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“Point/Counterpoint” sections in each chapter pres-
ent two perspectives on a controversial question relat-
ed to the field; topics include debates on the kinds of
research that should guide education (p. 19), brain-based
education (p. 40), the self-esteem movement (p. 98),
pills or skills for students with ADHD (p. 141), the best
way to teach English language learners (p. 190), track-
ing (p. 215), using rewards to encourage student learn-
ing (p. 274), what’s wrong with memorization (p. 310),
teaching critical thinking and problem solving (p. 345),
problem-based education (p. 370), teacher efficacy
(p. 409), the value of trying to make learning entertaining
(p. 450), zero tolerance (p. 493), homework (p. 525), and
holding children back (p. 569).
“Guidelines” appear throughout each chapter, pro-
viding concrete applications of theories or principles
discussed.
“Guidelines/Family and Community Partnerships”
sections offer specific guidelines for involving fami-
lies—especially relevant now, when demand for parental
involvement is at an all-time high—in the various aspects
of children’s learning.
454 C H A P T E R T W E LV E
POINT/COUNTERPOINT Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?
WHEN MANY BEGINNING teachers are asked about how to motivate students, they often mention making
learning fun. But is it necessary for learning to be fun?
Teachers should make learning fun. When I searched
“making learning fun” on Google.com, I found 10 pages of
POINT
resources and references. Clearly, there is interest in making
learning fun. Research shows that passages in texts that are
more interesting are remembered better (Schunk, Pintrich,
& Meece, 2008). For example, students who read books
that interested them spent more time reading, read more
words in the books, and felt more positively about reading
(Guthrie & Alao, 1997). Games and simulations can make
learning more fun, too.
For example, when my daughter was in the 8th grade, all the
students in her grade spent three days playing a game her teach-
ers had designed called ULTRA. Students were divided into groups
and formed their own “countries.” Each country had to choose a
name, symbol, national flower, and bird. They wrote and sang a
national anthem and elected government officials. The teachers
allocated different resources to the countries. To get all the materi-
als needed for the completion of assigned projects, the countries
had to establish trade with one another. There was a monetary
system and a stock market. Students had to work with their fel-
low citizens to complete cooperative learning assignments. Some
countries “cheated” in their trades with other nations, and this al-
lowed debate about international relations, trust, and war. Liz says
she had fun—but she also learned how to work in a group without
the teacher’s supervision and gained a deeper understanding of
world economics and international conflicts.
A highly motivating 3rd grade teacher in another study had
her class set up a post office for the whole school. Each classroom
in the school had an address and zip code. Students had jobs in
the post office, and everyone in the school used the post office
to deliver letters to students and teachers. Students designed
their own stamps and set postal rates. The teacher said that the
system “improves their creative writing without them knowing it”
(Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003, p. 254).
LA N G UA G E D EVELO PM EN T, LA N G UA G E D IVERS IT Y, A N D IM M IGR A N T E D U C AT I O N
GUIDELINES
Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for English Language Learners
Create learning activities that promote success in reading and
writing.
Examples
1. Have weekly individual conferences with younger students
and record their retelling of a story. Let students edit and
revise the dictation and read it to a partner.
2. Do interactive journals with older students—collect each
week and write back.
Make sure students have plenty of time to practice and get
careful, targeted corrections.
Examples
1. Point out privately what is correct, almost correct, and wrong
in written work.
2. Be sensitive about public oral corrections and build on what
is correct, but do not accept clearly incorrect answers.
Connect teaching to relevant knowledge from students’ lives.
Examples
1. Ask students to survey family members about favorite films—
use film characters to discuss elements of literature—plot,
point of view, etc.
2. Have students create construction firms and plan projects to
learn math concepts.
Actively involve learners.
Examples
1. Use timelines in history compared to personal timelines
based on family history.
2. Do projects in science based on animals or farming for rural
students.
L A N G U A G E D E V E L O P M E N T, L A N G U A G E D I V E R S I T Y, A N D I M M I G R ANT EDUC ATI O N
GUIDELINES FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
Welcoming All Families
Make sure communication with families is understandable.
Examples
1. Use the families’ home languages wherever possible.
2. Use oral forms of communication—phone calls or home
visits—whenever possible.
Balance positive and negative messages.
Examples
1. Send home notes or descriptions about their child’s
accomplishments or acts of kindness.
2. Explain disciplinary actions as ways of helping children
succeed.
PREFA CE vii
.
Fun can get in the way of learning. As far back as
the early 1900s, educators warned about the dangers of
COUNTERPOINT
focusing on fun in learning. None other than John Dewey,
who wrote extensively about the role of interest in learning,
cautioned that you can’t make boring lessons interesting by
mixing in fun like you can make bad chili good by adding
some spicy hot sauce. Dewey wrote, “When things have to
be made interesting, it is because interest itself is wanting.
Moreover, the phrase itself is a misnomer. The thing, the
object, is no more interesting than it was before” (Dewey,
1913, pp. 11–12).
There is a good deal of research now indicating that
adding interest by incorporating fascinating but irrelevant
details actually gets in the way of learning the important
information. These “seductive details,” as they have been
called, divert the readers’ attention from the less interest-
ing main ideas (Harp & Mayer, 1998). For example, students
who read biographies of historical figures remembered more very
interesting—but unimportant—information compared to interest-
ing main ideas (Wade, Schraw, Buxton, & Hayes, 1993).
Shannon Harp and Richard Mayer (1998) found similar
results with high school science texts. These texts added emo-
tional interest and seductive details about swimmers and golf-
ers who are injured by lightning to a lesson on the process of
lightning. They concluded that, “in the case of emotional interest
versus cognitive interest, the verdict is clear. Adjuncts aimed at
increasing emotional interest failed to improve understanding of
scientific explanations” (p. 100). The seductive details may have
disrupted students’ attempts to follow the logic of the explana-
tions and thus interfered with their comprehending the text. Harp
and Mayer conclude that “the best way to help students enjoy a
passage is to help them understand it” (p. 100).
195
Use different grouping strategies.
Examples
1. Try pairs for writing stories and practicing oral presentations.
2. Create small teams to research recent immigrant groups’
culture and language.
Provide native language support.
Examples
1. Learn and use as much of the students’ language as
possible—if they can learn, so can you.
2. Find Internet translation sources and local native speaking
volunteers.
3. Bring native language magazines and books into the classroom.
Involve family and community members.
Examples
1. Bring in storytellers, local business owners, artists,
craftspeople.
2. Create a Welcome Center for your class.
Hold high expectations for all students, and communicate
these expectations clearly.
Examples
1. Keep scrapbooks of previous students who have gone on to
careers or college.
2. Don’t accept mediocre work.
3. Be a model of respect for diversity and an enemy of bigotry.
Source: Adapted from Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (2011). Sheltered
content instruction: Teaching English learners with diverse abilities
(4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Pearson, pp. 67–77.
197
Establish systems for welcoming new families.
Examples
1. Assign more experienced “buddy” parents to communicate
with new families.
2. Connect with multilingual media in your community to make
announcements about school.
Make sure messages get through.
Examples
1. Establish telephone trees or texting networks.
2. Set the expectation that there will be a weekly note sent
home so parents can ask their children about it.
3. Establish a class newsletter or Web site and incorporate
multiple languages.
viii P REFAC E

“Teachers’ Casebook” sections present students with

m
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Reaching and Teaching Every
Student
realistic classroom scenarios at the beginning of each
WHAT WOULD YOU DO?
You have started a new job in a high school in your hometown. When you were in
school, the students were fairly homogeneous—White, working to middle class, chapter and ask “What Would You Do?”—giving students
and English speaking. There was a “special education” class for students who had
serious learning or developmental problems. But in the classes you are teaching,
the opportunity to apply all the important topics of the
you find a wide range of reading levels, family incomes, and learning problems. chapter to these scenarios via application questions.
Two of your students are virtually ready for college, whereas several others can
barely read the texts—and their writing is impossible to decipher. Reading English Students may then compare their responses to those of
texts is a challenge for some of your ELL students, although they seem to speak
English with little trouble.
veteran teachers appearing at the end of each chapter.
CRITICAL THINKING
• How would you differentiate instruction for these very dissimilar students?
• Do different philosophies of teaching provide different answers to this question?
• How will you grade work if you have successfully differentiated instruction?

Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems

“Reaching Every Student” sections present ideas for
Students with severe behavior problems provide some of the most difficult challenges for
teachers. Two studies show how applied behavioral principles can be useful in helping
assessing, teaching, and motivating ALL of the students in
these students.
Lea Theodore and her colleagues (2001) worked with the teacher of five adolescent
males who were diagnosed as having severe emotional disorders. A short list of clear
today’s inclusive classrooms.
rules was established (e.g., use no obscene words, comply with the teacher’s requests
within five seconds, make no verbal putdowns). The rules were written on index cards
taped to each student’s desk. The teacher had a checklist on his desk with each student’s
name to note any rule breaking. This checklist was easily observable, so students could
monitor their own and each other’s performance. At the end of the 45-minute period,
a student chose a “criterion” from a jar. The possible criteria were: performance of the
whole group, student with the highest score, student with the lowest score, the average
of all students, or a random single student. If the student or students selected to be the
criterion had five checks or fewer for rule-breaking, then the whole class got a reward,
also chosen randomly from a jar. The possible rewards were things like a power drink,
a bag of chips, a candy bar, or a late-to-class pass. An ABAB design was used—baseline,
two-week intervention, two-week withdrawal of intervention, and two-week return to
group consequences. All students showed clear improvement in following the rules when
the reward system was in place. Students liked the approach and the teacher found it
easy to implement.

Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation “Lessons for Teachers” are succinct and usable prin-
Until four basic conditions are met for every student and in every classroom, no motiva-
tional strategies will succeed. First, the classroom must be relatively organized and free
from constant interruptions and disruptions. (Chapter 13 will give you the information
ciples for teaching based on the research.
you need to make sure this requirement is met.) Second, the teacher must be a patient,
supportive person who never embarrasses the students because they made mistakes.
Everyone in the class should view mistakes as opportunities for learning (Clifford, 1990,
1991). Third, the work must be challenging, but reasonable. If work is too easy or too
difficult, students will have little motivation to learn. They will focus on finishing, not on
learning. Finally, the learning tasks must be authentic. And as we have seen, what makes
a task authentic is influenced by the students’ culture (Bergin, 1999; Brophy & Kher, 1986;
Stipek, 1993).
Once these four basic conditions are met, the influences on students’ motivation
to learn in a particular situation can be summarized in four questions: Can I succeed at
this task? Do I want to succeed? What do I need to do to succeed? Do I belong? (Com-
mittee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 2004;
Eccles & Wigfield, 1985). We want students to have confidence in their ability so they
will approach learning with energy and enthusiasm. We want them to see the value of
the tasks involved and work to learn, not just try to get the grade or get finished. We
want students to believe that success will come when they apply good learning strate-
gies instead of believing that their only option is to use self-defeating, failure-avoiding,
face-saving strategies. When things get difficult, we want students to stay focused on
the task, and not get so worried about failure that they “freeze.” And we want students
to feel as though they belong in school—that their teachers and classmates care about
them and can be trusted.

“Connect and Extend to Licensure” exercises appear

. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Miss Johnson would like for her students to be motivated to do
their work without bribing them with treats or promises of extra
recess time. Which one of the following is the type of motivation
should she encourage in her students?
A. Extrinsic
B. Intrinsic
C. Locus of control
D. Relatedness
Hint: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Feedback: Intrinsic motivation is the natural human tendency
to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal
interests and exercise our capabilities. When we are intrinsically
motivated, we do not need incentives or punishments, because
the activity itself is satisfying and rewarding (Anderman &
Anderman, 2010; Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reiss, 2004).
2. Why should educators concern themselves with Abraham
4. Which of the following is true regarding extrinsic motivation?
at the end of every chapter, consisting of case studies
A. Extrinsic motivation should be avoided at all costs because
it undermines a student’s intrinsic desire.
B. Extrinsic motivation is not associated with grades and
with constructed-response questions, and multiple-choice
incentives.
C. Extrinsic motivation may be necessary to initially encour-
questions, all mimicking the types of questions found on
age students to engage in certain activities.
D. Extrinsic motivation is more desirable than intrinsic motiva-
tion in the classroom as educators have increased control.
licensure exams such as the Praxis tests published by the
.
Hint: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Feedback: To initially interest students in a topic, educators may
Educational Testing Service (ETS).
use extrinsic measures such as quizzes. The ultimate goal, how-
ever, is for students to eventually realize the intrinsic satisfaction
they acquire from engaging in certain activities or studying
particular topics.
CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS
 PREFA CE ix

Supplements
This Twelfth Edition of Educational Psychology provides a comprehensive and integrated
collection of supplements to assist students and professors alike in maximizing learning
and instruction. Together, these materials immerse students in the content of the text,
allowing them and their instructors to benefit from a deeper and more meaningful
learning experience. All of the instructor supplements are available at the Instructor
Resource Center. To access the Instructor’s Resource Manual, the PowerPoint lecture
presentation, and the Assessment Package, go to the Instructor Resource Center at
www.pearsonhighered.com and click on the “Educators” link. Here you will be able to
login or complete a one-time registration for a user name and password.

Innovative Online Course—MyEducationLab

THE POWER OF CLASSROOM PRACTICE In Preparing

Teachers for a Changing World, Linda Darling-Hammond and her colleagues point out
that grounding teacher education in real classrooms—among real teachers and students
and among actual examples of students’ and teachers’ work—is an important, and per-
haps even an essential, part of training teachers for the complexities of teaching in
today’s classrooms. MyEducationLab is an online learning solution that provides con-
textualized interactive exercises, simulations, and other resources designed to help you
develop the knowledge and skills that teachers need. All of the activities and exercises
in MyEducationLab are built around essential learning outcomes for teachers and are
mapped to professional teaching standards. Utilizing classroom video, authentic student
and teacher artifacts, case studies, and other resources and assessments, the scaffolded
learning experiences in MyEducationLab offer you a unique and valuable education tool.
On the MyEducationLab for this course you will find the following features and
resources.

STUDY PLAN AND BOOK RESOURCES SPECIFIC TO YOUR TEXT A MyEducationLab

Study Plan provides students with the opportunity to take a self-assessment after read-
ing each chapter of the text. Self-assessment questions are tied to learning outcomes, so
the students are assessed on their knowledge and comprehension of all the concepts
presented in each chapter. The quiz results automatically identify areas of the chapter
that still need some additional study time. Students are then presented with Review,
Practice, and Enrichment exercises to help ensure learning and to deepen understanding
of chapter concepts—when just re-reading and studying chapter content is not enough.
Flashcards for each chapter help students master definitions of key terms within each
chapter. The study plan is designed to help each student perform well on exams and to
promote deep understanding of chapter content.
In addition to the study plan, MyEducationLab resources specific to this book
include:
• AnitaTalks Podcasts: Direct links to relevant selections from Anita Talks about
Teaching, a selection of podcasts in which Dr. Woolfolk discusses how chapters of
this text relate to the profession of teaching.
• Connect and Extend to Licensure exercises allow students to complete the licensure-
style questions and activities shown at the end of each chapter of this text while
receiving hints that help scaffold their correct responses, as well as feedback with
which they can compare their responses.

CONNECTION TO NATIONAL STANDARDS Now it is easier than ever to see how

coursework is connected to national standards. Each topic, activity and exercise on
MyEducationLab lists intended learning outcomes connected to the appropriate national
standards.
x P REFAC E

ASSIGNMENTS AND ACTIVITIES Designed to enhance your understanding of concepts

covered in class, these assignable exercises show concepts in action (through videos,
cases, and/or student and teacher artifacts). They help you deepen content knowledge
and synthesize and apply concepts and strategies you read about in the book. (Correct
answers for these assignments are available to the instructor only.)

BUILDING TEACHING SKILLS AND DISPOSITIONS These unique learning units help
users practice and strengthen skills that are essential to effective teaching. After pre-
senting the steps involved in a core teaching process, you are given an opportunity to
practice applying this skill via videos, student and teacher artifacts, and/or case studies
of authentic classrooms. Providing multiple opportunities to practice a single teaching
concept, each activity encourages a deeper understanding and application of concepts,
as well as the use of critical thinking skills. Feedback for the final quizzes is available to
the instructor only.

IRIS CENTER RESOURCES The IRIS Center at Vanderbilt University (http://iris.

peabody.vanderbilt.edu), funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Special
Education Programs (OSEP), develops training enhancement materials for preservice
and practicing teachers. The Center works with experts from across the country to cre-
ate challenge-based interactive modules, case study units, and podcasts that provide
research-validated information about working with students in inclusive settings. In your
MyEducationLab course we have integrated this content where appropriate.

SIMULATIONS IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT One of the most difficult challenges

facing teachers today is how to balance classroom instruction with classroom manage-
ment. These interactive cases focus on the classroom management issues teachers most
frequently encounter on a daily basis. Each simulation presents a challenge scenario at
the beginning and then offers a series of choices to solve each challenge. Along the way
students receive mentor feedback on their choices and have the opportunity to make
better choices if necessary. Upon exiting each simulation, you will have a clear under-
standing of how to address these common classroom management issues and will be
better equipped to handle them in the classroom.

TEACHER TALK This feature emphasizes the power of teaching through videos of mas-
ter teachers, who each tell their own compelling stories of why they teach. These videos
help you see the bigger picture and consider why the concepts and principles you are
learning are important to your career as a teacher. Each of these featured teachers has
been awarded the Council of Chief State School Officers Teachers of the Year award, the
oldest and most prestigious award for teachers.

LESSON PLAN BUILDER The Lesson Plan Builder is an effective and easy-to-use tool
that you can use to create, update, and share quality lesson plans. The software also
makes it easy to integrate state content standards into any lesson plan.

CERTIFICATION AND LICENSURE The Certification and Licensure section is designed

to help you pass your licensure exam by giving you access to state test requirements,
overviews of what tests cover, and sample test items.
The Certification and Licensure section includes the following:
• State Certification Test Requirements: Here, you can click on a state and will then
be taken to a list of state certification tests.
• You can click on the Licensure Exams you need to take to find:
• Basic information about each test
• Descriptions of what is covered on each test
• Sample test questions with explanations of correct answers
 PREFA CE xi

• National Evaluation Series™ by Pearson: Here, students can see the tests in
the NES, learn what is covered on each exam, and access sample test items with
descriptions and rationales of correct answers. You can also purchase interactive
online tutorials developed by Pearson Evaluation Systems and the Pearson Teacher
Education and Development group.
• ETS Online Praxis Tutorials: Here you can purchase interactive online tutorials
developed by ETS and by the Pearson Teacher Education and Development group.
Tutorials are available for the Praxis I exams and for select Praxis II exams.
Visit www.myeducationlab.com for a demonstration of this exciting new online teaching
resource.

ONLINE INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL The Online Instructor’s Resource

Manual synthesizes all of the resources available for each chapter and sifts through the
materials to match the delivery method (e.g., semester, quarter) and areas of emphasis
for the course. These materials can be used for traditional courses as well as online or
online-supported courses. The Instructor’s Resource Manual is available for download at
www.pearsonhighered.com.

ONLINE TEST BANK Students learn better when they are held accountable for what
they have learned. That is why we have developed a bank of hundreds of challeng-
ing questions in multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blanks, true/false, short-answer, and case
study formats, along with detailed answer keys. The Test Bank is available online at
www.pearsonhighered.com.

PEARSON MYTEST This is a powerful assessment generation program that helps

instructors easily create and print quizzes and exams. Questions and tests are authored
online, allowing ultimate flexibility and the ability to efficiently create and print assess-
ments any time, anywhere! Instructors can access Pearson MyTest and their test bank
files by going to www.pearsonmytest.com to log in, register, or request access. Features
of Pearson MyTest include:
Premium assessment content
• Draw from a rich library of assessments that complement your Pearson textbook
and your course’s learning objectives.
• Edit questions or tests to fit your specific teaching needs.

Instructor-friendly resources
• Easily create and store your own questions, including images, diagrams, and charts
using simple drag-and-drop and Word-like controls.
• Use additional information provided by Pearson, such as the question’s difficulty
level or learning objective, to help you quickly build your test.

Time-saving enhancements
• Add headers or footers and easily scramble questions and answer choices—all from
one simple toolbar.
• Quickly create multiple versions of your test or answer key, and when ready, simply
save to MS-Word or PDF format and print!
• Export your exams for import to Blackboard 6.0, CE (WebCT), or Vista (WebCT)!

ONLINE POWERPOINT SLIDES These visual aids display, summarize, and help explain
core information presented in each chapter. They are available for download at www.
pearsonhighered.com. All PowerPoint slides have been updated for consistency and to
reflect current content in this new edition.
xii PREFAC E

Acknowledgments
During the years I have worked on this book, from initial draft to this most recent
revision, many people have supported the project. Without their help, this text simply
could not have been written.
Many educators contributed to this and previous editions. Carol Weinstein wrote
the section in Chapter 13 on spaces for learning. Nancy Perry (University of British
Columbia) and Philip Winne (Simon Frasier University) wrote sections of Chapter 11 on
self-regulation. Brad Henry (The Ohio State University) crafted sections on technology
in two chapters and also read every chapter with the digital world in mind to suggest
updates. Michael Yough (Purdue University) looked over several chapters including the
new one on Language Development, Language Learning, and Immigrant Education. That
chapter was also improved by suggestions from Alan Hirvela, the Ohio State University.
Gregg Schraw, the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, provided invaluable guidance for
the chapters on cognitive learning. Gypsy M. Denzine (Northern Arizona University) is
responsible for the Test Bank. The portraits of students in Chapters 1 and 6 were pro-
vided by Nancy Knapp (University of Georgia). The Instructor’s Resource Manual and
PowerPoint™ Presentations were created by Michael Yough (Purdue University) and
Kate Kovach (The Ohio State University), future stars in our field.
As I made decisions about how to revise this edition, I benefited from the ideas
of colleagues around the country who took the time to complete surveys, answer my
questions, and review chapters.
For their revision reviews, thanks to: Frank D. Adams, Wayne State College; Karen
J. Dreyer, University of Pittsburgh; Aleza Greene, University of Arkansas; Martin H. Jones,
University of Memphis; Penny McGlawn, Harding University; Deborah Norland, Luther
College; Susan Parault, St. Cloud State University; Joseph Polvere, Montclair State Uni-
versity; Anuradhaa Shastri, SUNY College of Oneonta; A. Sean Taylor, Des Moines Area
Community College; Fredrick B. Van Sant, Ferris State University; Diane Ward, Roane
State Community College.
Many classroom teachers across the country and around the world contributed
their experience, creativity, and expertise to the Teachers’ Casebook. I have thoroughly
enjoyed my association with these master teachers, and I am grateful for the perspective
they brought to the book: Madya Ayala, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L. Mexico;
Kelly McElroy Bonin, Klein Oaks High School, Spring, TX; Karen A. Boyarsky, Walter C.
Black Elementary, Hightstown, NJ; Keith J. Boyle, Dunellen, NJ; Jane Campbell, Dunellen
School District, Dunellen, NJ; Valerie Chilcoat, Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD; Katie
Churchill, Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL; Paula Colemere, McClintock High
School, Tempe, AZ; Kelley Crockett, Meadowbrook Elementary School, Fort Worth, TX;
Lou DeLauro, Dunellen School District, Dunellen, NJ; Paul Dragin, Columbus East High
School, Columbus, OH; Aimee Fredette, Fisher Elementary School, Walpole, MA; Pam
Gaskill, Riverside Elementary School, Dublin OH; Linda Glisson, St. James Episcopal
Day School, Baton Rouge, LA; Jolita Harper, Weinland Park Elementary, Columbus, OH;
Danielle Hartman, Claymont Elementary, Parkway School District, Ballwin, MO; Carla
S. Higgins, Legend Elementary School, Newark, OH; Kelly L. Hoy, The Phillips Brooks
School, Menlo Park, CA; Marie Hoffman Hurt, Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington,
OH; M. Denise Lutz, Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH; Jessica N.
Mahtaban, Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ; Jennifer Matz, Williams Valley
Elementary School, Tower City, PA; Thomas Naismith, Slocum Independent School
District, Slocum, TX; Allan Osborne, Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA;
Katie Piel, West Park School, Moscow, ID; Jennifer Pincoski, Lee County School District,
Fort Myers, FL; Barbara Presley, C.W. Baker High School, Baldwinsville, NY; Lauren
Rollins, Boulevard Elementary School, Shaker Heights, OH; Dr. Nancy Sheehan-Melzack,
Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA; Patricia Smith, Northside Independent
School District, San Antonio, TX; Linda Sparks, John F. Kennedy Elementary School,
Billerica, MA; Sara Vincent, Langley High School, McLean, VA; Jacalyn Walker, Treasure
Mountain Middle School, Park City, UT; Michael Yasis, L.H. Tanglen Elementary School,
Minnetonka, MN.
 PREFA CE xiii

In a project of this size so many people make essential contributions. Becky Savage,
Permissions Coordinator, worked diligently, often through weekends, to obtain permis-
sions for the material reproduced in this text and the supplements. The text designer,
Diane Lorenzo, and photo editor, Carol Sykes, made the look of this book the best yet—
hard to do after 11 editions. Again, Kathy Smith, Project Manager, held all aspects of
the project in her wonderfully ordered and intelligent mind. I will never forget that she
found power for her computer using a neighbor’s generator in the aftermaths of both the
Katrina and Gustav hurricanes so that we could keep the chapters flowing. All the regular
shipping services had stopped delivering but Kathy always delivers! She performed the
impossible again this edition—wouldn’t want to write without her! Mary Irvin, Produc-
tion Editor, coordinated all aspects of the project, with amazing skill and grace. Somehow
they brought sanity to what could have been chaos and fun to what might have been
drudgery. Now the book is in the able hands of marketing manager Joanna Sabella and
her staff. I can’t wait to see what they are planning for me now! What a talented and
creative group—I am honored to work with them all.
On this edition, I was again privileged to work with an outstanding editorial group.
Their intelligence, creativity, sound judgment, style, and enduring commitment to quality
can be seen on every page of this text. Kevin Davis, Publisher, guided the project from
reviews to completion with the eye of an artist, the mind of a scholar, and the logistical
capacity of high-powered computer. He proved to be an excellent collaborator with a
wise grasp of the field and a sense of the future. Lauren Carlson, Editorial Assistant, kept
everything running smoothly and kept my email humming. On this edition I was fortu-
nate again to have the help of Alicia Reilly, an outstanding developmental editor with the
perfect combination of vast knowledge, organizational ability, good humor, and creative
thinking. Once again, she coordinated every aspect of the revision, always staying just
ahead of whatever had to happen next, communicating with people around the world—
remarkable! The text features, Teachers’ Casebook, and excellent pedagogical supports
would not exist without her tireless efforts.
Finally, I want to thank my family and friends for their kindness and support during
the long days and nights that I worked on this book. To my family, Marion, Bob, Eric,
Suzie, Lizzie, Wayne K., Marie, Kelly, Tom, Lisa, Lauren, Mike, and the newest member,
Amaya—you are amazing.
And finally, to Wayne Hoy, my friend, colleague, inspiration, passion, husband—
you are simply the best.
—ANITA WOOLFOLK HOY
 BRIEF CONTENTS
1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 

PART I STUDENTS
2 Cognitive Development 
3 The Self, Social, and Moral Development 
4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs 
5 Language Development, Language Diversity,
and Immigrant Education 
6 Culture and Diversity 

PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

7 Behavioral Views of Learning 
8 Cognitive Views of Learning 
9 Complex Cognitive Processes 
10 The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 
11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and
Motivation 
12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching 

PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING

13 Creating Learning Environments 
14 Teaching Every Student 
15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized
Testing 
 CONTENTS
Preface v POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research
Should Guide Education? 19
Supporting Student Learning 21
CHAPTER 1 Summary and Key Terms 23
Connect and Extend to Licensure 24
Learning, Teaching, Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Child Behind:
and Educational What Would They Do? 25

Psychology 2
PART I STUDENTS
Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What
Would You Do? 2 CHAPTER 2
Overview and Objectives 3
Learning and Teaching Today 4 Cognitive
Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Development 28
Technology 4
Confidence in Every Context 5
High Expectations for Teachers and Students 6 Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals:
Do Teachers Make a Difference? 7 What Would You Do? 28
Teacher–Student Relationships 7 • The Cost of Poor Overview and Objectives 29
Teaching 7 A Definition of Development 30
What Is Good Teaching? 8 Three Questions Across the Theories 30
Inside Four Classrooms 8 What Is the Source of Development? Nature versus
A Bilingual 1st Grade 8 • A Suburban 5th Grade 8 Nurture 30 • What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity
• An Inclusive Class 8 • An Advanced Math Class 9 versus Discontinuity 31 • Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical
• So What Is Good Teaching? 9 versus Sensitive Periods 31 • Beware of Either/Or 31
Differentiated Instruction 10 General Principles of Development 32
Why Do We Need Differentiated Instruction? 10 • Elements The Brain and Cognitive Development 32
of Differentiation 10 The Developing Brain: Neurons 33
Beginning Teachers 11 The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 35
The Role of Educational Psychology 12 Adolescent Development and the Brain 36
In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology Putting it All Together: How the Brain Works 37
and Teaching 12 Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching 37
Educational Psychology Today 12 Instruction and Brain Development 37
Is It Just Common Sense? 13 The Brain and Learning to Read 38
Taking Turns 13 • Helping Students 13 • Skipping Emotions, Learning, and the Brain 39
Grades 13 • Obvious Answers? 13 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education 40
Using Research to Understand and Improve Lessons for Teachers: General Principles 40
Learning 14 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 42
Descriptive Studies 14 • Correlation Studies 14 Influences on Development 43
• Experimental Studies 15 • Single-Subject Experimental Basic Tendencies in Thinking 43
Designs 16 • Microgenetic Studies 16 Organization 43 • Adaptation 43 • Equilibration 44
• The Role of Time in Research 16 • Teachers as Four Stages of Cognitive Development 44
Researchers 16 Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage 44 • Early Childhood
What Is Scientifically Based Research? 18 to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational
Theories for Teaching 18 Stage 45 • Later Elementary to the Middle School Years:
The Concrete-Operational Stage 47
xvi C ON T EN T S
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children 47
GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 49
High School and College: Formal Operations 50 • Do We All
Reach the Fourth Stage? 51
GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal
Operations 51
Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience
Views of Cognitive Development 52
Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory 53
The Trouble with Stages 53 • Underestimating Children’s
Abilities 54 • Cognitive Development and Culture 54
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 55
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 55
Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 56
Technical Tools in a Digital Age 57 • Psychological Tools 57
The Role of Language and Private Speech 58
Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared 58
The Zone of Proximal Development 59
Private Speech and the Zone 59 • The Role of Learning and
Development 60
Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory 60
Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for
Teachers 60
Piaget: What Can We Learn? 60
Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking 61 • Activity
and Constructing Knowledge 61
Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? 62
The Role of Adults and Peers 62 • Assisted Learning 62
Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic
Middle” 63
GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 63
Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers 64
Summary and Key Terms 64
Connect and Extend to Licensure 66
Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would
They Do? 67
CHAPTER 3
The Self, Social,
and Moral
Development 68
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do? 68
Overview and Objectives 69
Physical Development 70
Physical and Motor Development 70
Young Children 70 • Elementary School Years 70 • The
Adolescent Years 71 • Early and Later Maturing 71
GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in
the Classroom 72
Play, Recess, and Physical Activity 72
Physical Exercise and Recess 73
Challenges in Physical Development 73
Obesity 73 • Eating Disorders 74
GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images 75
Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 75
The Importance of Context and the Bioecological
Model 75
Families 77
Family Structure 77 • Parenting Styles 78 • Culture and
Parenting 78
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Connecting with Families 79
Attachment 80 • Divorce 80
Peers 80
GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce 81
Crowds 81
Peer Cultures 82 • Cliques and Friendships 82
• Popularity 82 • Who Is Likely to Have Problems with
Peers? 83
Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support 83
Academic and Personal Caring 84
Teachers and Child Abuse 85
Society and Media 85
Identity and Self-Concept 87
Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development 87
The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative 88
• The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus
Inferiority 89
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry 90
Adolescence: The Search for Identity 90
GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation 92
Identity and Technology 92 • Beyond the School Years 93
Racial-Ethnic Identity 93
Ethnic Identities: Outcome and Process 93 • Racial Identity:
Outcome and Process 94 • Racial and Ethnic Pride 94
Self-Concept 95
The Structure of Self-Concept 95 • How Self-Concept
Develops 95 • Self-Concept and Achievement 96
Self-Esteem 97
Sex Differences in Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 97
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools
Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem? 98
Understanding Others and Moral Development 99
Theory of Mind and Intention 99
Moral Development 99
Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development 100 • Criticisms
of Kohlberg’s Theory 101 • Gender Differences: The
Morality of Caring 101
Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal
Choices 102

Moral versus Conventional Domains 103 • Implications for
Teachers 103
Diversity in Moral Reasoning 103
Moral Behavior: Aggression and Cheating 104
Aggression 104 • Relational Aggression 105 • Media,
Modeling, and Aggression 106 • Video Games and
Aggressive Behavior 106 • Cheating 106
GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging
Cooperation 107
Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers 108
Summary and Key Terms 109
Connect and Extend to Licensure 111
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would
They Do? 112
CHAPTER 4
Learner Differences
and Learning
Needs 114
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would
You Do? 114
Overview and Objectives 115
Intelligence 116
Language and Labels 116
Disabilities and Handicaps 116 • Person-First
Language 117 • Possible Biases in the Application of
Labels 117
What Does Intelligence Mean? 119
Intelligence: One Ability or Many? 119
Multiple Intelligences 120
What Are These Intelligences? 120 • Critics of MI
Theory 120 • Gardner Responds 121 • Multiple
Intelligences Go to School 122
Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers 122
Intelligence as a Process 123
Measuring Intelligence 124
Binet’s Dilemma 124
GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores 125
What Does an IQ Score Mean? 125 • Group versus
Individual Tests 125 • The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting
Smarter? 126 • Intelligence and Achievement 126
Gender Differences in Intelligence 126
Heredity or Environment? 127 • Being Smart About IQ
Tests 128
Learning and Thinking Styles 128
Learning Styles/Preferences 128
Cautions about Learning Styles 129 • The Value of
Considering Learning Styles 129
Beyond Either/Or 130
C ON TEN TS xvii
Individual Differences and the Law 130
IDEA 131
Least Restrictive Environment 132 • Individualized
Education Program 132
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS:
Productive Conferences 133
The Rights of Students and Families 133
Section 504 Protections 135
Students with Learning Challenges 136
Neuroscience and Learning Challenges 136
Students with Learning Disabilities 136
Student Characteristics 137 • Teaching Students with
Learning Disabilities 139
Students with Hyperactivity and Attention
Disorders 139
Definitions 140 • Treating ADHD with Drugs 140
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills of Skills for
Children with ADHD? 141
Alternatives/Additions to Drug Treatments 141
Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD 142
Students with Communication Disorders 142
Speech Disorders 143 • Language Disorders 143
Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties 144
GUIDELINES: Disciplining Students with Emotional
Problems 146
Suicide 146 • Drug Abuse 147 • Prevention 149
Students with Intellectual Disabilities 149
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Intellectual
Disabilities 150
Students with Health Impairments 150
Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities 150 • Seizure
Disorders (Epilepsy) 151 • Other Serious Health
Concerns: Asthma, HIV/AIDS, and Diabetes 152 • Students
with Vision Impairments 152 • Students Who Are
Deaf 153
Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome 153
Theory of Mind 154 • Interventions 154
Response to Intervention (RTI) 155
Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 155
Who Are These Students? 156
What Is the Origin of These Gifts? 156 • What Problems
Do the Gifted Face? 157
Identifying Gifted Students 158
Recognizing Gifts and Talents 158
Teaching Gifted Students 158
Acceleration 158 • Methods and Strategies 159
Summary and Key Terms 161
Connect and Extend to Licensure 163
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student:
What Would They Do? 164
xviii C O N T EN T S

CHAPTER 5 GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and

Language Development,
Language Diversity,
and Immigrant
Education 166
Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Class in the Classroom: What
Would You Do? 166
Overview and Objectives 167
The Development of Language 168
What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences 168
The Puzzle of Language 168
When and How Does Language Develop? 169
Sounds and Pronunciation 169 • Vocabulary and
Meaning 169 • Grammar and Syntax 170 • Pragmatics:
Using Language in Social Situations 170 • Metalinguistic
Awareness 171
Emergent Literacy 171
Inside-Out and Outside-In Skills 172 • Building a
Foundation 172
Emergent Literacy and Bilingual Children 173
GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting
Literacy 174
Diversity in Language Development 175
Dual Language Development 175
Second Language Learning 175 • Benefits of
Bilingualism 176 • Language Loss 176
Signed Languages 178
What Is Involved in Being Bilingual? 178
Contextualized and Academic Language 180
GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning 181
Dialect Differences in the Classroom 182
Dialects 182
Dialects and Pronunciation 182 • Dialects and Teaching 183
Genderlects 184
Teaching Immigrant Students and English Language
Learners 184
Immigrants and Refugees 185
Classrooms Today 186
Four Student Profiles 186
Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 188
Bilingual Education and English Learners 189
Two Approaches to English Language
Learning 189 • Research on Bilingual
Education 189 • Bilingualism for All: Two-Way
Immersion 189
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach
English Language Learners? 190
Sheltered Instruction 191
Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations 194
Increasing Self-Esteem for English Language
Learners 195
Working with Families: Using the Tools of the
Culture 196
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Welcoming All Families 197
Special Challenges: English Language Learners with
Disabilities and Special Gifts 197
English Language Learners with Disabilities 197
Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual
Students 198
Summary and Key Terms 199
Connect and Extend to Licensure 201
Teachers’ Casebook—Culture Class in the Classroom:
What Would They Do? 202
CHAPTER 6
Culture and
Diversity 204
Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would
You Do? 204
Overview and Objectives 205
Today’s Diverse Classrooms 206
American Cultural Diversity 206
Meet Four More Students 207
Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences 210
Cultural Conflicts and Compatibilities 210 • Dangers in
Stereotyping 210
Economic and Social Class Differences 211
Social Class and SES 211
Poverty and School Achievement 211
Health, Environment, and Stress 213 • Low Expectations—
Low Academic Self-Concept 213 • Peer Influences
and Resistance Cultures 213 • Home Environment and
Resources 214 • Summer Setbacks 214
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Tracking an Effective
Strategy? 215
Tracking: Poor Teaching 215
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in
Poverty 216
Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning 216
Terms: Ethnicity and Race 216
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School
Achievement 217
The Legacy of Discrimination 219
What Is Prejudice? 220 • The Development of
Prejudice 220 • Continuing Discrimination 221
 CON TEN TS xix

Stereotype Threat 222 Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical

Short-Term Effects: Test Performance 222 • Long-Term
Effects: Disidentification 223 • Combating Stereotype
Threat 224
Gender in Teaching and Learning 224
Sex and Gender 224
Sexual Orientation 225
Gender Roles 225
Gender Bias in Curriculum Materials 227
Gender Bias in Teaching 228
GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in
Teaching 229
Multicultural Education: Creating Culturally
Compatible Classrooms 230
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 231
Fostering Resilience 233
Resilient Students 233 • Resilient Classrooms 233
• Self-Agency Strand 234 • Relationship Strand 234
Diversity in Learning 234
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
GUIDELINES: Building Learning
Communities 235
Social Organization 235 • Cultural Values and Learning
Preferences 236 • Cautions (Again) About Learning Styles
Research 236 • Sociolinguistics 237 • Sources of
Misunderstandings 237
Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student 237
Know Your Students 238 • Respect Your
Students 238 • Teach Your Students 238
GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching 239
Summary and Key Terms 240
Connect and Extend to Licensure 241
Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What
Would They Do? 242
PART II LEARNING AND
Conditioning 248
GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning 249
Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 250
Types of Consequences 250
Reinforcement 250 • Punishment 252
Reinforcement Schedules 252
Extinction 254
Antecedents and Behavior Change 254
Effective Instruction Delivery (EID) 255 • Cueing 255
• Prompting 255
Applied Behavior Analysis 256
Methods for Encouraging Behaviors 256
Reinforcing with Teacher Attention 256
GUIDELINES: Using Praise Appropriately 257
Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle 257
• Shaping 258 • Positive Practice 259
Handling Undesirable Behavior 259
Negative Reinforcement 259
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Positive Behaviors 260
Reprimands 261 • Response Cost 261 • Social
Isolation 261 • Some Cautions About Punishment 262
Putting It All Together: Behavioral Approaches
to Teaching and Management 262
Group Consequences 262
GUIDELINES: Using Punishment 263
Contingency Contracts and Token
Reinforcement 264
Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior
Problems 266
Functional Behavioral Assessment and Positive
Behavior Supports 267
Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral
Assessments 267 • Positive Behavior Supports 268
Self-Management 269
Goal Setting 269 • Monitoring and Evaluating
Progress 270 • Self-Reinforcement 270

MOTIVATION FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Student Self-Management 271
Challenges, Cautions, and Criticisms 271
CHAPTER 7 Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge 271
Enactive and Observational Learning 272 • Learning and
Behavioral Views Performance 272
of Learning 244 Criticisms of Behavioral Methods 272
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students
Be Rewarded for Learning? 273
Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would Ethical Issues 274
You Do? 244 Goals 274 • Strategies 274
Overview and Objectives 245 Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers 275
Understanding Learning 246 Summary and Key Terms 275
Neuroscience of Behavioral Learning 246 Connect and Extend to Licensure 277
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 247 Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would They Do? 278
xx C ON T EN T S
CHAPTER 8
Cognitive
Views of
Learning 280
Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics:
What Would You Do? 280
Overview and Objectives 281
Elements of the Cognitive Perspective 282
Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views 282
Views of Learning 282 • Goals 282
The Brain and Cognitive Learning 283
The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition 283
General and Specific Knowledge 284
Cognitive Views of Memory 284
Sensory Memory 286
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory
Memory 286 • Perception 286 • The
Role of Attention 287 • Attention and
Multitasking 288 • Attention and Teaching 288
Working Memory 288
GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention 289
The Central Executive 291 • The Phonological Loop 291
• The Visuospatial Sketchpad 291 • The Episodic
Buffer 292 • The Duration and Contents of Working
Memory 292
Cognitive Load and Retaining Information 292
Three Kinds of Cognitive Load 292 • Retaining Information
in Working Memory 293 • Forgetting 294
Individual Differences in Working Memory 294
Developmental Differences 294 • Individual Differences 295
Long-Term Memory 296
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Long-Term
Memory 296
Contents of Long-Term Memory: Declarative, Procedural, and
Self-Regulatory Knowledge 296
Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic 298
Propositions and Propositional Networks 298 • Images 298
• Two Are Better Than One: Words and Images 299
• Concepts 299 • Prototypes, Exemplars, and Theory-
Based Categories 299 • Schemas 300 • Episodic
Memory 301
Implicit Memories 302
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long-Term
Memory 303
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Organizing Learning 304
Imagery 304 • Levels of Processing Theory 306 • Retrieving
Information from Long-Term Memory 306 • Spreading
Activation 306 • Reconstruction 306 • Forgetting and
Long-Term Memory 307
Individual Differences and Long-Term
Memory 307
Becoming Knowledgeable: Some Basic
Principles 307
Reaching Every Student: Development of
Declarative Knowledge 307
Making It Meaningful 308 • Mnemonics 308 • Rote
Memorization 309
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with
Memorizing? 310
Development of Procedural Knowledge 310
Automated Basic Skills 311 • Domain-Specific Skills 311
GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and
Remember 312
Summary and Key Terms 312
Connect and Extend to Licensure 314
Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics:
What Would They Do? 314
CHAPTER 9
Complex Cognitive
Processes 316
Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would
You Do? 316
Overview and Objectives 317
Metacognition 318
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 318
Individual Differences in Metacognition 319
Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition 319
Metacognitive Development for Younger Students 319
• Metacognitive Development for Secondary and College
Students (Like You) 320
Learning Strategies 321
Being Strategic About Learning 321
Deciding What Is Important 322 • Summaries 323
• Underlining and Highlighting 323 • Taking
Notes 323
Visual Tools for Organizing 325
Reading Strategies 326
Applying Learning Strategies 326
Appropriate Tasks 326 • Valuing Learning 326
GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student 327
Effort and Efficacy 327
Reaching Every Student: Learning Strategies for
Struggling Students 328
Problem Solving 328
Identifying: Problem Finding 329
Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 330

Focusing Attention on What Is Relevant 330 • Understanding
the Words 330 • Understanding the Whole
Problem 331 • Translation and Schema Training: Direct
Instruction in Schemas 332 • Translation and Schema
Training: Worked Examples 333 • The Results of Problem
Representation 334
Exploring Possible Solution Strategies 334
Algorithms 335 • Heuristics 335
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 335
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 336
Some Problems with Heuristics 336
Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving 337
Knowing What Is Important 337 • Memory for Patterns and
Organization 337
GUIDELINES: Problem Solving 338
Procedural Knowledge 338 • Planning and Monitoring 339
Creativity and Creative Problem Solving 339
Defining Creativity 339
Assessing Creativity 339
What Are the Sources of Creativity? 340
Creativity and Cognition 340 • Creativity and Diversity 341
Creativity in the Classroom 342
The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation 342
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Creativity 343
Critical Thinking and Argumentation 343
Developing Critical Thinking 343
Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects 344
Argumentation 344
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical
Thinking and Problem Solving? 345
Teaching for Transfer 346
The Many Views of Transfer 347
Teaching for Positive Transfer 348
What Is Worth Learning? 348 • How Can Teachers Help? 348
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Promoting Transfer 349
Stages of Transfer for Strategies 349
Summary and Key Terms 350
Connect and Extend to Licensure 351
Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would
They Do? 352
CHAPTER 10
The Learning
Sciences and
Constructivism 354
Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate:
What Would You Do? 354
Overview and Objectives 355
CON TEN TS xxi
The Learning Sciences 356
What Are the Learning Sciences? 356
Basic Assumptions of the Learning Sciences 356
Embodied Cognition 357
Cognitive and Social Constructivism 358
Constructivist Views of Learning 359
Psychological/Individual/Cognitive Constructivism 359
• Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism 361
• Constructionism 361
How Is Knowledge Constructed? 362
Knowledge: Situated or General? 363
Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered
Teaching 363
Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks 364
• Social Negotiation 364 • Multiple Perspectives and
Representations of Content 364 • Understanding
the Knowledge Construction Process 365 • Student
Ownership of Learning 365
Applying Constructivist Perspectives 365
Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 366
Examples of Inquiry 366 • Problem-Based Learning 367
• Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 369
Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal
Teaching 369
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based
Learning Effective Teaching Approaches? 370
Cognitive Apprenticeships in Reading: Reciprocal
Teaching 370 • Applying Reciprocal Teaching 371
Collaboration and Cooperation 372
Collaboration, Group Work, and Cooperative Learning 372
• Beyond Groups to Cooperation 373 • What Can Go
Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning 374
Tasks for Cooperative Learning 374
Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-Building Tasks 374
• Ill-Structured, Conceptual, and Problem-Solving
Tasks 375 • Social Skills and Communication Tasks 375
Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning 375
Setting Up Cooperative Groups 376 • Giving and Receiving
Explanations 376 • Assigning Roles 376
Designs for Cooperation 379
Reciprocal Questioning 379 • Jigsaw 380 • Structured
Controversies 380
Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning
Wisely 381
GUIDELINES: Using Cooperative Learning 382
Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice 382
Service Learning 383
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIP GUIDELINES:
Service Learning 384
Learning in a Digital World 385
Learning Environments and Technology 385
Virtual Learning Environments 386
xxii C O N T EN T S
Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities
foe Young Children 387
Computers and Older Students 388
Media/Digital Literacy 388
GUIDELINES: Using Computers 389
GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development
of Media Literacy 390
Summary and Key Terms 391
Connect and Extend to Licensure 392
Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate:
What Would They Do? 393
CHAPTER 11
Social Cognitive Views
of Learning and
Motivation 396
Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate:
What Would You Do? 396
Overview and Objectives 397
Social Cognitive Theory 398
A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura 398
Beyond Behaviorism 398
Triarchic Reciprocal Causality 399
Modeling: Learning from Others 400
Elements of Observational Learning 401
Attention 401 • Retention 401 • Production 402
• Motivation and Reinforcement 402
Observational Learning in Teaching 402
Directing Attention 403 • Fine-Tuning Already-Learned
Behavior 403 • Strengthening or Weakening
Inhibitions 403 • Teaching New Behaviors 403
GUIDELINES: Using Observational Learning 404
Arousing Emotion 404
Self-Efficacy and Agency 404
Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 405
Sources of Self-Efficacy 406
Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching 406
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Efficacy 407
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy 408
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are High Levels of Teacher
Efficacy Beneficial? 409
Self-Regulated Learning 409
What Influences Self-Regulation? 410
Knowledge 410 • Motivation 411 • Volition 411
• Development of Self-Regulation 411
Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Agency 412
An Individual Example of Self-Regulated Learning 413
Two Classrooms 414
Writing 414 • Math Problem Solving 415
Technology and Self-Regulation 415
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Supporting Self-Regulation at Home and in School 416
Reaching Every Student: Families and Self-Regulation 416
Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive
Behavior Modification 416
Emotional Self-Regulation 418
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation 419
Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated
Learning 420
Complex Tasks 420
Control 421
Self-Evaluation 422
Collaboration 422
Bringing it All Together: Theories of Learning 422
Summary and Key Terms 424
Connect and Extend to Licensure 426
Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate:
What Would They Do? 426
CHAPTER 12
Motivation in
Learning and
Teaching 428
Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students
When Resources Are Thin: What Would
You Do? 428
Overview and Objectives 429
What Is Motivation? 430
Meeting Some Students 430
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 431
Five General Approaches to Motivation 432
Behavioral Approaches to Motivation 433 • Humanistic
Approaches to Motivation 433 • Cognitive Approaches
to Motivation 433 • Social Cognitive Theories 433
• Sociocultural Conceptions of Motivation 433
Needs 434
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 434
Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy,
and Relatedness 435
Self-Determination in the Classroom 435 • Information and
Control 436 • The Need for Relatedness 436
GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination
and Autonomy 437
Needs: Lessons for Teachers 437
Goal Orientations 438
Types of Goals and Goal Orientations 438
Four Achievement Goal Orientations in School 439 • Wait—
Are Performance Goals Always Bad? 439 • Beyond
Mastery and Performance 440 • Goals in Social
Context 441

Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance 441
Goals: Lessons for Teachers 441
Beliefs and Self-Perceptions 442
Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs 442
Beliefs About Ability 443
Beliefs About Causes and Control: Attribution Theory 444
Attributions in the Classroom 444 • Teacher Actions and
Student Attributions 445
Beliefs About Self-Worth 445
Learned Helplessness 445 • Self-Worth 446
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Worth 447
Beliefs and Attributions: Lessons for Teachers 447
Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety 448
Tapping Interests 448
Catching and Holding Interests 449
Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity 449
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning
Fun Make for Good Learning? 450
GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and
Curiosity 451
Emotions and Anxiety 451
Neuroscience and Emotion 451 • Achievement
Emotions 452 • Arousal and Anxiety 453 • Anxiety in
the Classroom 453 • How Does Anxiety Interfere with
Achievement? 453
Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety 454
Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for
Teachers 454
Motivation to Learn in School: On TARGET 454
GUIDELINES: Coping with Anxiety 455
Tasks for Learning 456
Task Value 456 • Beyond Task Value to Genuine
Appreciation 457 • Authentic Tasks 457
Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing
Accomplishment 458
Supporting Choices 458 • Recognizing Accomplishment 459
Grouping, Evaluation, and Time 459
Grouping and Goal Structures 459 • Evaluation 460
Time 460 • Putting It All Together 460
Diversity in Motivation 460
Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage
Motivation 463
Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations 463
• Do I Want to Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning 464
• What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on
the Task 465 • Do I Belong in This Classroom? 465
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Motivation to Learn 465
Summary and Key Terms 465
Connect and Extend to Licensure 468
Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students
When Resources Are Thin: What Would
They Do? 468
C ON TEN TS xxiii
PART III TEACHING AND
ASSESSING
CHAPTER 13
Creating Learning
Environments 470
Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What
Would You Do? 470
Overview and Objectives 471
The Need for Organization 472
The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 472
The Goals of Classroom Management 473
Access to Learning 473 • More Time for Learning 474
• Management for Self-Management 474
Creating a Positive Learning Environment 476
Some Research Results 476
Routines and Rules Required 476
Routines and Procedures 476
GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines 477
Rules 478 • Rules for Elementary School 478 • Rules for
Secondary School 478 • Consequences 479 • Who Sets
the Rules and Consequences? 479
Planning Spaces for Learning 481
Personal Territories 481 • Interest Areas 481
GUIDELINES: Designing Learning Spaces 482
Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class 482
Effective Managers for Elementary Students 483 • Effective
Managers for Secondary Students 484
Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning 484
Encouraging Engagement 484
GUIDELINES: Keeping Students Engaged 485
Prevention Is the Best Medicine 485
Withitness 485 • Overlapping and Group Focus 486
• Movement Management 486 • Student Social Skills
as Prevention 486
Caring Relationships: Connections with School 487
School Connections 487 • Creating Communities of Care for
Adolescents 488
Dealing with Discipline Problems 488
Stopping Problems Quickly 488
GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties 489
Bullying and Cyber-Bullying 490
Victims 490 • Bullying and Teasing 490 • Changing
Attributions 490 • Cyber-Bullying 491
Special Problems with High School Students 491
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good
Idea? 493
xxiv C O N T EN T S

GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive GUIDELINES: Teaching Effectively 522

Situations 494 Seatwork and Homework 523
The Need for Communication 494 Seatwork 523 • Homework 524
Message Sent—Message Received 494 Questioning and Discussion 524
Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It? 495 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Homework a Valuable
Counseling: The Student’s Problem 496 Use of Time? 525
Confrontation and Assertive Discipline 496 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
“I” Messages 497 • Assertive Discipline 497 Homework 526
• Confrontations and Negotiations 498 Kinds of Questions 526 • Fitting the Questions to the
Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Negotiation 498 Students 527 • Responding to Student Answers 528
Research on Management Approaches 499 • Group Discussion 529
Integrating Ideas 499 GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions 530
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES: Fitting Teaching to Your Goals 530
Classroom Management 500 Differentiated Instruction 531
Communicating with Families About Classroom Within-Class and Flexible Grouping 531
Management 500 The Problems with Ability Grouping 531 • Flexible
Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management 500 Grouping 531
Summary and Key Terms 501 GUIDELINES: Using Flexible Grouping 532
Connect and Extend to Licensure 503 Adaptive Teaching 532
Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction
Would They Do? 504 in Inclusive Classrooms 534
Technology and Differentiation 534
CHAPTER 14 GUIDELINES: Teachers as Mentors 537
Mentoring Students as a Way of Differentiating Teaching 537
Teaching Every Teacher Expectations 537
Student 506 Two Kinds of Expectation Effects 538
Sources of Expectations 538
Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’
Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Achievement? 539
Every Student: What Would You Do? 506 Instructional Strategies 539
Overview and Objectives 507 GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of
Research on Teaching 508 Teacher Expectations 540
Characteristics of Effective Teachers 508 Teacher–Student Interactions 541
Clarity and Organization 508 • Warmth and Enthusiasm 508 Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate
Knowledge for Teaching 509 Expectations 541
Recent Research on Teaching 509 Summary and Key Terms 541
The First Step: Planning 512 Connect and Extend to Licensure 543
Research on Planning 512 Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching
Objectives for Learning 513 Every Student: What Would They Do? 544
An Example of Standards: Technology 513 • Classrooms:
Instructional Objectives 514 • Mager: Start with the CHAPTER 15
Specific 514 • Gronlund: Start with the General 514
Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies 515 Classroom
The Cognitive Domain 515 • The Affective Domain 516 Assessment, Grading,
• The Psychomotor Domain 517 and Standardized
GUIDELINES: Using Instructional Objectives 518
Planning from a Constructivist Perspective 518
Testing 546
Teaching Approaches 519 Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades:
Direct Instruction 519 What Would You Do? 546
Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions 520 • Advance Overview and Objectives 547
Organizers 520 • Why Does Direct Instruction Work? 521 Basics of Assessment 548
• Evaluating Direct Instruction 521 Measurement and Assessment 548
Another random document with
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 Thou knowest the name of Troy? Far doth it flit.

Orestes.

Would God I had not; nay, nor dreamed of it.

Iphigenia.

Men fable it is fallen beneath the sword?

Orestes.

Fallen it is. Thou hast heard no idle word.

Iphigenia.

Fallen! At last!—And Helen taken too?

Orestes.

Aye; on an evil day for one I knew.

Iphigenia.

Where is she? I too have some anger stored—

Orestes.

In Sparta! Once more happy with her lord!

Iphigenia.

Oh, hated of all Greece, not only me!

Orestes.

I too have tasted of her wizardry.

Iphigenia.
 And came the armies home, as the tales run?

Orestes.

To answer that were many tales in one.

Iphigenia.

Oh, give me this hour full! Thou soon wilt die.

Orestes.

Ask, if such longing holds thee. I will try.

Iphigenia.

A seer called Calchas! Did he ever come?

Orestes.

Calchas is dead, as the news went at home.

Iphigenia.

Good news, ye gods!—Odysseus, what of him?

Orestes.

Not home yet, but still living, as men deem.

Iphigenia.

Curse him! And may he see his home no more.

Orestes.

Why curse him? All his house is stricken sore.

Iphigenia.
 How hath the Nereid's son, Achilles, sped?

Orestes.

Small help his bridal brought him! He is dead.

Iphigenia.

A fierce bridal, so the sufferers tell!

Orestes.

Who art thou, questioning of Greece so well?

Iphigenia.

I was a Greek. Evil caught me long ago.

Orestes.

Small wonder, then, thou hast such wish to know.

Iphigenia.

That war-lord, whom they call so high in bliss—

Orestes.

None such is known to me. What name was his?

Iphigenia.

They called him Agamemnon, Atreus' son.

Orestes.

I know not. Cease,—My questioning is done.

Iphigenia.
 'Twill be such joy to me! How fares he? Tell!

Orestes.

Dead. And hath wrecked another's life as well.

Iphigenia.

Dead? By what dreadful fortune? Woe is me!

Orestes.

Why sighest thou? Had he any link with thee?

Iphigenia.

I did but think of his old joy and pride.

Orestes.

His own wife foully stabbed him, and he died.

Iphigenia.

O God!
I pity her that slew—and him that slew.

Orestes.

Now cease thy questions. Add no word thereto.

Iphigenia.

But one word. Lives she still, that hapless wife?

Orestes.

No. Her own son, her first-born, took her life.

Iphigenia.
 O shipwrecked house! What thought was in his brain?

Orestes.

Justice on her, to avenge his father slain.

Iphigenia.

Alas!
A bad false duty bravely hath he wrought.

Orestes.

Yet God, for all his duty, helps him not.

Iphigenia.

And not one branch of Atreus' tree lives on?

Orestes.

Electra lives, unmated and alone.

Iphigenia.

The child they slaughtered—is there word of her?

Orestes.

Why, no, save that she died in Aulis there.

Iphigenia.

Poor child! Poor father, too, who killed and lied.

Orestes.

For a bad woman's worthless sake she died.

Iphigenia.
 The dead King's son, lives he in Argos still?

Orestes.

He lives, now here, now nowhere, bent with ill.

Iphigenia.

O dreams, light dreams, farewell! Ye too were lies.

*****

Leader.

We too have kinsmen dear, but, being low,

None heedeth, live they still or live they not.

Iphigenia. (With sudden impulse.)

Listen! For I am fallen upon a thought,

Strangers, of some good use to you and me.
*****
Stranger, if I can save thee, wilt thou bear
To Argos and the friends who loved my youth
Some word? There is a tablet which, in ruth
For me and mine ill works, a prisoner wrote,
Ta'en by the king in war. He knew 'twas not
My will that craved for blood, but One on high
Who holds it righteous her due prey shall die.
And since that day no Greek hath ever come
Whom I could save and send to Argos home
With prayer to any friend: but thou,
I think, dost loathe me not; and thou dost know
Mycenae and the names that fill my heart.
Help me! Be saved! Thou also hast thy part,
Thy life for one light letter—

(Orestes looks at Pylades.)

 For thy friend,
The law compelleth. He must bear the end
By Artemis ordained, apart from thee.

Orestes.

Strange woman, as thou biddest let it be,

Save one thing. 'Twere for me a heavy weight
Should this man die. 'Tis I and mine own fate
That steer our goings. He but sails with me
Because I suffer much. It must not be
That by his ruin I should 'scape mine own,
And win thy grace withal. 'Tis simply done.
Give him the tablet. He with faithful will
Shall all thy hest in Argolis fulfil.
And I—who cares may kill me. Vile is he
Who leaves a friend in peril and goes free
Himself. And, as it chances, this is one
Right dear to me; his life is as my own.

Iphigenia.

O royal heart! Surely from some great seed

This branch is born, that can so love indeed.
God grant the one yet living of my race
Be such as thou! For not quite brotherless
Am even I, save that I see him not,
Strangers—Howbeit, thy pleasures shall be wrought.
This man shall bear the message, and thou go
To death. So greatly thou wilt have it so.

Orestes then asks somewhat of the ritual by which Iphigenia will consecrate
the victim, and where he will be buried. Iphigenia promises that he shall be
duly buried according to the Greek customs, and then she goes into the
temple to get the tablet. During her absence Orestes and Pylades have a long
argument as to which shall bear the tablet to Argos, and which remain in the
island to be sacrificed. It is finally decided that Pylades shall go back to
Greece and Orestes shall remain.
 (Enter Iphigenia from the Temple.)

Iphigenia.

Go ye within; and have all things of need

In order set for them that do the deed.
There wait my word.

(Attendants go in.)

Ye strangers, here I hold

The many-lettered tablet, fold on fold.
Yet—one thing still.

Iphigenia then tells Pylades that she is afraid that, once safe and free, he will
forget the promise made when he was in danger of his life, and so she makes
him swear in the name of Zeus, that he will faithfully bear the message. She,
on her side, in the name of Artemis, swears that she will in very truth set him
free. Pylades then reminds her that he might be shipwrecked and so lose the
tablet, and asks that in that case he may be relieved from his vow. But
Iphigenia, in her desperate longing for deliverance refuses this, and instead,
says that she will tell him what is written in the tablet. If it should be lost, he
must then bear the message by word of mouth.

Pylades.

For thy sake and for mine 'tis fairer so.

Now let me hear his name to whom I go
In Argolis, and how my words should run.

Iphigenia. (Repeating the words by heart.)

Say: "To Orestes, Agamemnon's son

She that was slain in Aulis, dead to Greece
Yet quick, Iphigenia sendeth peace:"

Orestes.

Iphigenia! Where? Back from the dead?

Iphigenia.

'Tis I. But speak not, lest thou break my thread.—

"Take me to Argos, brother, ere I die,
Back from the Friendless Peoples and the high
Altar of Her whose bloody rites I wreak."

Orestes. (aside.)

Where am I Pylades? How shall I speak?

Iphigenia.

"Else one in grief forsaken shall, like shame

Haunt thee."

Pylades. (aside.)

Orestes!

Iphigenia. (overhearing him.)

Yes: that is the name.

Ye gods above!

Pylades.

Why callest thou on God

For words of mine?
'Tis nothing. 'Twas a road
My thoughts had turned. Speak on.—No need for us
To question; we shall hear things marvellous.

Iphigenia.

Tell him that Artemis my soul did save,

I wot not how, and to the altar gave
A fawn instead; the which my father slew,
Not seeing, deeming that the sword he drew
 Struck me. But she had borne me far away
And left me in this land.—I charge thee, say
So much. It is all written on the scroll.

Pylades.

An easy charge thou layest on my soul,

A glad oath on thine own. I wait no more,
But here fulfil the service that I swore.
Orestes, take this tablet which I bear
To thine own hand, thy sister's messenger.

Orestes.

I take it, but I reck not of its scrip

Nor message. Too much joy is at my lip.
Sister! Beloved! Wildered though I
My arms believe not, yet they crave for thee.
Now, filled with wonder, give me my delight!

(He goes to embrace her. She stands speechless.)

Leader.

Stranger, forbear! No living man hath right

To touch that robe. The Goddess were defiled!

Orestes.

O sister mine, O my dead father's child,

Agamemnon's child; take me and have no fear,
Beyond all dreams 'tis I thy brother here.

Iphigenia.

My brother? Thou?—Peace! Mock at me no more.

Argos is bright with him and Nauplia's shore.

Orestes.
 Unhappy one! Thou hast no brother there.

Iphigenia.

Orestes—thou? Whom Clytemnestra bare?

Orestes.

To Atreus' firstborn son, thy sire and mine.

Iphigenia.

Thou sayest it: Oh, give me some proof, some sign!

Old things of home are remembered between the two, and at length
Iphigenia is convinced.

Iphigenia. (falling into his arms)

Beloved! Oh, no other, for indeed

Beloved art thou! In mine arms at last,
Orestes far away.

Then follows a scene in which Iphigenia gives herself up to one emotion

after another, and when Orestes reminds her that they are not yet safe, she
suggests one wild plan after another.

Iphigenia.

And now, what end cometh?

Shall Chance yet comfort me,
Finding a way for thee
Back from the Friendless Strand,
Back from the place of death—
Ere yet the slayers come
And thy blood sink in the sand—
Home unto Argos, home?
Hard heart so swift to slay
Is there to life no way?—
 No ship!—And how by land?—
A rush of feet
Out to the waste alone.
Nay: 'twere to meet
Death, amid tribes unknown
And trackless ways of the waste—
Surely the sea were best.
Back by the narrow bar
To the Dark Blue Gate!—
Ah God, too far, too far!—
Desolate! Desolate!
What god or man, what unimagined flame,
Can cleave this road where no road is, and bring
To us last wrecks of Agamemnon's name
Peace from long suffering?

But Iphigenia has not yet learnt all, and at length Orestes tells her why he is
there. He repeats the words of Apollo:

"Go seek the Taurian citadel:

Seize there the carven Artemis that fell
From heaven, and stablish it on Attic soil.
So comes thy freedom,"

And he continues:

"Sister, in this toil

Help us!—If once that image I may win
That day shall end my madness and my sin:
And thou, to Argos o'er the sundering foam
My many-oared barque shall bear thee home.
O sister, loved and lost, O pitying face,
Help my great peril; help our father's race.
For lost am I and perished all the powers
Of Pelops, save that heavenly thing be ours!"

This news somewhat sobers Iphigenia. She is confronted now with a very
different thing from saving her brother's life. That had just now seemed
almost impossible, but compared to this new demand, it seemed almost easy.
This is an act of madness; it will be considered a most fearful act of sacrilege
to steal the image of Artemis, yet Orestes asks for her help to do it. And then
there is herself and her own hopes! She might perhaps succeed in saving his
life and fleeing with him, but to steal the statue and then go with him is a
task beyond any hope of accomplishment. What shall she do? She
deliberately decides that she will save his life and give him the statue, and
then she herself will confront the angry King and give her life for her
brother.

Iphigenia.

I must wait then and be slain:

Thou shalt walk free in Argolis again,
And all life smile on thee.—Dearest, we need
Not shrink from that. I shall by mine own deed
Have saved thee. And a man gone from the earth
Is wept for. Women are but little worth.

But Orestes refuses to accept the sacrifice.

Orestes.

I stand with thee

One-hearted here, be it for life or death,
And either bear thee, if God favoureth,
With me to Greece and home, or else lie here
Dead at thy side.

*****

Iphigenia.

To steal for thee the image, yet not die

Myself! 'Tis that we need.

They then begin to discuss every possible means of escape, and at last an
idea comes to Iphigenia. She will tell the King that Orestes has come from
Greece with his mother's blood upon him, and that therefore it would be a
great offence to sacrifice him to the goddess. Before he is sacrificed, he must
be cleansed in the waves of the sea. But his very presence has denied the
image of the goddess, and so that, too, must be taken to the shore and
purified. Pylades shares in the guilt of his friend and will accompany him to
the shore, and Iphigenia will go down with the image. The rest must be the
work of Orestes, and he must arrange that they are taken on board his ship
and so escape. It is a dangerous and a daring plan, but there is no hope
anywhere else.

Iphigenia, Orestes and Pylades will thus be saved, if saving be possible, but
what of the Chorus, of these Greek women, companions of the exile and
loneliness of Iphigenia? They are indeed "true of heart and faithful found,"
for with no hope of going home themselves, ignored even by Iphigenia in
this tremendous moment of her own hope, they loyally promise secrecy
about all that concerns the plot. Yet they, too, crave for home and they give
voice to their longings. They see in imagination the Greek land. Once again
the misery of their capture and enslavement comes before them, but they rise
above their sorrow as they sing of what it will mean to Iphigenia to cross the
sea, to behold her home once again, and to reach the land of freedom.

Chorus.

Bird of the sea rocks, of the bursting spray,

O halcyon bird,
That wheelest crying, crying, on thy way;
Who knoweth grief can read the tale of thee:
One love long lost, one song for ever heard
And wings that sweep the sea.

Sister, I too beside the sea complain,

A bird that hath no wing.
Oh, for a kind Greek market-place again,
For Artemis that healeth woman's pain;
Here I stand hungering.
Give me the little hill above the sea,
The palm of Delos fringed delicately,
The young sweet laurel and the olive-tree
Grey-leaved and glimmering;
*****

Ah, the old tears, the old and blinding tears

I gave God then,
When my town fell, and noise was in mine ears
Of crashing towers, and forth they guided me
Through spears and lifted oars and angry men
Out to an unknown sea.
They bought my flesh with gold, and sore afraid
I came to this dark East
To serve, in thrall to Agamemnon's maid,
This Huntress Artemis, to whom is paid
The blood of no slain beast;
Yet all is bloody where I dwell, Ah, me!
Envying, envying that misery
That through all life hath endured changelessly.
For hard things borne from birth
Make iron of man's heart, and hurt the less.
'Tis change that paineth; and the bitterness
Of life's decay when joy hath ceased to be
That makes all dark the earth.

Behold,
Two score and ten there be
Rowers that row for thee,
And a wild hill air, as if Pan were there,
Shall sound on the Argive sea,
Piping to set thee free.

Or is it the stricken string

Of Apollo's lyre doth sing
Joyously, as he guideth thee
To Athens, the land of spring;
While I wait wearying?

Oh, the wind and the oar,

When the great sail swells before,
With sheets astrain, like a horse on the rein;
 And on through the race and roar,
She feels for the farther shore.
Ah me,
To rise upon wings and hold
Straight on up the steeps of gold
Where the joyous Sun in fire doth run,
Till the wings should faint and fold
O'er the house that was mine of old.
Or watch where the glade below
With a marriage dance doth glow,
And a child will glide from her mother's side
Out, out, where the dancers flow:
As I did, long ago.

Oh, battles of gold and rare

Raiment and starred hair,
And bright veils crossed amid tresses tossed
In a dusk of dancing air!
O Youth and the days that were!

(Enter King Thoas, with Soldiers.)

Thoas.

Where is the warden of this sacred gate,

The Greek woman? Is her work ended yet
With these two strangers? Do their bodies lie
Aflame now in the rock-cleft sanctuary?

Leader.

Here is herself, O King, to give thee word.

(Enter, from the Temple, Iphigenia, carrying the Image on high.)

Thoas.

How, child of Agamemnon! Hast thou stirred

From her eternal base, and to the sun
 Bearest in thine own arms, the Holy One?

Iphigenia.

Back, Lord! No step beyond the pillared way.

Thoas.

But how? Some rule is broken?

Iphigenia.

I unsay
That word. Be all unspoken and unwrought!

Thoas.

What means this greeting strange? Disclose thy thought.

Iphigenia.

Unclean the prey was that ye caught, O King.

Thoas.

Who showed thee so? Thine own imagining?

Iphigenia.

The Image stirred and shuddered from its seat.

Thoas.

Itself?—Some shock of earthquake loosened it.

Iphigenia.

Itself. And the eyes closed one breathing space.

Thoas.
 But why? For those two men's blood-guiltiness?

Iphigenia.

That, nothing else. For, oh! their guilt is sore.

Thoas.

They killed some of my herdsmen on the shore?

Iphigenia.

Their sin was brought from home, not gathered here.

Thoas.

What? I must know this.—Make thy story clear.

Iphigenia. (She puts down the Image and moves nearer to Thoas.)

The men have slain their mother.

Thoas.

God! And these

Be Greeks!

Iphigenia.

They both are hunted out of Greece.

Thoas.

For this thou hast brought the Image to the sun?

Iphigenia.

The fire of heaven can cleanse all malison.

Thoas.
 How didst thou first hear of their deed of shame?

Iphigenia.

When the Image hid its eyes, I questioned them.

Thoas.

Good. Greece hath taught thee many a subtle art.

Iphigenia.

Ah, they too had sweet words to move my heart.

Thoas.

Sweet words? How, did they bring some news of Greece?

Iphigenia.

Orestes, my one brother, lives in peace.

Thoas.

Surely! Good news to make thee spare their lives—

Iphigenia.

My father too in Argos lives and thrives.

Thoas.

While thou didst think but of the goddess' laws!

Iphigenia.

Do I not hate all Greeks? Have I not cause?

Thoas.
 Good cause. But now—What service should be paid?

Iphigenia.

The Law of long years needs must be obeyed.

Thoas.

To work then, with thy sword and hand-washing!

Iphigenia.

First I must shrive them with some cleansing thing.

Thoas.

What? Running water, or the sea's salt spray?

Iphigenia.

The sea doth wash all the world's ills away.

Thoas.

For sure. 'Twill make them cleaner for the knife.

Iphigenia.

And my hand, too, cleaner for all my life.

Thoas.

Well, the waves lap close by the temple floor.

Iphigenia.

We need a secret place. I must do more.

Thoas.