MODULE-2: WATER RESOURCES

Global water resources

According to most estimates, about 94-97% of all water on earth is seawater held in the
oceans. All freshwater resources occur in the remaining 3-6%. Around half of this is frozen in
snow, glaciers and icecaps, about half is found underground as groundwater and a fraction of a
percent (less than 0.1%) is surface water found in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, the atmosphere and all
living things.
Water is constantly circulating between the oceans, continents and atmosphere in a system
called the hydrologic cycle. This circulation is driven by a combination of the energy from sun,
geological processes and gravity.
Water from the oceans and land is transported into the atmosphere by evaporation. Water is also
transferred to the atmosphere from vegetation by evapotranspiration.

Water returns to the earth's surface by precipitation. On land, some of this water flows over the
surface in streams and rivers into lakes, reservoirs and the oceans. The remaining infiltrates the
land surface and percolates into aquifers. Some water can enter aquifers directly from the oceans.
The energy of the earth's interior drives the geological processes that influence formation, influx,
storage, movement and resurgence of groundwater. Groundwater can be a source of surface water
on land and can flow into the oceans.
Understanding how water on land, in the oceans and in the atmosphere is connected in the
hydrologic cycle is essential for the successful management of our water resources. Through these
connections, factors affecting one part the cycle can influence the entire system.
Indian Water Resources

The country houses 12 rivers that are categorized as important rivers. The overall drainage basin
watered by these rivers is more than 9,76,000 sq miles or 25,28,000 km2.

All the important rivers in the country have their sources in any of the following areas:
1. Vindhya and Sapura Mountain range, forming a part of the heart of the country
2. The Karakoram and Himalayan mountain ranges
3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats Mountain range, forming a part of western India
The biggest drainage basin in the country is created by the Ganges-Brahmaputra-
Meghana River network and it covers a total area of approximately 6,20,000 sq miles or
16,00,000 km2. The drainage basin of the Ganga River covers a total area of around 4,20,000 sq
miles or 11,00,000km2
The source of the Ganga River is the Gangotri Glacier, which lies in the state of Uttarakhand.
Subsequently, the river runs in the southeast direction, before pouring into the Bay of Bengal. The
headwaters of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers lie in the western part of the Himalayan Mountain
range. These two rivers meet the Ganga in the flat terrain.

The Brahmaputra River has its headwaters in the territory of Tibet. In the province of Tibet, people
call it "Tsang Po" River. The river then penetrates the Indian Territory via the state of Arunachal
Pradesh in the Northeast. Subsequently, the river moves to the west into Assam. In Bangladesh,
the river meets the holy Ganga and the name of the river changes to the Jamuna River.

Capes in India
The major capes in India are as follows - Indira Point, the southernmost tip in India which is
situated on the Great Nicobar Island, the Kanyakumari, the southern point of territory of India.,
Point Claimer, and Adam's (Rama's) Bridge.

Gulfs in India
The important gulfs in India are the Gulf of Kutch, the Gulf of Cambay, and the Gulf of Munnar. The
country houses straits like the Ten Degree Canal, which dissevers the Andamans from the Nicobar
Islands, the Palk Strait, which splits India from Sri Lanka, and the Eight Degree Canal, dissevering the
Lakshadweep and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island in the south.
The Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal are situated towards the south and east of the
country and the Arabian Sea is located in the west. The Andaman Sea and the Lakshadweep Sea
are smaller water bodies. The country houses four coral reefs and they lie in the Gulf of Munnar,
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Kutch, and the Lakshadweep Islands.

Lakes in India

The major lakes in India are as follows - Vembanad Lake (Kerala), Sambhar Lake, (the biggest
saltwater lagoon of the nation in Rajasthan, Loktak Lake, Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh),
Chilka Lake (Orissa), Dal Lake (Kashmir), and Sasthamkotta Lake (Kerala)

Water bodies that border India

Given below are the names of the water bodies that surround India from different sides:
1. Lakshadweep Sea in the southwest
2. Arabian Sea in the west
3. Bay of Bengal in the east
4. Indian Ocean in the south
Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful as a source of water
supply. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly
over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.
The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small
fraction present above ground or in the air.
Natural sources of fresh water include surface water, under river
flow, groundwater and frozen water. Artificial sources of fresh water can include treated
wastewater (reclaimed water) and desalinated seawater.

Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental

activities.
Water resources are under threat from water scarcity, water pollution, water conflict
and climate change. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of
groundwater is steadily decreasing, with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia, South
America and North America, although it is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this
usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened.
The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is
known as water rights.

Sources of useful water-Natural sources of fresh water

Natural sources of fresh water include surface water, under river
flow, groundwater and frozen water.
Surface water is water in a river, lake, wetlands. Surface water is naturally replenished
by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation,
evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge.
Although the only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within its watershed,
the total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on many other
factors. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs
• The permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies.
• The runoff characteristics of the land in the watershed.
• The timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates.
All of these factors also affect the proportions of water loss.
Groundwater is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks. It is
also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a
distinction between groundwater that is closely associated with surface water and deep
groundwater in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water").
Groundwater can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and
storage. The critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, groundwater storage is
generally much larger (in volume) compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This
difference makes it easy for humans to use groundwater unsustainable for a long time without
severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a
groundwater source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source.
The natural input to groundwater is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs
from groundwater are springs and seepage to the oceans.
If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater
source may become saline. This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or
artificially under irrigated farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may
cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization. Humans
can also cause groundwater to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution. Humans can
increase the input to a groundwater source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.

Artificial sources of usable water

Artificial sources of fresh water can include treated wastewater (reclaimed water)
and desalinated seawater. However, economic and environmental side effects of these
technologies must also be taken into consideration.
Water reclamation (also called wastewater reuse, water reuse or water recycling) is the process of
converting municipal wastewater (sewage) or industrial wastewater into water that can be
reused for a variety of purposes.
Types of reuse include: urban reuse, agricultural reuse (irrigation), environmental reuse, industrial
reuse, planned potable reuse, de facto wastewater reuse (unplanned potable reuse). For example,
reuse may include irrigation of gardens and agricultural fields or replenishing surface water
and groundwater (i.e., groundwater recharge).
Reused water may also be directed toward fulfilling certain needs in residences (e.g. toilet
flushing), businesses, and industry, and could even be treated to reach drinking water standards.
Treated municipal wastewater reuse for irrigation is a long-established practice, especially in
arid countries. Reusing wastewater as part of sustainable water management allows water to
remain as an alternative water source for human activities. This can reduce scarcity and alleviate
pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies.
Need for Planning and Management of water resources systems are essential due to
following factors:

(1) Severity of the adverse consequences of droughts, floods and excessive pollution. These can
lead to
a. Too little water due to growing urbanization, additional water requirements, in stream flow
requirements etc. Measures should be taken to reduce the demand during scarcity times.
b. Too much water due to increased flood frequencies and also increase in water
requirements due to increased economic development on river floodplains.
c. Polluted water due to both industrial and household discharges.
(2) Degradation of aquatic and riparian systems due to river training and reclamation of
floodplains for urban and industrial development, poor water quality due to discharges of
pesticides, fertilizers and wastewater effluents etc.
(3) While port development requires deeper rivers, narrowing the river for shipping purposes will
increase the flood level
(4) River bank erosion and degradation of river bed upstream of the reservoirs may increase the
flooding risks
(5) Sediment accumulation in the reservoir due to poor water quality. Considering all these
factors, the identification and evaluation of alternative measures that may increase the quantitative
and qualitative system performance is the primary goal of planning and management policies

Water Sectors in India

List of uses of water
Water is stored in various parts of the world but not evenly distributed all over the earth. It is said
to be a universal solvent. Various sources of water are – sea, lake, rain, well, stream, borehole and
pond. It is used for washing, drinking, generating electricity etc. Below are the different uses of
water in various fields:
• Domestic uses of water
• Water uses for agriculture
• Industrial uses of water
Domestic uses of water:
15 % of water is consumed for domestic purpose. Water is used for drinking, bathing, cooking
food and washing dishes, clothes, fruits, vegetables and brushing teeth.
Water use for agriculture:
Agriculture is the largest consumer of water. About 70% of water is used for irrigation.
Water is necessary for gardening, farming and fisheries. Plants require water to grow. During the
process of photosynthesis, they consume water. To yield crops, fruits, flowers, vegetables they
need sufficient water, manure, sunlight and oxygen.
Industrial uses of water:
It is either used in creating or to cool the equipment used for creating the product. Industrial
water is used for washing, cooling, processing, transporting, diluting or fabricating of a product.
The maximum amount of water is used in the production of chemical, paper and food.
Other uses are – it is used in transportation, manufacturing, hydroelectric power, removal of body
wastes, tourism and recreation.
Water deficits and Water Surplus
Water deficits occur when water demand exceeds supply. The disparity between human
activity and water resources has resulted in increasing incidences of local and regional water
crises. Collectively, this has been defined as the global water crisis.
Water Surplus precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration and the excess is not being used
by plants, means there is excess water available to the system. This occurs when there is a
reduction of water available within the system. This occurs when evapotranspiration exceeds
precipitation.

Equitable distribution of water

Drinking water is a basic requirement of the human being. The water scarcity in urban
areas of developing countries is a major concern. In future population in urban areas will face
acute water problems. The daily supply of water in developing countries is very low compared to
the industrial world.
Right to water or equitable distribution needs to be seen as every community having a
proportional right to water as part of a collective right to assured livelihoods. Water use beyond
fulfillment of livelihood needs, does not form part of this right and moreover cannot be at the cost
of other’s livelihoods.
It is challenging to provide potable water in sufficient quantity, at adequate pressure and
at an acceptable quality at a consumer’s tap. However, with the incorporation of IoT technologies
of sensing and communications, along with advanced models of hydraulics, algorithms for
controls, optimization and scheduling, we believe that equity in the water distribution can be
addressed.

Inter basin water transfer

The interlinking of rivers is a large-scale civil engineering project that aims to effectively
manage water resources in India. The government aims to achieve this by building a network of
reservoirs and canals through a National River Linking Project (NRLP).
Inter basin water transfer or trans basin diversion are (often hyphenated) terms used to describe
man-made conveyance schemes which move water from one river basin where it is available, to
another basin where water is less available or could be utilized better for human development. The
purpose of such water resource engineering schemes can be to alleviate water shortages in the
receiving basin, to generate electricity or both.

Need for Inter Basin Water Transfers (IBWT)

Inter Basin Water Transfers is necessarily required to overcome the water scarcity
situations in the regions/basins. These are needed to enhance water utility and reduce water
wastage of water surplus areas in the following manner:
• Large variation in rainfall and available water resources in space and time
• Diversion of water from water surplus basins to water deficit basins/regions
• Use of the surplus water which is otherwise flowing into the sea unutilized
• To mitigate likely adverse impact of climate change, short term and long term
•
Interlinking of rivers
 Interlinking of rivers will lead to destruction of forests, wetlands and local water bodies,
which are major groundwater recharge mechanisms.
 It causes massive displacement of people.
 Due to interlinking of rivers, there will be decrease in the amount of fresh water entering
seas and this will cause a serious threat to the marine life.

What is the National River Linking Project (NRLP)?

NRLP, formerly known as the National Perspective Plan, proposes to connect 14
Himalayan and 16 peninsular rivers with 30 canals and 3,000 reservoirs to form a
gigantic South Asian Water Grid.
The initial plan to interlink India’s rivers came in 1858 from a British irrigation engineer, Sir
Arthur Thomas Cotton.
The NRLP is managed by National Water Development Agency (NWDA) under the Ministry of
Jal Shakti. NWDA was set up in 1982, to conduct surveys and see how feasible proposals for
interlinking river projects are.
Recently, it has been reported that the Centre is deliberating on creation of a National River
Interlinking Authority (NIRA). It will have powers to set up SPV for individual link projects.

NRLP includes two components:

– Himalayan component: This component aims to construct storage reservoirs on the Ganga and
Brahmaputra rivers, as well as their tributaries in India and Nepal. It will connect,
1) the Ganga and Brahmaputra basins to the Mahanadi basin
2) the Eastern tributaries of the Ganga with the Sabarmati and Chambal river systems.
– Peninsular component: It includes 16 links that propose to connect the rivers of South India. It
envisages linking,
1) The Mahanadi and Godavari to feed the Krishna, Penner, Cauvery, and Vaigai rivers
2) The Ken River to the Betwa, Parbati, Kalisindh, and Chambal rivers
3) West-flowing rivers to the south of Tape to the north of Bombay
4) Linking some west-flowing rivers to east-flowing rivers.

What are the advantages of Interlinking of Rivers?

i) Hydrological Imbalance of India: India has a large-scale hydrological imbalance with an

effective rainfall period of 28 to 29 days. Some regions receive very high rainfall while some face
droughts. Interlinking would transfer the water from flood-prone regions to draught-prone regions.
ii) Improve the inland navigation: Interlinking of rivers will create a network of navigation
channels. Water transport is cheaper, less-polluting compare to the road and railways. Further, the
interlinking of rivers can ease the pressure on railways and roads also.
iii) The benefit of irrigation: The interlinking of rivers has the potential to irrigate 35 million
hectares of land in the water-scarce western peninsula. This will help India to create employment,
boost crop outputs, farm incomes. Above all, the interlinking of rivers will make India a step closer
to achieving food security.
iv) Generation of power: The interlinked rivers have the potential to generate a total power of 34
GW. This will help India to reduce coal-based power plant usage.
V) Other benefits:
– Water supply: The project envisages a supply of clean drinking water amounting to 90 billion
cubic meter. It can resolve the issue of drinking water scarcity in India.
– Similarly, interlinking of rivers has the potential to provide 64.8 billion cubic meter of water
for industrial use.
– Apart from that, interlinking can help the survival of fisheries, protect wildlife in the summer
months due to water scarcity. It can also reduce forest fires occurring in India due to climatic
conditions.

What are the issues/challenges in Interlinking of Rivers?

The interlinking of rivers project has a variety of challenges. They are,
i) Impact of the Climate change: Reports points out that Climate change will cause a meltdown
of 1/3rd of the Hindu Kush Region’s glaciers. So, the Himalayan rivers might not have ‘surplus
water’ for a long time. Also, considering this, investing billions of money in the interlinking of
rivers might yield benefits only for a short time.
ii) Human cost: This includes the challenge of loss of livelihood and displacement of people
especially, the poor and tribal people located near the forests. So, the government not only needs
to face challenges in displacing people but also in the rehabilitation of people.
iii) Huge financial cost: NRLP is a highly capital-intensive project. In 2001, the total cost for
linking the Himalayan and peninsular rivers was estimated at Rs 5,60,000 crore, excluding the
costs of relief and rehabilitation, and other expenses. This cost is likely to be substantially higher
now, and the cost-benefit ratio might no longer be favourable.
iv) Impact on ecology and biodiversity: The ecology of every river being unique, letting the
waters of rivers mix may affect biodiversity. Also, when most of the rivers in the country are
polluted, this may cause mixing of a less polluted river with a more polluted one.
v) International Challenges: Countries like Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh will be impacted due
to the NRLP. Bangladesh fears of water diversion from the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers to
India’s southern states, threatening the livelihoods as well as its environment.
vi) Political Challenges: Water is a state subject in India. So the implementation of the NRLP
primarily depends on Inter-State co-operation. Several states including Kerala, Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, and Sikkim have already opposed the NRLP.
vii) Other Challenges: The government is proposing a canal irrigation method for transmitting
water from one area to the other. The maintenance of canals is also a great challenge, it includes
preventing sedimentation, clearing logging of waters etc.
Further, the government has to acquire large-scale lands for the smooth implementation of the
project which is not easy
Ground water
Ground water is water that accumulates underground. It can exist in spaces between loose
particles of dirt and rock, or in cracks and crevices in rocks. Different types of rocks and dirt can
contain different amounts of water.

Recharge of ground water

Groundwater recharge is the process where surface water or precipitations infiltrates the
soil and percolates downwards to the water table.
Groundwater Recharge is the primary method through which water enters underground resources
like the aquifer.
TYPES OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
Groundwater recharge occurs in two forms:
1. Natural Groundwater recharge
2. Artificial Groundwater recharge

1. Natural Groundwater recharge

Precipitation ie. rainfall and snowmelt.
To a smaller extent by surface water like rivers and lakes.
 The water is able to move underground through the rock and soil due to connected pore
spaces. This downward movement of water through different soil layers is
called percolation.
 Some types of soils allow more water to infiltrate than others depending on the soil’s
permeability.
 During natural recharge, water is first pulled into the zone of aeration; where a mixture
of water and air fills the pore space. Then the water further travels downwards to
the zone of saturation – where the pore spaces are completely filled by water.
 The upper boundary of the zone of saturation is known as the water table.
 Aquifers are the underground layers of rocks that hold the groundwater and they are
found in the saturation zone.

2. Artificial Groundwater recharge

 In areas where groundwater is utilized faster than its natural replenishing rate, man-made
recharge method becomes a necessary option for balancing the water levels.
 Artificial recharge is the process of increasing the amount of water that enters an aquifer
through planned, human-controlled means.
 Groundwater can be artificially recharged by redirecting water across the land surface
through canals, infiltration basins, or ponds; adding irrigation furrows or sprinkler systems;
 or simply injecting water directly into the subsurface through injection wells.

Factors Affecting Groundwater Recharge

Groundwater recharge depends on several factors such as:
1. Porosity and Permeability of the soil.
2. Infiltration capacity.
3. Precipitation rate.
4. Climate changes.
5. Type of vegetative cover.
 Importance Of Groundwater Recharge
 Groundwater is the largest source of freshwater for mankind and approximately 30% of
the freshwater on Earth is groundwater. In some rural areas, groundwater accounts for
100% of the resident’s drinking water.
 It is also an integral part of the water cycle.
 The importance of groundwater recharge cannot be over-emphasized.
 For sustainable groundwater management, groundwater recharge is required to balance
environmental water levels and also maintain flow into rivers, lakes and wetlands.
 Shortage of groundwater in an area will lead to depletion of aquifers and dryness of wells. Its
adverse effects will be felt both on the inhabitants and the environment.

Conjunctive use
In General terms, conjunctive use implies the planned and coordinated management of surface
and groundwater, so as to maximize the efficient use of total water resources.
Because of the interrelationship existing between surface and subsurface water, it is possible to
store during critical periods the surplus of one to tide over the deficit of the other.
Thus groundwater may be used to supplement surface water supplies, to cope with peak demands
for municipal and irrigation purposes, or to meet deficits in years of low rainfall.
On the other hand, surplus surface water may be used in overdraft areas to increase the
groundwater storage by artificial recharge.
Moreover, surface water, groundwater or both, depending on the surplus available, can be moved
from water-plentiful to water-deficit areas through canals and other distribution systems.

The beneficial effects of conjunctive water use in canal commands can be summarized as
follows:
 Use of groundwater helps cope with peak demands for irrigation and hence reduce size of
canals and consequently construction costs
 Supplemental supplies from groundwater bodies ensure proper irrigation scheduling, even
if rainfall fails or is delayed.
 Groundwater withdrawals lower the water table thus reducing the risk of water- logging,
soil salinization and consequent wastage of water for leaching the soils
 Surface and subsurface outflows are minimized, causing reduction in peak runoff
 When conjunctive use is integrated with artificial recharge the need for lining canals is
reduced, as seepage from canals replenishes groundwater
 Conjunctive use allows the utilization of saline or brackish ground – or surface – water
resources, either by mixing them with freshwater, or by using alternate water resources for
irrigation.
 Contamination of ground water

Groundwater pollution occurs as a result of the release of pollutants into the ground to natural
underground water reservoirs known as aquifers. Once the pollutants released to find their way
into groundwater, they cause contamination. It is a type of water pollution that is mainly caused
by the release of substances either intentionally or accidentally through anthropogenic activities
or natural causes.
The pollutants usually move within aquifers depending on biological, physical, and chemical
properties. Processes such as diffusion, dispersion, adsorption, and the speed of moving water
often facilitate the movement. But in general, the movement of the contaminants within an aquifer
is usually slow and as such, their concentration tends to be high and in a form called a plume.
As the plume spreads it might connect with springs and ground wells making them unsafe for
human consumption. Hence, this article discusses the causes, effects, and various solutions to
underground water pollution.

Causes of Groundwater Pollution

1. Natural Sources
Naturally occurring substances found in the soils and rocks can be dissolved in water
causing contamination. These substances are sulphates, iron, radionuclides, fluorides, manganese,
chlorides, and arsenic. Others such as the decaying materials in the soil may seep in underground
water and move with it as particles.
Reports by WHO indicate that the most common pollutants are fluoride and arsenic. The
natural cause of pollution can be tested using the Groundwater Assessment Platform (GAP). GAP
estimates contamination levels using environmental, geological, and topographical data.
2. Septic Systems
Across the world, septic systems are the main cause of pollution of underground water.
The pollutants are outflow from privies, septic tanks, and the cesspools. 25% of households in the
USA, for instance, heavily depend on the septic systems to dispose of their waste. This huge
number of users relying on the system makes it one of the main pollutants.
Additionally, improperly designed and leaking septic systems release contaminants such
as nitrates, oils, bacteria, chemicals, detergents, and viruses into underground water.
3. Hazardous Waste Disposal
Hazardous wastes such as photographic chemicals, motor oil, cooking oil, paint thinners,
medicines, swimming pool chemicals, paints, and garden chemicals should not be disposed into
septic tanks or directly into the environment as they cause serious contamination. These chemicals
should be disposed of with the help of a licensed hazardous waste handler.
4. Petroleum Products
Petroleum storage tanks are either located underground or above ground. Also, the
transportation of petroleum products is mainly done underground using the pipeline. Leakages
from these substances can lead to contamination of water.
In the USA it is estimated that 16,000 chemical spills each year are from trucks, storage
containers, and train spillages especially when transferring oil. The chemicals spilled become
diluted with water and seep into the ground and may cause groundwater contamination.
5. Solid Waste
Palmer Developmental Group estimated that in developing countries approximately 0.3 to
0.6 kg/person/day of waste is released into the ground. On the other hand, in developed countries,
0.7 to 1.8 kg/person/day is released. The chemicals from these substances are leached into the
groundwater through precipitation and surface runoff.
The wastes can also be collected and taken to landfills. If the landfills lack a clay liner and leachate
the chemicals from the wastes will leach and pose a threat to the groundwater.
6. Surface impoundments
These are shallow lagoons used to store liquid wastes. The USA, for example, has
over 180,000 surface impoundments which can pose a threat to groundwater. Therefore, the
impoundments are required to have clay liners or leachates to prevent leaching. In some cases, the
leachates may be defective and leakages may occur leading to contamination of water.
7. Agricultural Chemicals
Millions of tons of agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides are used
worldwide to increase crop production. Other institutions such as the golf courses also use these
chemicals.
Excessive use of these chemicals can lead to contamination of groundwater. Chemicals
such as pesticides are known to remain in the ground for years and when diluted with the rainwater
they seep deeper into the groundwater.
8. Injection wells
They have various uses ranging from collection or stormwater to disposal of industrial and
commercial effluents. When not properly regulated, hazardous chemicals can be disposed of from
injection wells. For this reason, if not properly located, regulated, and designed; they can cause
contamination of groundwater.
9. Other causes
Other causes of ground pollution are abandoned wells which can act as a pathway for
contaminants to reach the aquifers. Also, poorly constructed wells that may lack proper casing and
covers may cause groundwater contamination that is pollutants find their way into such wells.
Another cause of pollution is mining activities where through precipitation the soluble
minerals can be leached from the sites to the groundwater.
Effects of Groundwater Pollution
1. Health Issues
Contaminated groundwater has detrimental effects on health. In areas where septic tanks
installation is not set up correctly, the human waste may contaminate the water source. The waste
may contain hepatitis causing bacteria that may lead to irreversible damage to the liver.
Also, it may cause dysentery which leads to severe diarrhea, dehydration, and in some
cases death. Additional health problems include poisoning that may be a result of the use of
excessive pesticides and fertilizers or natural chemicals. The chemicals leach into water sources
and poison them. Drinking water from such a source may lead to serious health effects.

2. Affects economic growth

Contamination of groundwater sources renders the area incapable of sustaining plant,
human, and animal life. The population in the area reduces and the land value depreciates. Another
effect is that it leads to less stability in industries relying on groundwater to produce their goods.
Therefore, the industries in affected areas will have to outsource for water from other
regions which may turn out to be expensive. In addition, they may be forced to close down due to
the poor quality of water.

3. Can lead to damaging impacts on the environment such as aquatic systems and the overall
ecosystem
Groundwater pollution can lead to devastating environmental changes. One such alteration
is the loss of certain nutrients that are essential for self-sustenance of the ecosystem. Also, when
the pollutants mix with water bodies, alteration of the aquatic ecosystem may also occur. Aquatic
animals such as fishes may die off quickly as a result of too many contaminants in the water bodies.
Animals and plants using contaminated water may also be affected. Toxic substances
accumulate with time in the aquifers and once the prime spreads it may render the groundwater
unsuitable for human and animal consumption. The effects are serious especially in people who
rely on groundwater during drought periods.

Solutions of Groundwater Pollution

1. Legislation
There are federal laws in most countries that help in protecting the quality of groundwater. Safe
Drinking and Clean Water regulations should ensure the protection of drinking water by
establishing measures for them to meet health standards.
2. The use of water cleaning systems
Point-of-use treatment systems should be installed in outlets that dispense water for human
consumption. The techniques used include chemical disinfection, boiling, solar distillation,
filtration, ozone water disinfection, activated charcoal absorption, and ultraviolet disinfection.
Arsenic Removal Filters (ARFs) are usually installed to remove arsenic compounds present.
Maintenance of these filters is essential to ensure that the drinking water is always safe.
Groundwater Remediation is also another management technique. The biological treatment
techniques employed are bioaugmentation, bio slurping, bioventing, phytoremediation, and
biosparging. Chemicals techniques such as ion exchange, ozone gas injection, membrane
separation, and chemical precipitation can also be used.

3. Proper management of the sources of pollution

The landfills should be designed with proper clay and leachates. The maintenance should be
done regularly. The location of the landfill should also be far from groundwater areas. Further,
any hazardous wastes should not be dumped in the landfill unless it is designed for that purpose.
In constructing and managing underground storage tanks, it is important to comply with the set
regulations and policies to avoid contamination or even lawsuits. A containment device that acts
as a leak back up should be put in place and any unused underground tanks should be removed.
Underground pipelines installation should be designed professionally. Inspections should be
done regularly and causes of corrosion or leakages noted should be resolved immediately.
4. Recycling
Most landfills in various countries have a recycling plant nearby. Therefore, used
petroleum products should be taken to such places. Apart from oil, other recyclable materials such
as plastic, bottle, and paper wastes can also be taken to recycling plants. The state should provide
designated recycling pick up areas in places that they are not established.
Together with other environmental organizations, the state can mobilize people to
participate in the recycling initiative. They can do this by holding awareness campaigns and
educating communities on the importance of recycling.

Sea water ingress

Possibility of ingress of sea water into cargo holds poses potential threat to ships .

Masters of bulk carriers should be aware that the purpose of the Water Ingress Monitor (WIM) is
to provide the maximum possible early warning of a condition that may seriously threaten the
vessel's survival.

Bulk carriers potential hazards

Ingress of sea water into cargo holds poses significant threat to bulk carriers while on sea
passage and in harbour. Effective means of monitoring hold bilges for presence of water are
traditional practice. However New regulations now become part of the Safety of Life At Sea
(SOLAS) convention and came into force on 1 July 2004. According to this regulation bulk
carriers are now required to carry equipment that will give early warning of water ingress to the
hull.
Water Ingress Monitoring
Water Ingress Monitoring (WIM) is not a new concept. Masters will recognize that daily
monitoring of bilges and tanks has been a feature of prudent seamanship since antiquity.
However, this method of monitoring does not provide continuous information.
Furthermore, when weather deteriorates the manual process is usually suspended because
of the dangers to crew members taking the soundings. In such conditions the risk of flooding in
the ship is increased and therefore some method of continuous monitoring should be introduced.
The concept now adopted for bulk carriers by (International Maritime Organization) IMO
monitors not only for the presence of water, but also, in the cargo hold spaces, the speed of ingress.
To achieve this a two stage alarm is used, one at a low level in the hold, the second a short distance
above it.