is dark in colour with a very strong flavor.

ii. Exotic pigs

Large white
They originated from Yorkshire in England. It is a large, long, white pig. The ears are
erect or upright. It has a fast growth rate and high food conversion efficiency. One
favourable characteristic of the large white is the tendency to grow and not lay down fat.
It can survive in hot climates

Landrace

The breed originated in Denmark It is a large, long white pig with drooping ears. It is
suitable for bacon production. It has a high feed conversion efficiency and high growth
rate but it is a selective feeder. It does not accept poor quality feed. The sow has a good
mothering ability.

Duroc

This breed originated in New Jersey. This is the largest pig breed. The colour is light to
dark red with slightly drooping ears. It has a good growth rate and high food conversion
efficiency. The breed can survive on poor quality feed such as kitchen waste. The sow is
adapted to different environments.
a) POULTRY

These are domesticated birds that are kept for meat and eggs. They include chickens,
ducks, turkeys, geese and ostriches. Poultry manure is a valuable organic fertilizer. This
unit will not dwell on poultry as they are not relevant. Only the bird skeleton will be
studied in later chapters

EXERCISE 2
1.what do you understand by
(a)kidding rates(2)
(a)weaning rates(2)
2.why is the boer goat suitable for intensive production(2)
3Give one advantage of Duroc pigs over the landrace breed(2)

2 WILDLIFE.
The parks and wildlife Act, Chapter20 14 describes wildlife as all forms of life,
vertebrates and invertebrates that are indigenous to Zimbabwe. This unit will focus on the
socio economic importance of wildlife as well as study the Big Five of Africa in great
detail
2(a)SOCIO ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WILDLIFE
The benefits of wildlife can be classified into four categories and these are.
 Economic benefits
 Social and cultural benefits
 Ecological value
 Educational value

1.1 Economic benefits

 Wildlife attracts tourists and the later bring foreign currency to the nation. This
can be through trophy hunting, game viewing, photographic safaris, filming, sport
hunting and fishing, hiking, walking, pony trails and elephant rides , tours and the
hospitality industry. These activities do not deplete the wildlife but
 Wildlife results in employment creation eg game rangers and tour guides.
 Wildlife resources provide many products that are commercially exploited such
as, personalized stamps and carved ornaments from ivory.
 Shoes, wallets and handbags are obtained from the skins of crocodiles, elephants,
ostriches etc
 Wildlife are an important source of meat

1.2 Social and cultural benefits

 Animals form an integral part of human totems in Zimbabwe. Those with
that particular totem do not eat the animal in question.
 Some rare animals are reserved for chiefs eg the pangolin.
 Wild animals may act as harbingers eg the honey bird and the python.
 Certain animal skins are associated with royalty eg the leopard.
 Some wild animals are associated with witchcraft eg the owl, hyena and
the Aardvark.
 Traditional folktales always include a wild animal

1.3 Ecological value.

 The various species of animals and ecosystems help to achieve

equilibrium in the system as long as no unusual pressure is exerted on
the system. Examples of pressure exerted, being species
overpopulation or sudden climate changes . In this regard, variety
itself impacts positively on the ecosystem.

 Wildlife has a direct effect on the environment. It affects species

composition of habitats. When an animal is removed from a region eg
an elephant, the ecosystem tends to adjust to accommodate the change.
This may result in areas that were open , suddenly experiencing bush
encroachment and finally turning into woodlands or forests. On the
other hand if the number of elephants exceeds the carrying capacity of
the land, denudation may occur.

 Wildlife facilitates effective seed dispersal. Migratory birds carry

seeds in their feathers or digestive tracts from one continent to
other .Monkeys and elephants also play a key role in seed dispersal
especially for fruit bearing trees. They do this through their faeces.
Birds, mammals and insects , play a vital role in pollination..
 Wildlife is involved in all relationships that exist between animal
species. These relationships range from predation,
symbiosis ,parasitism to commensalism.

 Wildlife habour many parasites which are specifically adapted to them

and are resistant to the diseases they transmit eg, buffalo do not
succumb to sleeping sickness whereas cattle do.

 Wildlife contribute significantly to global warming through emission

of gases eg termites. Termites release methane into the atmosphere.

 Wildlife serve as an indicator of the quality of the environment. Such

species are called indicator species. They reveal the quality of the
ecosystem. The quantity of predators at the top of the food pyramid is
an indication of problems in the lower trophic levels eg, poisoning and
disease.

1.4 Educational value

Areas where wildlife is kept have become pools of knowledge.
Students get opportunities to research and learn about the biology and
behavior of wildlife. Genetic material has been used in these areas to
propagate wildlife species. This has facilitated the improvement of
crop and livestock production in agricultural land use systems

(b)Causes of Conflicts between wildlife and humans

 Animals destroy crops in arable lands eg elephants and
baboons.
 Human settlements encroach into game reserves.
 Man hunts animals for meat.
 Animals kill and maim humans.
 Animals prey on livestock.
 Human activities cause destruction of animal habitats eg bush
fires, deforestation etc
 Human attitudes eg impulsive killing of snakes
 Poaching
 Gold panning involving the use of mercury, hence poisoning
animal drinking points.
 The palatability and high nutritive value of cultivated crops as
opposed to the veld.
ACTIVITY 3

Explain the effects of wildlife on the environment.

3 THE BIG FIVE OF AFRICA

This unit will study the Big five of Africa , namely, the Lion, elephant , leopard, buffalo and the
rhinoceros. Taxonomy will be studied in detail for each animal as well as anatomically
distinguishing features. Feeding habits, socialization, breeding patterns , territorial preferences
and finally, threats to the species will also be addressed in this unit.

3(a)Lion(Panthera leo) shumba, isilwane

Kingdom Animalia

Phyllum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Carnivore

Suborder Feliformia

Family Felidae

Subfamily Pantherinae

Genus Panther

Species Panthera leo

The lion is a very muscular, deep- chested cat of the felidae family. The cats head is short and
rounded. The neck is not pronounced and the ears are rounded. The tail is long, ending in a hairy
tuft. This large cat is sexually dimorphic in nature. There are visible differences between the
male and the female. The male has a shaggy covering of fur around the neck , referred to as a
mane. It is bigger than the female. Lions are very social animals, moving in prides of males ,
females and cubs. They prey on large ungulates such as the buffalo. The cat is an apex and
keystone predator. Groups of females hunt together. The lion is a diurnal hunter, it is rarely a
nocturnal hunter unless under threat or persecution. In terms of habitat, it thrives in grasslands
and Savannas and these have been jokingly referred to as Adrenaline grass. It is rarely found in
dense forests. The lion carries a majestic reverence and is termed the king of the jungle.Major
threats to the species are the loss of a habitat and conflict with humans.

3(b)Elephant(Loxodontus Africana) Nzou, indlovu

 Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Probiscidae
Family Elephantidae
Sub family Elephantinae
Genus Loxodonta
Species Loxodontus africana

The elephant is a massive thick skinned mammal that is often grey or black in colour, They differ
in the size of the ears and shape of the skulls The name Loxodontus , comes from Lozenge,
which refers to the shape of the enamel of its teeth. It is a herbivore, feeding on leaves of
vegetation in Mopani and Miombo woodlands. It favours scrubland and arid regions. When
feeding, it uses the trunk to pluck leaves and the tusk to tear branches . It causes massive
damage to the environment. It is a hindgut - fermenter and this enables it to consume vast
quantities of feed. Each family unit is led by an old cow called a Matriach. When separate
family units bond together they form kinship groups. After puberty ,male elephants form a close
alliance with one another. Elephants have a unique ability to communicate with one another over
long distances beyond human hearing range.

3(c)Black Rhinoceros(Diceros bicornis)Chipembere nhema, ubhejane

White Rhinoceros(Ceratotherium simum) Fura, umkhombo

Kingdom- Animalia
Phylum -Chordata
Class- Mammalia
Order -Perissodactyla
Family –Rhinoceratidae
Genus
Species Diceros bicornis
The name Rhinoceros comes from the greek word rhinoceros meaning nose horned .Rhis means
nose and keros means horn.

The rhinoceros is a large mammal, an odd toed ungulate of the family Rhinottidae , weighing
close to a tonne. It has an extremely thick protective skin ranging from 1,5cm to 5cm.The skin
consists mainly of collagen positioned in a lattice structure. It has one or two horns made of a
protein called keratin which are of immense economic value. It is a herbivore. It feeds on
fruits,twigs,stems,leaves and grass.The ungulate favours dense bush and thorny thickets.It can
graze right next to a lion. The huge mammal lacks teeth at the front of the mouth, hence relies on
the lips for plucking food. It is a hind gut fermenter and this enables it to feed on a highly
fibrous diet. The brain is very small for such a massive mammal, weighing around 400 to 600
grams.The Rhinoceros enjoys mud soaks and rests during the hottest part of the day.

It is an aggressive, bad tempered animal that does not socialize. The major threat to the
rhinoceros is poaching. Poachers kill the animal for its valuable horn .A rhinoceros horn is worth
its value in gold. It is then used as ornaments or in some cultures for medicinal purposes .The
rhinoceros is a critically endangered species in Africa.

3(d)Leopard(Panthera pardus)mbada, ingwe

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Carnivora
Suborder Feliformia
Family Felidae
Sub family Pantherinae
Genus Panthera
Species Panthera pardus

The leopard is a large cat whose long body , short legs and large skull distinguish it from
other cats. The fur is marked with black rosettes that are closely packed but lack central
spots. These give the cat an advantage of camourflage . It is carnivorous in nature, very
agile and possesses a unique ability to adapt to a variety of habitats which include arid
and mountainous areas. The leopard can run at an immense speed of up to 58 kilometres
per hour. Its hunting behavior is opportunistic and Its choice of prey, broad , including
livestock, thus bringing it into conflict with humans. Its ability to climb and perch itself
on trees gives it an added advantage over other predators. The leopard population is
 threatened by habitat ,loss, fragmentation and poaching. The cat is hunted illegally for
skins and other body parts that are used for décor.

3(e)Buffalo(Syncerus caffer) nyati, inyathi

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Animalia

Order Aritodactyla

Family Bovidae

Sub family Bovinae

Genus Syncerus

Species Syncerus caffer

 The buffalo is a large sub Saharan bovine that is distantly related to cattle. It is a huge
mammal whose horns are fused at the base forming a continuous bone shield across the
top of the head. This is referred to as a boss .It is a herbivore with few predators apart
from the lion and some large crocodiles. This may be attributed to its highly aggressive
nature. The buffalo is ranked as being among the most dangerous animals globally. It has
a very unpredictable temperament with a tendency to gore , trample and kill hundreds of
people globally every year. It is widely sought in trophy hunting.

SUMMARY
 livestock refers to domesticated animals , and these include cattle, goats, sheep,
pigs and poultry.
 Livestock can be divided into indigenous and exotic breeds.
 Cattle are a source of food, act as collateral security and are used to pay social
obligations.
 Goats are more hardy than cattle and can survive under harsh conditions. Some
goat breeds such as saneen have high milk yields.
 Most pig breeds can be fed on kitchen leftovers except the Landrace which is
highly selective in its diet.
 wildlife refers to all forms of life, vertebrate and invertebrates that are indigenous
to Zimbabwe
 Wildlife is important to a country socially , economically, ecologically and
educationally.
 There are conflicts, between humans and wild animals and some of them have
resulted in loss of life
 The big five of Africa is made up of the lion .leopard, elephant, buffalo and
rhinoceros
 Animals are classified taxonomically as well as physically.

EXERCISE 3

1. Describe the physical characteristics of temperate breeds and outline problems associated
with rearing these breeds under tropical conditions. (15) (ZIMSEC November 2019)
2. Discuss the economic importance of wildlife in Zimbabwe.(5)(ZIMSEC November 2019)
3. Describe the benefits obtained from wildlife under the following sub- headings
a) Commercial value
b) Recreational value
c) Aesthetic value
 d) Social value (12) (ZIMSEC November 2007)
4. State the causes of conflict between wild animals and humans.
5. Suggest how these can be resolved (8) ZIMSEC NOVEMBER2007)

UNIT THREE

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS OF FARM

ANIMALS

UNIT OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit ,learners should be able to

 Define the words anatomy and physiology.

 Explain the key words used in describing the location of various organs.
 Describe the functions of each part of the digestive system
 Compare and contrast the digestive systems of a ruminant and a non ruminant
 Explain the absorption of nutrients in the digestive systems
 Discuss factors affecting nutrient absorption
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Physiology- The integral functions of the body and its various parts whether
biochemical or biophysical

Anatomy- the form and structure of body organs

Ingestion- the act of taking in food

Egestion- the excretion of waste from the body

Eructation- release of gases through the mouth

Stratified epithelium- made of several layers of cells stacked on one another

Squamous epithelium- a single layer of flat cells in contact with the basal lamina

Peristalsis-t he movement of food along the alimentary canal.

Prehension- tearing and cutting up food in preparation for chewing

Mastication- chewing food
Deglutition- swallowing
Regurgitation-the act of taking up food from the rumen back to the mouth
Monogastric- An animal whose stomach is not divided into components
Polygas tric- an animal whose stomach is divided into compartments

INTRODUCTION

In this course , anatomy and physiology, you will study eight systems in the body of an
animal and these are, the digestive system, the muscular system, the circulatory system,
the skeletal system, the respiratory system, the urinary system, the articular system and
finally, the reproductive system
Anatomy- means form and structure or to cut up.

Physiology means the integral functions of the body and its various parts whether
biochemical or biophysical.

Anatomy and physiology encompasses a description of tissues organs and

systems ,encompassing such parameters as, the shape and size of an organ, The
connection between one organ and another as well as the chronological sequence of the
various organs in the system. When describing a system , it is of paramount
importance to list the organs in a chronological sequence. Physiology encompasses the
functioning of the various organs, taking into account, chemical processes which may
include, the action of enzymes , hormones and digestive juices

General plan of the animal body

All farm animals are vertebrates I,e they possess a vertebral column and hence exhibit,
bilateral symmetry. The right and left sides are mirror images of one another. Structures
that occur in pairs on the left and right sides of an animal are called paired structures.
Examples of such organs are kidneys, ovaries, eyes ears etc.The tongue , trachea and
heart are unpaired

The location of organs in an animal body is given using the following descriptive terms
to enhance clarity

Anterior-towards the head

Posterior towards the tail
Superior-bigger
Inferior-smaller
Cranial- towards the head eg the shoulder is cranial to the hip
Caudal-towards the tail eg the rump is caudal to the loin
Dorsal-a side that is opposite to the cranial side
Ventral-away from the vertebral column
Proximal-very close to a named part
Distal-further from the vertebral column
Prone-a position whereby the dorsal part of the body is uppermost
Supine-when the ventral surface is uppermost

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A MAMMAL

this unit will look at the anatomy and physiology of the digestive system in ruminants
and monogastrics. The digestive system consists of a long tube called the alimentary
canal. The tube stretches from the mouth to the anus. The role of the digestive system is
to reduce nutrients in food to molecular compounds that are small enough for absorption
and assimilation.
The digestive system consists of the mouth pharynx, oesophagus , stomach, small
intestine ,large intestine, rectum and accessory glands such as the liver, pancreas etc.

The mouth – the entrance is defined by the lips. They vary according to the species, in
cattle they are stiffer and less flexible whereas in goats and sheep they are soft and
flexible. Different mammals have teeth that are specialized for different aspects of
prehension and mastication. The following processes take place in the mouth.
Production of saliva-this is effected by salivary glands.The salivary glands produce
water which readily evaporates from the buccal mucosa thus assisting in
thermoregulation.The production of saliva is effected by the following glands
The parotid salivary gland- it is located at the base of the ear and empties its contents
inside the cheek.
Mandibular and sublingual salivary gland- it is located between the two halves of the
mandible.
Fuctions of saliva
 It has a lubricating effect,hence facilitates mastication.
 It contains mucin,which helps in the formation of a bolus of food, hence
facilitating swallowing.
 Some water soluble components of food are dissolved in saliva and as a
result,they can be tasted.
 Saliva keeps the oral mucosa moist enhancing oral hygiene.
 Salivary glands provide water which readily evaporates from the buccal mucosa
thus assisting thermoregulation.
 Saliva has a high electrolyte buffering quality hence stabilizes pH in the rumen.
.

Prehension-the act of seizing and conveying food to the mouth Cattle, sheep and goats
lack upper incisors but have a thick upper dental pad.
Mastication- the act of grinding using the premolar and molar teeth
Deglutition-the act of swallowing. It is divided into three
 Passage of food through the mouth.
 Passage of food through the pharynx.
 Passage of food through the oesophagus into the stomach.
Eructation-this is the release of gas through the mouth,commonly called belching
.
Oesophagus- it is a long tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach.This process
involves the lips,tongue and teeth.The movement of food in the oesophagus is facilitated
by the contraction of its muscles in caudally directed waves.This is called peristalsis

Non ruminant stomach-In the pig it is called a simple stomach. it is caudal to the left of
the diaphragm It is shaped like a bent pear. The simple stomach is divided into the cardia,
fundus , body and the pyloric region. The pyloric region has a sphincter muscle called
the pylorus. The cardia is the part of the stomach that is nearest the heart. It has a
sphincter called the cardiac sphincter. The fundus is a large bulge near the cardia. The
body of the stomach is determined by the level of infilling .It narrows as the stomach arcs
ventrally to the right. Cardiac glands are short, branched tubular glands whose major
secretory product is mucus. Fundic glands are simple tubular glands opening into gastric
pits where they discharge their secretions. Fundic glands contain three types of cells
These are
 Mucous neck cells,these produce mucus.
 Parietal cells ,they produce hydrochloric acid.
 Peptic or zymogen cells, they produce enzymes such as pepsin and rennin.

EXERCISE 1

1.Differentiate between prehension and mastication(4)

2.Describe the production of saliva(6)

3.What are the functions of saliva?(5)

4.What are the components of a non ruminant stomach ?(4)

.
The pyloric region is histologically similar to the cardiac glands. They secrete mucus.

The Ruminant stomach

It is an expansion of the oesophageal region into the rumen,reticulum,omasum and
abomasum ,The rumen ,reticulum and omasum are collectively called the
forestomachs,while the abomasums is called the true stomach.The forestomachs are lined
with non-glandular stratified squamous epithelium,In these chambers ,the food is digested
by microorganisms before moving to the abomasums
.
The reticulum is the most cranial compartment of the forestomach.Its mucosa forms
intersecting ridges that give it its honeycomb structure.It lies against the diaphragm and is
linked to the omasum through the reticulo omasal orifice.

Rumen-it is subdivided into compartments by muscular pillars which correspond into

grooves visible on the exterior of the rumen.It contains numerous feathery papillae up to
1cm long.The rumen can be partitioned into two,namely,the dorsal and ventral sacs.These
are separated by the cranial and caudal pillars,which are strong invaginations of the walls.

Omasum-It is a spherical organ filled with muscular laminae, These lie in sheets like the
pages of a book. In sheep and goats, the omasum is much smaller than that of cattle .It is
not in contact with the abdominal wall. Food enters the omasum at the reticulo omasal
orifice between the laminae and goes on to the omaso -abomasal orifice
Abomasum-.it is commonly referred to as the true stomach. It is the first glandular
portion of the ruminant digestive system.It is ventral to the omasum and extends caudally
to the right side of the rumen.
.
Small intestine-It is divided into three, the duodenum ,the jejunum and the ileum.The
duodenum arises at the pylorus of the stomach and receives ducts from the pancreas and
the liver.the duodenum is the first portion nearest the stomach,followed by the jejunum
which is the longest part and finally the ileum which is the short, last part.

Large intestine-it is divided into three parts,the caecum,the colon and the anal canal.

ACTIVITY 1
Visit the local abbatoir or butchery . Observe the four stomach chambers of a cow.
Identify the special features of each chamber . Analyze the texture of the ingesta in each
chamber.

ACCESSORY GLANDS IN THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The following accessory glands are essential in digestion

.
Pancreas
this is a compound gland with both endocrine and exocrine functions. On the exocrine
side .it produces sodium bicarbonate and digestive enzymes that empty into the
duodenum. Pancreatic juice is secreted under the influence of two hormones produced in
the mucosa of the duodenum. The first hormone is secretin and it increases the hydrogen
carbonate concentration as well as the rate of flow of the pancreatic
juice . ,Pancreozymin increases the amount of enzymes in the pancreatic juice. This is
also facilitated by stimulation by the vagus nerve.

Pancreatic juice- it contains sodium hydrogen carbonate whose alkaline pH helps to

neutralize the acid from the stomach. There are three major groups of enzymes in
pancreatic juice namely pancreatic proteases, pancreatic amylase and pancreatic lipase.
The pancreatic proteases are,trypsin , chymotrypsinA and B as well as the carboxy
peptidases. These enzymes are secreted into the juice in an inactive form and later
activated.Trypsinogen is converted to trypsin by the action of enterokinase, This is
present in duodenal and jejunal juice. Chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase are
activated by trypsin, Trypsin and chymotrypsin simultaneously hydrolyse proteins to
peptides while carboxy peptidases simply reduce polypeptides to peptides. Complete
digestion whose end products are amino acids is accomplished by intestinal peptidases.
Pancreatic amylase is an alpha amylase that acts on starch grains to produce dextrins and
maltose, pancreatic lipase is secreted in an active form and hydrolyses fats into
carboxylic acids and glycerol. carboxylic acids are also called fatty acids .it works best
after the process of emulsification has taken place

liver
it is the largest gland. The gall bladder, situated on the liver, secretes bile, which leaves
the liver through hepatic ducts which join the cystic duct to form the common bile duct
which passes to the proximal duodenum.

Bile is a yellowish green liquid made up of water, bile pigments, bile salts and cholesterol
it is slightly alkaline in nature, it is secreted by the cells of the liver into the bile duct
which drains torwards the duodenum. Bile is stored in the gall bladder. Apart from
storing bile, the gallbladder dehydrates bile and also adds mucus to it. The digestion and
absorption of fats is effected by sodium and potassium salts of glychocolic acid and
taurocholic acids commonly known as bile salts .Apart from aiding the emulsification of
fats, bile also increases the solubility of long chain carboxylic acids that are normally
insoluble in water, The basic nature of bile salts helps in maintaining an alkaline Ph in the
intestine. Billiary mucin acts as a stabilizer for maintaining the fat in an emulsified
condition.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION

non ruminant digestion

digestion in non ruminants begins in the mouth.Non ruminants have an enzyme,salivary

amylase in their saliva which catalyses the breakdown of starch to maltose.

Digestion in the stomach

The stomach secretes gastric juice. Gastric juice is the total secretory product(fluid) from
the surface epithelial cells and the cardiac , fundic and pyloric glands of the stomach.it is
colourless and is made of two components. These are, a parietal cell acid component and
an alkaline component containing pepsin, mucin and electrolytes. The following enzymes
are found in gastric juice
Pepsin
It is made in the peptic cells from an inactive precursor pepsinogen. It begins the
hydrolysis of protein in the stomach, The protein is converted into proteoses and peptones
in the stomach
.
Rennin –this is a milk clotting enzyme secreted as pro rennin and activated by the acid.
Rennin catalyses the coagulation of milk in the presence of calcium ions
furthermore ,rennin has proteolytic properties . It is present in the gastric juice of young
animals.

Gastric lipase-it is present in small quantities and catalyses emulsified fats.

Hydrochloric acid-it is produced by parietal cells of the fundic glands of the stomach it
activates pepsin and rennin and aids pepsin in protein digestion by lowering the pH

Phases in gastric juice secretion

There are three phases in gastric juice secretion

Cephalic phase- this is when the presence of food in the mouth results in the secretion of
gastric juice. Sensory impulses pass from the mouth to the vagal, gastric secretory
centres. From there, motor impulses pass to the gastric glands and evoke the cephalic
secretory phase. Herbivores lack this cephalic phase of gastric juice secretion.

Gastric phase-this occurs when food has reached the stomach. Gastric secretion
increases for a period up to several hours. Certain substances in the food such as partially
digested protein stimulate the pyloric mucosa to secrete the hormone, gastrin. Gastrin in
turn increases gastric juice secretion.

Intestinal phase
This is when the products of gastric digestion reach the duodenum. Intestinal gastrin is
produced .Intestinal gastrin is transported to the stomach via the bloodstream. There it
stimulates the secretion of gastric juice.

EXERCISE 2

1.Describe the three phases of gastric juice secretion(9)

2.what is the role of the following enzymes in digestion?
Pepsin(2)
,rennin.(2)
Lipase(2)
,amylase(2)
3.What are bile salts?(3)
How does bile effect the emulsification of fats?(3)
.Explain the role of pancreatic juice in non ruminant digestion(3)
What are the factors that induce the pancreas to secrete its juice into the duodenum?

Digestion in the small intestine

Bile and pancreatic juice are secreted into the duodenum they neutralize the acid from
the stomach .Bile emulsifies fats thereby increasing the surface area for digestion of fats.
Bile is also important for the absorption of the end products of fat digestion and the
vitamins A, D E and K. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes ,lipase, amylase and trypsin.
These catalyse a number of reactions.
Proteins+trypsin=amino acids
Emulsified fats+lipase = fatty acids +glycerol
Starch +amylase = maltose(disaccharide)
The duodenum has a number of glands which secrete intestinal juce .intestinal juice
contains the following enzymes
Erepsin-it catalyses the breakdown of proteins and peptones into amino acids.
Maltase- it breaks maltose to glucose
Sucrase-it breaks down sucrose to glucose and fructose
Lactase-lactose to glucose and galactose
Not much digestion takes place in the jejunum and ileum .Mainly there is absorption of
nutrients into the bloodstream and this takes place in the ileum
.
Absorption of carbohydrates,proteins and fats
Pentoses and hexose sugars are quickly absorbed into the walls of the duodenum and
ileum, they pass from the mucosal to the blood capillaries which drain into the portal
vein. The pentoses and a few hexoses are absorbed by diffusion but glucose and galactose
are absorbed by active transport .amino acid absorption is fast in the duodenum and ileum
but slow in the ileum Amino acid transport is facilitated by a high concentration of
sodium ions, on the mucosal side of the intestinal epithelial cells .After accumulating in
the mucosal cells ,they diffuse passively into the blood Fat absorption is greater in the
duodenum and jejunum, decreasing torwards the ileum. fats are then transported from the
small intestine by means of small ,blind ending lymphatic vessels called lacteals. Fat
enters the circulatory system through the thoracic duct into the large veins closest to the
heart.

Digestion in the large intestine

There is no digestion in the large intestine. There is only absorption of water from
digested residues. Any material that is moved by the process of peristalsis out of the
colon is called faeces. The removal of faeces from the rectum or anus is called egestion
or defaecation. Herbivores defaecate more than carnivores due to the high percentage of
undigestible food residues. The digestion of cellulose is effected by fermentation in the
ruminant stomach. Faeces contain a high percentage of water which brings with it a
balance of electrolytes

RUMINANT DIGESTION

Ruminant salivary secretions.

The secretion of saliva in ruminants is continuous in ruminants but more so during
mastication and rumination.Secretion of saliva is effected by the parotid gland.The large
amounts of saliva secreted by cattle and sheep maintain the fluid consistency of the
rumen and the reticulum. This in turn facilitates the microbial digestion,which takes
place in these chambers.Salivary amylase(ptyalin) is absent in the saliva of ruminants
Hydrogen carbonates in saliva also help to buffer the contents of the rumen.This is very
important otherwise they will become too acidic due to the carboxylic acids produced by
fermentation.Lastly,the saliva of ruminants contains small amounts of urea.This helps in
the recycling of nitrogen.
The process of fermentation and its significance
Ruminant digestion is largely dependent upon fermentation.This is also termed microbial
digestion and it takes place mostly in the rumen and the reticulum.In the pig some
fermentation takes place in the large intestine.The following conditions enhance
microbial digestion in the gastro intestinal tract.
 The large capacity of the stomach or large intestine
 A fluid environment whose Ph is close to neutral eg.5.0-7.0
 A slow passage of ingesta through the site of fermentation
 A continuous removal of the end products of fermentation
When these conditions are present in the rumen ,reticulum, colon and caecum then
microbial digestion can effectively take place. Fermentation in the alimentary canal is
effected by the vast number of bacteria and protozoa. These live symbiotically with the
animal. They derive nutrients from the food eaten by the animal. The host animal in turn
receives most of its amino acids from the digestion of these micro organisms.
Digestion of carbohydrates

In herbivores, a very small percentage of carbohydrate is digested by gastric and

intestinal enzymes. The major reason for this is the presence of cellulose in the feed.
Cellulose is a component of cell walls, hence forms the bulk of the feed. It cannot be
digested by mammalian enzymes. This is why herbivores depend on micro organisms for
digestion. The microorganisms have enzymes, the cellulases, which digest or ferment, the
structural components of plant tissues .Simple sugars in the feed, such as the hexoses, are
readily fermented The structural components such as cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin
are slowly fermented. Therefore, the degree of lignification of plant tissue directly affects
the amount of cellulose and hemicelulose that can be digested by the animal.
Carbohydrate fermentation in ruminants yields volatile fatty acids and the gas ,carbon
dioxide. The volatile fatty acids are ethanoic acid-70,propanoic acid-20 and butanoic 10-
15.The proportions of fatty acids also depend on the type of feed fed to the animal for
example ,a diet rich in soluble sugars or starch will result in the production of large
quantities of propanoic acid whereas a diet rich in roughage will yield large quantities of
ethanoic acid. The fermentation process also yields gases such as methane and carbon
dioxide. Some energy is lost as methane.

Digestion of proteins
The main events in the digestion of proteins are degradation of fibrous diets and the
synthesis of microbial components.These processes are carried out by rumen
microbes.Rumen microbes include bacteria,protozoa and fungi.The conditions necessary
for this to take place are
 Prolonged retention of feed in the rumen.
 Anaerobiosis.
 Neutral to acidic pH..
Digestion of proteins in ruminants begins with hydrolysis. This is effected by rumen
microorganisms and proteins are broken to peptides and then to amino acids.The amino
acids are later degraded by fermentation and deamination. The deamination yields
ammonia, carbon dioxide and short chain amino acids. Excess amino acids and ammonia
are used to form bacterial cells. These bacteria are eventually digested in the abomasum
of the animal in order to meet the animals need of amino acids. Another important source
of nitrogen is urea, often called non protein nitrogen. urea from the blood enters the
rumen through the saliva as well as through the rumen wall. The urea is hydrolysed by
rumen microbes into carbon dioxide and ammonia.some ammonia is lost in urine or
circulated in the saliva. pH fluctuations are buffered by saliva .Some species of
microorganisms then use the ammonia to make microbial protein. Urea is of great value
in animal feed formulation because it is easy to make and inexpensive. When added to
animal feeds , it increases protein synthesis However , care should be taken when feeding
ruminants with urea because a very fast conversion of urea to ammonia in the feeding
trough may cause animals to reject the feed. On the other hand, excess ammonia in the
rumen is poisonous to the animal.The proteins that are degraded in the rumen are called
rumen degradable proteins,

Digestion of lipids

In the rumen , lipids are hydrolysed by rumen microbes to produce fatty acids and
glycerol. The glycerol produced is further fermented to propanoic acid. Most of the
unsaturated fatty acids obtained from lipid hydrolysis are hydrogenated to produce
saturated fatty acids .Apart from being a site for fermentation , another key role of the
rumen is the synthesis of vitamin B. This is effected by rumen microbes. The process
needs cobalt , therefore,shortage of this micronutrient in the diet results in a deficiency of
vitamin B12(cyano- cobalamin).The deficiency of vitamin B12 results in a decreased
appetite and poor growth in young ruminants.

Rumination

Ruminants feed rapidly with very little chewing at first. They later take a rest often lying
in the shade whereby they chew the cud. Chewing the cud involves regurgitation of what
was previously swallowed. It will now have been moistened by saliva and fluids from
the rumen and reticulum. Dry feed such as hay passes out first into the dorsal sac of the
rumen. After regurgitation , there is a second chewing process followed by
reswallowing .After this, heavier moist food will also pass from the reticulum into the
omasum. The amount of time spent by an animal in rumination is largely influenced by
the coarseness of the feed taken.

ACTIVITY TWO

collect samples of liquid from the various stomach chambers .Label your test tubes
AS1,AS2,AS3 AND AS4. Test each sample for the presence of starch ,reducing
sugars ,proteins and fats.What conclusions can you draw?
Digestion in the omasum

The omasum serves as a grinding chamber due to its page like structures,Feed is ground
to a fine pulp due to the rubbing movement of the page like structures.Another function is
to compress the ingesta,thus drawing excess water from it and retaining the fluid in the
body.The contents of the omasum are regularly passed into the abomasum.

Digestion in the abomasum

The abomasum is the only glandular part of the ruminant stomach.It is therefore termed
the true stomach.its secretions contain enzymes and hydrochloric acid The rate of
secretion in the abomasums depends largely on the volume and concentration of fatty
acids in the ingesta.The acidic nature of the abomasum finally results in the destruction of
microbes.

rumen by pass

This is a situation whereby the rumen and other forestomachs are bypassed by feed .It
occurs under two conditions. The rumen by pass arises as aresult of folds of tissue that
make an oesophageal groove . It occurs under the following conditions.
 When a young calf that has not started grazing is fed on milk. This is because the
rumen would not have developed fully.
 When feeding a ruminant with protein rich feed. Such feed does not need to be
digested in the rumen.

Absorption in ruminants.

The epithelium lining the rumen omasum and abomasum is stratified squamous
epithelium. The absorption of various end products of digestion occurs through this
epithelium. Rumen papillae have a network of blood vessels similar to those of the villi in
the small intestine. Volatile fatty acids produced in the rumen are absorbed through the
rumen wall. Absorption of nutrients proves faster in an acidic medium than in a neutral
one. It is vital for the end products of fermentation to be regularly removed.
Accumulation of acid can affect the rumen flora and thus interfere with the process of
fermentation. Some of the substances absorbed through the rumen and reticulum walls
are, volatile fatty acids , ammonia, sodium and potassium as well as lactic acid. The
omasal and abomasal epithelia is also permeable to volatile fatty acids.

ACTIVITY 3

1.What are the causes of bloat in ruminants?. How can bloat be prevented?(4)
2.Draw a diagram to illustrate the process of rumination(5)

Ruminant intestines.

The microbes that enhance digestion in the stomach chambers are slowly killed and
digested in the abomasum and small intestine. The pancreatic juice in ruminants ,
contains enzymes such as proteases, amylases and lipases. It also contains ribonucleases
and deoxyribonucleases , which digest the nuclear materials of the microbial cells. In this
way , the ruminant derives its own source of amino acids. The secretions in the small and
large intestines of ruminants are the same as those of monogastrics. The only significant
difference is that further fermentation and digestion takes place in the colon and caecum.
This releases volatile fatty acids which are absorbed through the walls of the large
intestine.

SUMMARY.
 Anatomy refers to the form and structure of body parts.
 Physiology refers to the integral functions of the parts whether biochemical or
biophysical.
 There are descriptive terms in anatomy that describe the location of organs and
the relationship between organs. The terms used include cranial, caudal,
distal ,proximal ,ventral and dorsal.
 The digestive system of mammals constitutes a long tube that stretches from the
mouth to the anus. There are accessory glands that facilitate digestion ,together
with enzymes and digestive juices.
 Monogastrics are animals whose stomach consists of one chamber.
 Ruminants are animals whose stomach is partitioned into four chambers.
 The rumen is the largest stomach chamber whose role is digestion of cellulose
through microbial fermentation. Synthesis of vitamin B12 also takes place in the
rumen.
 The omasum is the smallest chamber with a dual function of grinding ingesta to a
pulp and absorption of excess water.
  Absorption of the end products of digestion takes place through the stratified
squamous epithelium.
 Absorption of end products depends on particle size and the pH of the
surrounding medium.

REVISON EXERCISE

1.Define the following terms

Prehension(4)

Mastication(4)

Deglutition(4)

Regurgitation(4)

Rumination(4)

2.Write short notes on the following

The role of saliva in digestion(5)

The role of pancreatic juice in digestion(5)

Absorption of end products of digestion(5)

The role of rumen microbes in digestion(5)

3.What are the compound effects of a diet deficient in cobalt to an animal?(5)

What signs show this deficiency(4)

A diet rich in urea can adversely affect an animal, discuss(10)

What precautions can be taken to reduce these effects ?(2)

4.What do you understand by rumen bypass?Under what circumstances does food bypass the
rumen?

UNIT FOUR
 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS OF
FARM ANIMALS

Objectives

By the end of the unit learners should be able to

 Explain the relationship between structure and function of parts of the

reproductive system.
 Describe the function of the parts of the reproductive systems.
 Discuss the role of hormones in reproduction.
 Discuss the role of hormones in reproduction.
 Describe the disorders associated with the reproductive systems.
 Discuss the causes of infertility in animals.

INTRODUCTION

Reproduction in animals is brought about by copulation , commonly called

mating .During mating, the male releases sperms into the cervix of the female. The
probability of fertilization occurring is highly dependent on the success of sperm in
reaching the extreme end of the uterus. The success of the sperm reaching the extreme
end of the uterus depends on

 Whether the genital passage is relaxed or not.

 Whether it is free from inflammation or not.
 Whether the secretions in the female genital tract are chemically or physically
appropriate.
 The concentration of sperm at the extremity of the uterus.
Fertilization is defined as the fusion of a sperm and an ovum to form a zygote. The
zygote develops into a new animal. This unit will dwell on the reproductive system of a
bovine.

.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Coitus- mating between a male and a female animal

Copulation- mating between a male and a female animal
Chryptorchid-a condition whereby the testes fail to descend
Castration-the cutting or removal of the spermatic cord
Viability-the degree of effectiveness
Motility-the ability to move
Lumbar-in the loin region of an animal
Ejaculation-release of sperm by a male animal into a female.
Libido-the desire to mate or the sex drive
Vasodilation-increase in the size of blood vessels in order to increase blood flow.

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system of a bull consists of the testes, penis, epididymis, the
seminiferous tubules , the prostate gland and the cowpers gland.

Testicles

This term refers collectively to the testes as well as the sac in which they are enclosed.
the sac is called the scrotum. The scrotum possesses a muscular attachment which
enables a male to lower or raise his testicles.

Descent of the testes.

The testes develop in the sub lumbar region caudal to the kidneys in the male
They descend from their point of origin to the scrotum. Descent of the testes is usually
completed by the time of parturition or immediately after. The descent of the testes is
facilitated by a chord like structure called gubernaculum. This structure extends from the
testes to the skin in the region that will become the scrotum . A testis that fails to descend
into the scrotum is called a chryptorchid testis. If both testes fail to descend and remain in
the abdominal cavity then the animal becomes sterile. This is because spermatogenesis
will not occur unless the testes are in an environment that is cooler than the rest of the
body .If the testes are not evident then there will be no normal spermatozoa. Unilateral
chryptorchid animals should be castrated because apart from the condition, causing
sterility, such testes have high chances of developing tumours in future.

Anatomy of the testes

Each testicle consists of a mass of seminiferous tubules in which sperms are

manufactured . Sperms are manufactured through the process of spermatogenesis .
Leydig cells, also called interstitial cells are located in the epithelium of the convoluted
seminiferous tubules and produce testosterone hormone, also called the male hormone.
Secretion of testosterone is stimulated by pituitary gonadotrophin luteinizing hormone.
In most mammals, sperms require a temperature lower than the body temperature. This
necessitates the suspension of the testes in the scrotum outside the body. During hot
weather, the testicles are lowered away from the body in an effort to ensure that their
temperature remains lower than the rest of the body. This is very important for good
viability of the sperm. Viability is adversely affected by temperature. In cold weather, the
scrotum is contracted so that the testicles receive warmth from the animals body.

ACTIVITY 1

1.Observe the testes of a bull, goat and a boar. What are the similarities and differences?
2.Compare a goat that has been castrated with a normal goat. What are the differences
Anatomically?
Behaviourally?

Epididymis

It is a long convoluted tube which connects efferent ductules with the vas deferens. It has
three parts which are the head ,body and tail. The head empties its contents into the
efferent ductules. The body lies on the long axis of the testis. The tail is attached directly
to the testis by ligaments. The duct of the tail continues as the ductus deferens and
conveys sperm from the testis to the urethra. The major function of the epididymis is the
storage of sperms for maturation. Maturation of sperms takes between ten and fifteen
days. Spermatozoa that were experimentally removed from the head of the epididymis
failed to fertilize ova while those from the tail end resulted in successful fertilization.It
was also noted that spermatozoa from the testes and the duct of the epididymis are
immotile,those from the head of the epididymis can only move in circles,whilst those
from the tail end can swim actively.This proves the necessity of maturation of sperms in
the epididymis. Spermatogenesis is a continuous process but when sperm has been stored
for over two months, it loses its viability and a bull may exhibit delayed fertility. In most
animal species, mating can only take place when the female animal is on heat.

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis refers to the production of spermatozoa by the testis .It is a result of

several processes that form mature male gametes from germ cells. Spermatogonia
undergo several mitotic divisions that result in intermediate cells that are referred to as
spermatocytes . The spermatocytes further undergo two meiotic divisions. The divisions
are as follows
Maturation division(mitosis)

This is a long continuous process resulting in two daughter spermatocytes with the
diploid number of chromosomes . Several mitotic divisions take place.

Reduction division(meiosis)
This process is faster than the previous process and gives rise to daughter cells called
spermatids with the haploid number of chromosomes. Two meiotic divisions take place.

Spermiogenesis
This is the changing of spermatids into spermatozoa. It involves three distinct events
 The acrosome formation from the golgi complex.
 Condensation and elongation of the nucleus
 Formation of the tail of the sperm , also called the flagella
Sertoli cells support the spermatids and are essential for their nutrition. They are
also essential for the induction of spermiogenesis. The process of spermatogenesis
takes a long time eg in the bull , it may take two months.
.

Semen
Semen refers to spermatozoa suspended in the fluid secretions of the male accessory sex
glands. The fluid portion of semen or seminal plasma is a transport medium for
spermatozoa. It consists of various substances such as electrolytes, fructose, citric acid
and sorbitol. Fructose serves as an energy source for the spermatozoa to move.
Factors that influence potential fertility are
 Concentration of spermatozoa per mililitre
 Shape of the sperm
 Motility characteristics

EXERCISE 1

1.What do you understand by unilateral chryptorchid?(2)

2.Why should an animal that shows the above condition be castrated?(3)

3.Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis(6)

4.Write short notes on the following

Semen

The epididymis

What characteristics of semen are an indicator of fertility?

coitus

coitus or copulation is the term used for mating of a male and a female animal. The
duration of coitus is dependant on the following factors. firstly, the time it takes for
complete erection of the penis. This is further dependant on the nature of the penis. If it is
fibroelastic as in the bull , then then this takes a short time but if it is fibro elastic then it
takes much longer. The second factor is the volume of semen to be ejaculated .A
fbroelastic penis does not have a large volume of semen.

accessory glands
.Accessory glands include the ampulla of the ductus deferens, the seminal vesicles, the
prostate gland and the cowpers glands, also called the bulbourethral glands.

They produce the bulk of the ejaculate that help sperms to swim .A combination of
secretions from these and the sperm is called semen..Semen provides favourable
conditions for the nutrition of sperm. Semen also serves as a buffer against the natural
acidity of the female genital tract .

The ampulla

It consists of glandular enlargements associated with terminal parts of the ductus

deferentia.Ampulla glands empty into the ductus deferentia.

Seminal vesicles
These are paired glands also called vesicular glands.

Prostate gland

The prostate gland is unpaired. It surrounds the pelvic urethra. It produces an alkaline
secretion which gives semen its characteristic odour . In older ,male animals, the prostate
gland may enlarge and affect urination.
Cowpers glands (bulbourethral glands)

These are paired glands located on either side of the urethra just cranial to the ischial
arch and caudal to the other accessory glands ,

The penis

This is the male organ of copulation. it is cylindrical in shape and consists of erectile
tissue. The penis is divided into three parts, the glans, the body and the crura.The glans is
the free extremity of the penis ,the body is the main part and the crura is the base.The
crura is attached to the ischial arch of the pelvis.The body consists of paired columns of
erectile tissue called the corpora cavernosa. Each one is made of blood sinusoids divided
by sheets of connective tissue called trabeculae. Trabeculae are derived from the tunica
albuginea.

)
erection and ejaculation

Before copulation, blood enters the penis through arteries and leaves through the veins
As a result of the increased flow of blood, the penis becomes stiff and erect to facilitate
its penetration into the vagina. Penile erection is a neural reflex initiated by appropriate
stimulation of the penis. Such stimulus may be a result of a female animal on heat or
from previously learnt behavior. Erection involves vasodilation in the penis and this
results in an increase in the flow of blood. Before ejaculation spermatozoa move from
their sites of storage in the epididymis, through the ductus deferentia to the pelvic urethra.
This process is called emission. Emission is triggered by contractions of smooth muscle
in the walls of the tubular structures. Ejaculation is associated with more contractions of
the epididymis and ductus deferentia and additional contactions by muscles of the penis
that surround the urethra. During copulation, sperms are discharged forcibly into the
vagina through ejaculation .A single ejaculation can be equivalent to five mililitres
containing millions of sperms.

The role of hormones in the male reproductive system

Hormones are chemical substances released directly into the bloodstream and transported
to the target organ where they effect a change. Testosterone , sometimes called androgen
is synthesized by the interstitial cells and has the following effects
 Facilitates the growth and development of accessory glands such as the seminal
vesicles, prostate glands and cowpers glands.
 Stimulates the development of male secondary sexual characteristics such as
body size and shape.
 Stimulates sperm production.
 Stimulates male sexual behavior

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone(LH) are protein

hormones from the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary gland).They stimulate
testicular function and are therefore called gonadotrophins .Follicle stimulating
hormone promotes spermatogenesis by acting on the germ cells in the seminiferous
tubules. Luteinizing hormone acts on the interstitial cells to promote the excretion of
testosterone. The release of follicle stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone is
stimulated by Gonadotrophin releasing hormone(GRH)

Castration

this is the process of removing or severing the spermatic cord in order to hinder
breeding in a male animal .Castration results in the following

 loss of libido(sex drive)

 Inability to produce offspring
Castration results in lack of testosterone. However, a castrated animal may
still mate due to previous experience .If an animal is castrated before
puberty ,masculine secondary sexual characteristics may not develop and the
animal resembles a female .Accessory sex glands may also fail to develop.
 EXERCISE TWO

1.Explain the roles of the following in the reproductive system of abull

Seminal vesicles(2)
Cowpers gland(2)
Prostate gland(2)
Penis(2)

2.What evidence supports that the epididymis is a zone of sperm maturation?

(6)
3What are the factors that determine the duration of coitus?(3)

4Write short notes on

Spermatogenesis(4)
Interstitial cells(4)

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system of a cow consists of the ovaries, fallopian tube uterus ,cervix and
vagina.

Ovaries

They are responsible for the production of ova or eggs. They are paired and located on either side
of the abdominal cavity .Apart from the production of ova, they also produce the hormone
oestrogen . Each ovary consists of groups of cells called follicles.

Fallopian tube

It is sometimes called the oviduct.

These are convoluted tubules located on either side of the uterus. They are paired.The section of
the uterus that is proximal to the ovaries is called the infundibulum, Each infundibulum has
finger like projections called fambria. The functions of the fallopian tube are as follows.

 Contains ciliated muscles which propel the sperm and ova along the fallopian tube.
 To conduct ova from each ovary to the horn of the uterus.
 Direct ova into the oviduct.
 Serve as a site of fertilization of ova by sperm.

uterus