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ADDRESSES/INSTITUTIONS

James G. Ogg
Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, 550 ­Stadium
Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2051, USA. E-mail: jogg@purdue.edu
and
State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Earth Sciences,
China ­University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China

Gabi M. Ogg
Geologic TimeScale Foundation, 1224 North Salisbury St., West Lafayette, Indiana 47906,
USA. E-mail: gabiogg@hotmail.com

Felix M. Gradstein
Geology Museum, University of Oslo, N-0318 Oslo, Norway. E-mail: felix.gradstein@gmail.com
and
ITT Fossil, Unisinos, University of Rio Grande do Sul, Sao Leopoldo, Brazil
A Concise Geologic
Time Scale
2016

James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg,

Felix M. Gradstein

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS

SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Notices
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CAPTION for COVER PHOTO:

Late Triassic in Italian Dolomites. The Lagazuoi peak is the resumption of late Carnian and Norian shallow-
water carbonates (Dolomia Principale) following a regional termination of prograding carbonate platforms
and influx of siliciclastics (the slope-forming Heiligkreuz and Travenanzes formations at its base). The brief
carbonate crisis is part of a global mid-Carnian warming and humid episode that appears to coincide with the
eruption of the Wrangellia large igneous province. Photo courtesy of Austin McGlannan.
 1
INTRODUCTION
Geologic time scale and this scale and some of the most common means
of global stratigraphic correlation and age
book calibration as graphics with brief explana-
tory texts. These rely extensively on the two-
A standardized geologic time scale is the
volume Geologic Time Scale 2012 (GTS2012)
framework for deciphering and understand-
compilation (Gradstein et al., 2012), and read-
ing the long and complex history of our
ers who desire more background or details
planet Earth. We are constantly improving our
should use that reference. This handbook
­knowledge of that history including the inter-
does incorporate some selected important
twined feedbacks among the evolution of life,
advances in stratigraphic scale calibration, in
the climatic and geochemical trends and oscil-
new ratified or candidate international divi-
lations, the sea-level withdrawals and trans-
sions and in their scaling to numerical time.
gressions, the drifting tectonic plates and major
Each chapter in this handbook, which
volcanic upheavals, and the radioisotopic and
generally spans a single geologic system or
astronomical-cycle dating of deposits. In turn,
period, includes:
this knowledge of past relationships and feed-
1. International divisions of geologic time,
backs enable us to make predictions about our
with graphics for ratified bases of series/
own future impacts on our planet.
epoch definitions (Global Boundary Stra-
The challenges and major accomplishments
totype Sections and Points (GSSPs)). GSSPs
of geoscientists are to integrate these diverse
for stage-level divisions are diagrammed
interpretations of the global stratigraphic
in GTS2012, at the website of the Geologic
record, to apply an age model (“linear time”) to
TimeScale Foundation, and at the websites
that geologic record, and to assign a standard-
of the ICS subcommissions.
ized and precise international terminology of
2. Major paleontological zonations, geo-
subdivisions. The publications of A Geologic
magnetic polarity reversals, selected geo-
Time Scale 1989 (Harland et al., 1989), of A Geo-
chemical trends (usually isotopic ratios
logic Time Scale 2004 (Gradstein et al., 2004;
of carbon and of oxygen), interpreted sea-
under the scientific auspices of the Interna-
level history, and other events or zones.
tional Commission on Stratigraphy, ICS), and
3. Explanation of the derivation and uncer-
of The Concise Geologic Time Scale (Ogg et al.,
tainties for the current numerical age
2008) spurned dedicated research and collec-
model of the stratigraphic boundaries and
tive activities to bring about improvements in
events, and a summary of any incorporated
stable-isotope stratigraphy, radioisotopic and
revised ages assigned to stage boundaries
cyclostratigraphic dating of stage boundaries,
compared to GTS2012.
and formal definitions of stage boundaries.
4. Selected references and websites for addi-
Any synthesis of this geologic time scale
tional information.
is a status report in this grand undertaking.
This Concise Geologic Time Scale 2016 hand- The stratigraphic scales in the diagrams are
book presents a brief summary of the current a small subset of the compilations and

A Concise Geologic Time Scale. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59467-9.00001-7

Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1
2  Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
databases in GTS2012 and other syntheses.
One can generate custom charts from these
databases using the public TimeScale Creator
visualization system available at www.tscre-
ator.org (which mirrors to https://engineering.
purdue.edu/Stratigraphy/tscreator/).
International divisions of
geologic time and their global
boundaries (GSSPs)
A common and precise language of geo-
logic time is essential to discuss Earth’s his-
tory. Hence, a chart of international ratified
stratigraphic units (e.g., Fig. 1.1) is a vital part
of the scientific toolbox carried by each earth
scientist to do his or her job. Ideally, each
stage boundary is defined at a precise Global
Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
(e.g., McLaren, 1978; Remane, 2003). This GSSP
is a point in the rock record of a specific out-
crop at a level selected to coincide with one or
more primary markers for global correlation
(lowest occurrence of a fossil, onset of a geo-
chemical anomaly, a distinctive geomagnetic
polarity reversal, etc.). The majority of ratified
GSSP placements and the terminology for
the geologic stages of Silurian through Qua-
ternary were selected to correspond closely
to traditional European usage (e.g., Emsian,
Campanian, Selandian). In contrast, those
in the Cambrian and Ordovician were estab-
lished after an international effort to identify
a set of global events that could be reliably
correlated, therefore many of the ratified
GSSPs have new stage names (e.g., Fortunian,
Katian) (Fig. 1.1).
Divisions of the preserved rock record,
geologic time, and assigned numerical ages
are separate but related concepts which are
united through the GSSP concept. Chro-
nostratigraphic (“rock time”) units are the
rocks formed during a specified interval
of geologic time. Therefore, the Jurassic
“System” is the body of rocks that formed
during the Jurassic “Period.” A similar philos-
ophy of clarifying whether one is discussing
rocks or time applies to stratigraphic succes-
sions in which the terms of “lower, upper,
and lowest occurrence” have corresponding
geologic time terms of “early, late, and first
appearance” when describing the geologic
history. (Note: The international geochrono-
logic unit for the chronostratigraphic “stage”
is confusingly called an “age”; therefore,
those columns are labeled “stage/age” on
our diagrams to distinguish from the adja-
cent “age” column that is measured in mil-
lions of years.)
Biologic, chemical, sea-level,
geomagnetic, and other events
or zones
Geologic stages are recognized, not by their
boundaries, but by their content. The rich fos-
sil record remains the main method to dis-
tinguish and correlate strata among regions,
because the morphology of each taxon is
the most unambiguous way to assign a rela-
tive age. The evolutionary successions and
assemblages of each fossil group are generally
grouped into zones. We have included selected
zonations and/or event datums (first or last
appearances of taxa) for widely used biostrati-
graphic groups in each system/period. How-
ever, as vividly illustrated by many studies,
most biological first/last appearance datums
are diachronous on the local to regional lev-
els due to migrations or facies dependences
of the taxa, to different taxonomic opinions
among paleontologists, and other factors.
In some cases, GSSPs that had been ratified
based on their presumed coincidence with
a single primary biostratigraphic marker are
now being reevaluated or reassigned when it
was discovered that the sole marker was not
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION  3

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Figure 1.1 Units of the international chronostratigraphic time scale with estimated numerical ages from the GTS2016
age model.
4  Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
reliable for precise correlations. These are dis-
cussed within the relevant chapters.
Trends and excursions in stable-isotope
ratios, especially of carbon 12/13 and stron-
tium 86/87, have become an increasingly
reliable method to correlate among regions.
Carbon 12/13 stratigraphy, like magneto-
stratigraphy, can be utilized in both marine
and nonmarine basins. Some of the carbon-
isotope excursions are associated with wide-
spread deposition of organic-rich sediments
and with eruptions of large igneous provinces.
The largest magnitude excursions occur dur-
ing the Proterozoic through Silurian, but the
causes of some of these remain speculative.
Ratios of oxygen 16/18 are particularly
useful for the glacial–interglacial cycles of
Pliocene–Pleistocene, and are important
in the interpretation of past temperature
trends through the Phanerozoic. However,
the conversion of oxygen-isotope ratios to
temperature requires knowing the oxygen-
isotope composition of seawater through
time. The tropical seawater temperatures
derived from Paleozoic and Mesozoic data
from phosphatic and carbonate fossils that
assume an ocean oxygen-isotope composi-
tion similar to the Cenozoic tend to be anom-
alously warm, indeed at levels that would
be lethal to modern marine life. Therefore,
Veizer and P ­rokoph (2015) hypothesized
that there has been a progressive drift in
ocean chemistry and that the derived tem-
perature values should be adjusted. We have
shown comparisons of the derived and the
adjusted temperatures in some of the dia-
grams in this book.
Sea-level trends, especially rapid oscil-
lations that caused widespread exposure or
drowning of coastal margins, are associated
with these isotopic-ratio excursions in time
intervals characterized by glacial advances
and retreats. The synchronicity and driving
cause of such stratigraphic sequences in inter-
vals that lack major glaciations are disputed.
We have included major sequences as inter-
preted by widely used selected publications,
but many of these remain to be documented
as global eustatic sea-level oscillations. A
discussion of eustasy and sequences is by
Simmons (in GTS2012).
Geomagnetic polarity chronozones
(chrons) are well established for correla-
tion of the magnetostratigraphy of fossilifer-
ous strata to the magnetic anomalies of Late
Jurassic through Holocene. Pre-Late Jurassic
magnetic polarity chrons have been verified
in some intervals, but exact correlation to bio-
stratigraphic zonations remains uncertain for
many of these. The geomagnetic scales on the
diagrams in this booklet are partly an update
of those compiled for GTS2012.
Assigned numerical ages
Although the GSSP concept standard-
izes the units of both chronostratigraphy
and geologic time, the numerical age model
(“linear time”) assigned to those boundaries
and events is a more abstract interpretation
based on extrapolation from radioisotopic-
dated levels, astronomical cycles, relative
placement in magnetic polarity zones, or
other methods. Those age models are always
being refined; but ideally the ratified GSSPs
are fixed. GTS2012 presented a suite of com-
prehensive age models for each Phanerozoic
period and for the Cryogenian and Ediacaran
periods of the Proterozoic.
Numerical ages in this book are abbrevi-
ated as “a” (for annum), “ka” for thousands,
“Ma” for millions, and “Ga” for billions of
years before present. The moving “Present”
has led many Holocene workers to use a
“BP2000,” which assigns “Present” to the year
AD 2000. For clarity, elapsed time or duration
is abbreviated as “yr” (for year), “kyr” (thou-
sands of years) or “myr” (millions of years).
Ages are given in years before “Present” (BP).

In the years between the assembly of
GTS2012 in late 2011 and the preparation of
this concise handbook in late 2015, many sig-
nificant enhancements have occurred. These
include enhanced astronomical time scales,
publication of additional or refined radio-
isotopic dates, revised definitions for some
stage boundaries through ratified GSSPs or
new preferred primary markers for candidate
GSSPs, and other advances. Even though we
preferred to be conservative and retain as
many ages from GTS2012 as possible, some of
these significant advances in geochronology
were incorporated. Therefore, in addition to
rescaling of zonations and events within
stages, some of the assigned numerical ages
for some geologic stage boundaries required
revisions from the age models used in GTS2012
(Table 1.1). Each chapter includes a brief
explanation of uncertainties in such age
assignments and possible future improve-
ments in precision and accuracy.
TimeScale Creator database
and chart-making package
Onscreen display and production of
user-tailored timescale charts is provided
by TimeScale Creator, a public JAVA pack-
age available at www.tscreator.org (which
mirrors to https://engineering.purdue.edu/
Stratigraphy/tscreator/). The internal data-
base includes over 200 columns of all major
biostratigraphic zonations, regional scales,
geomagnetic polarity scales, geochemical
trends, sea-level interpretations, major large
igneous provinces, hydrocarbon occur-
rences, etc. Additional online data packs
can be added that have the lithostratigraphy
of regions scaled to the standardized GTS
(e.g., map-interfaces to all Australia basins
in collaboration with Geoscience A ­ ustralia,
British basins with the British Geological
Survey, etc.), microfossil zonations with
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION  5
images of all taxa and links to Nannotax
and other external websites for each taxon,
human civilization scales, evolutionary
charts of life, etc.
In addition to screen views and a scalable-
vector graphics (SVG) file for importation
into popular graphics programs, the onscreen
display has a variety of display options and
“hot-curser-points” to open windows pro-
viding additional information on defini-
tions and method of assigning ages to zones
and events. Cross-plotting routines enable
conversion of outcrop/well data to stan-
dardized geologic time diagrams. Tutorials
provide instruction on making one’s own
data packs.
The database and visualization package
are envisioned as a convenient reference tool,
chart-production assistant, and a window into
the geologic history of our planet. These are
progressively enhanced through the efforts of
stratigraphic and regional experts, and contri-
butions are welcome.
Geologic Time Scale 2020
At the time of this writing, a major com-
prehensive update of the Geologic Time
Scale is underway, targeted for publication
in 2020 in collaboration with Elsevier Pub-
lishing. A majority of international stage
boundaries (GSSPs) should be established
by that date, including the base of the Ber-
riasian (base of the Cretaceous). The entire
Cenozoic and significant portions of the
Mesozoic–Paleozoic will have high-resolu-
tion scaling based on astronomical tuning or
orbital cycles. The book will be a full-color,
enhanced, improved, and expanded version
of GTS2012, with detailed coverage of zonal
biostratigraphy, stable and unstable isotope
stratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy, global
eustasy, and many other integrated aspects
of Earth’s fascinating history.
6  Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Table 1.1 Modified ages of stage boundaries in this book relative

to The Geologic Time Scale 2012

Chronostratigraphic
unit Age in this book Age in GTS 2012 Summary
Middle Pleistocene 0.773 0.781 Enhanced accuracy
Calabrian 1.80 1.806 Enhanced accuracy
Gelasian 2.58 2.59 Enhanced accuracy
Priabonian 37.97 37.7 Changed marker for base
Bartonian 41.03 41.15 Revised cyclostratigraphic
dating
Campanian 84.19 83.6 Revised radioisotopic dating
Santonian 86.49 86.3 Changed marker for base
Coniacian 89.75 89.8 Enhanced accuracy
Albian 113.14 113.0 Placement change for
boundary
Hauterivian 134.7 133.9 Revised ammonite and
cyclostratigraphic dating
Oxfordian 163.1 163.5 Revised boundary definition
Toarcian 183.7 182.7 Revised radioisotopic dating
Pliensbachian 191.36 190.8 Revision of stage boundaries
Sinemurian 199.4 199.3 Revision of stage boundaries
Hettangian 201.36 201.31 Revised radioisotopic dating
Anisian 246.8 247.1 Revision of stage boundaries
Olenekian 249.8 250.0 Revision of stage boundaries
Induan 251.902 252.16 Revised radioisotopic dating
Changhsingian 254.15 254.2
Kungurian 282.0 279.3 Revised spline fit
Gzhelian 303.4 303.7 Revised cyclostratigraphic
dating
Kasimovian 306.7 307.0 Changed marker for base
Moscovian 314.6 315.2 Changed marker for base
Stage 3 (base of Series 2) ca. 520 521 Implied precision on this
estimate is removed
Stage 2 ca. 530 529 Implied precision on this
estimate is removed
Cryogenian 720 850 Change of boundary
definition
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION  7

Selected publications and enhanced. Some selected ones (biased slightly

toward North America) are:
and websites Geologic TimeScale Foundation—engineering.purdue.
edu/Stratigraphy—diagrams of GSSPs for all stage
Cited references boundaries, time-scale charts, and supporter of
GTS2012/GTS2020 syntheses.
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Smith, A.G. (Eds.), 2004. A
TimeScale Creator—www.tscreator.org—free JAVA
Geologic Time Scale 2004. Cambridge University
program for Earth history visualization, suites of
Press, Cambridge. 589 pp.
enhanced datasets, online “TSC-Lite,” etc. (mirrors
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.D., Ogg, G.M.,
to site at Purdue University)
(coordinators), with, Agterberg, F.P., Anthonissen,
International Commission on Stratigraphy—www.
D.E., Becker, T.R., Catt, J.A., Cooper, R.A., Davydov,
stratigraphy.org—for current status of all stage
V.I., Gradstein, S.R., Henderson, C.M., Hilgen, F.J.,
boundaries, the International Stratigraphic Guide,
Hinnov, L.A., McArthur, J.M., Melchin, M.J., Nar-
links to subcommission websites, etc.
bonne, G.M., Paytan, A., Peng, S., Peucker-Ehren-
Palaeos—The Trace of Life on Earth (originally compiled
brink, B., Pillans, B., Saltzman, M.R., Simmons, M.D.,
by Toby White)—www.palaeos.com—and others it
Shields, G.A., Tanaka, K.L., Vandenberghe, N., Van
references at end of each period. There is also a WIKI
Kranendonk, M.J., Zalasiewicz, J., Altermann, W.,
version being compiled at Palaeos.org. The Palaeos
Babcock, L.E., Beard, B.L., Beu, A.G., Boyes, A.F.,
suite has incredible depth and is written for the
Cramer, B.D., Crutzen, P.J., van Dam, J.A., Gehling,
general scientist.
J.G., Gibbard, P.L., Gray, E.T., Hammer, O., Hartmann,
Smithsonian Paleobiology—“Geologic Time”—paleobi-
W.K., Hill, A.C., Paul, F., Hoffman, P.F., Hollis, C.J.,
ology.si.edu/geotime—After entering, select the
Hooker, J.J., Howarth, R.J., Huang, C., Johnson, C.M.,
desired Period or Eon by clicking on (Make a
Kasting, J.F., Kerp, H., Korn, D., Krijgsman, W.,
Selection) in upper right corner of screen.
Lourens, L.J., MacGabhann, B.A., Maslin, M.A.,
Museum of Paleontology, University of California—
Melezhik, V.A., Nutman, A.P., Papineau, D., Piller,
www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits—thousands of
W.E., Pirajno, F., Ravizza, G.E., Sadler, P.M., Speijer,
pages about history of life on Earth. Main “exhibit”
R.P., Steffen, W., Thomas, E., Wardlaw, B.R., Wilson,
sections include Life through Time, Tour of Geologic
D.S., Xiao, S., 2012. The Geologic Time Scale 2012.
Time, and Understanding Evolution.
Elsevier, Boston, USA. 1174 p. (2-volume book).
Paleontology Portal—paleoportal.org—Exploring North
Harland, W.B., Armstrong, R.L., Cox, A.V., Craig, L.E.,
American geologic history (with geologic maps of
Smith, A.G., Smith, D.G., 1989. A Geologic Time Scale
each state), main fossil sites, and fossil gallery.
1989. Cambridge University Press. 263 pp. (and their
Palaeocast—www.palaeocast.com—A free web series
previous A Geologic Time Scale 1982).
exploring the fossil record and the evolution of life
McLaren, D.J., 1978. Dating and correlation, a review. In:
on earth through an extensive suite of well-pre-
Cohee, G.V., Glaessner, M.F., Hedberg, H.D. (Eds.),
sented paleontology podcasts (ca. 60) with
Contributions to the Geologic Time Scale. Studies in
accompanying slideshows, news stories, and a
Geology, vol. 6. AAPG, Tulsa, pp. 1–7.
future Virtual Natural History Museum. Launched
Ogg, J.G., Ogg, G., Gradstein, F.M., 2008. The Concise
in 2012 with education and outreach grants from
Geologic Time Scale. Cambridge University Press.
the Paleontological Society and the Palaeontologi-
177 p. (book). Translated in Japanese in 2012.
cal Association.
Remane, J., 2003. Chronostratigraphic correlations: their
Fossilworks (Paleobiology Database gateway)—
importance for the definition of geochronologic
fossilworks.org—A suite of search and analytical tools
units. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeo-
for using the large relational PaleoDB database of
ecology 196: 7–18.
global fossil occurrences (ca. 350,000 taxa; 57,000
Veizer, J., Prokoph, A., 2015. Temperatures and oxygen
references; contributed by over 400 scientists in 30
isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans.
countries) to generate paleomaps, diversity curves,
Earth-Science Reviews 146: 92–104.
etc. The online tool sets were developed by John Alroy.
PAST (PAlaeontological STatistics)—folk.uio.no/ohammer/
Websites (selected) past—free software for scientific data analysis, with
In addition to many excellent books on historical functions for data manipulation, plotting, univariate
geology, paleontology, individual periods of geologic and multivariate statistics, ecological analysis, time
time and other aspects of stratigraphy, there is now an series and spatial analysis, morphometrics and
extensive suite of websites on the history of Earth’s stratigraphy; developed by Øyvind Hammer, Natural
surface and its life. These are continuously updated History Museum, University of Oslo.
8  Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
Fossil Mall—www.fossilmall.com—Even though it is a
commercial site, it maintains an extensive educa-
tional outreach content with superb photographs
and an impressive synthesis column of major events
in Earth history and evolution.
Virtual Fossil Museum—www.fossilmuseum.net—“An
Education Resource Dedicated to the Diversity of
Life” with extensive photographs and details of
macrofossils organized by period, by tree-of-life, and
by taxa group. Numerous contributors, coordinated
by Roger Perkins (bioinformatics with evolutionary
biology interest) since 1999, and constantly
expanded and enhanced through 2015 (last viewed).
Wikipedia online encyclopedia (a public effort)—en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale—directs
users to excellent summaries of each geologic period
and most stages, plus links at the bottom of each
page to other relevant sites.
Plate Reconstructions (images and animations), some
selected sites:
Paleomap Project (by Christopher Scotese)—www.
scotese.com/.
Reconstructing the Ancient Earth (Ron Blakey)—
http://cpgeosystems.com.
Additional collections of links to stratigraphy of
different periods and paleontology of various phyla
are at www.geologylinks.com, and other sites. The
world-wide web array of posted information grows
daily. However, as lamented at the current Virtual
Fossil Museum homepage “Back in 1999, there was a
nice site maintained by UC Berkeley, and a number of
other sites that, like VFM, were built and maintained
by passionate amateurs. Most of these amateur sites
are long gone, and some can’t even be found in
Internet archives.” Fortunately, some like Palaeos,
were resurrected and maintained by the next
generation of enthusiasts.
 2
PLANETARY TIME SCALE
K.L. Tanaka1, W.K. Hartmann2
1U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, AZ, United States; 2Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ, United States

Northern part of the western hemisphere of Mars. Left half shows a color elevation, shaded-relief view highlighting
the immense volcanic shields of the Tharsis rise. Right half shows a true-color view of the vast Valles Marineris and
Kasei Valles canyon systems, which connect to the dark basin of Chryse Planitia at upper right. From Tanaka et al., 2014;
Image data from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Introduction definition of chronologic units. The following

summary is mainly reproduced from Tanaka
Formal stratigraphic systems have been and Hartmann (2008, 2012).
developed for the surfaces of Earth’s Moon, Relative ages of these units in most cases
Mars, and Mercury (Fig. 2.1). The time scales can be confirmed using size–frequency dis-
are based on regional and global geologic tributions and superposed craters. For the
mapping, which establishes relative ages of Moon, the chronologic units and cratering
surfaces delineated by superposition, trans- record are constrained by radiometric ages
action, morphology, and other relations and measured from samples collected from the
features. Referent map units are used to define lunar surface. This allows a calibration of the
the commencement of events and periods for areal density of craters versus age, which
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59467-9.00002-9
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 9
10  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE

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 Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE   11

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time scales. Diagram revised by G. Ogg from Tanaka and Hartmann (2012).
12  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE
permits model ages to be measured from cra-
ter data for other lunar surface units. Model
ages for other cratered planetary surfaces are
constructed by two methods: (1) estimating
relative cratering rates with Earth’s Moon and
(2) estimating cratering rates directly based
on surveys of the sizes and trajectories of
asteroids and comets (e.g., Hartmann, 2005).
The Moon
The first formal extraterrestrial strati-
graphic system and chronology was developed
for Earth’s Moon beginning in the 1960s, first
based on geologic mapping using telescopic
observations (Shoemaker and Hackman,
1962). These early observations showed that
the rugged lunar highlands are densely cra-
tered, whereas the maria (Latin for “seas”)
form relatively dark, smooth plains consisting
of younger deposits that cover the floors of
impact basins and intercrater plains. Resolv-
ing power of the lunar landscape improved
greatly with the Lunar Orbiter spacecraft
(Fig. 2.2), which permitted also the first map-
ping of the farside of the Moon. By the end of
the decade and into the 1970s, manned and
unmanned exploration of lunar sites by the
Apollo and Luna missions brought return of
samples. The majority of early exploration
involved the lunar nearside (facing Earth),
and the stratigraphic system and chronology
follow geologic features and events primarily
expressed on the nearside (see Fig. 2.3).
The cratering rate was initially very
high; uncertain is whether the lunar crater-
ing rate records a relatively brief period of
catastrophic “Late Heavy Bombardment”
in the inner solar system at ∼4.0 Ga, possi-
bly spawned by perturbations in the orbits
of the giant outer planets (e.g., Strom et al.,
2005). Alternatively, the dense population of
highland craters records the gradual trailing
off of the accretionary period itself. Tele-
scopic surveys of the numbers, sizes, and
orbits of asteroids indicate that they have
been the prime contributor to the lunar cra-
tering record.
The materials of the early crust and the
emplacement of extensive lava flows that
make up the lunar maria were dated by
geologic inferences and by radiometric
methods on samples returned by the Apollo
missions (e.g., Wilhelms, 1987; Stöffler and
Ryder, 2001). Attempts were also made
to use the samples to date certain lunar
basin-forming impacts and the large cra-
ters, Copernicus and Tycho. Two processes
have mainly accomplished resurfacing:
impacts and volcanism. Analogous to vol-
canism, impact heating can generate flow-
like deposits of melted debris that can infill
crater floors or terrains near crater rims. As
on Earth, the broadest time intervals are
designated “Periods” and their subdivisions
are “Epochs” (if not meeting formal strati-
graphic criteria, these unit categories are
not capitalized).
From oldest to youngest, lunar chrono-
logic units and their referent surface materials
and events include:
1. pre-Nectarian period, earliest materials
dating from solidification of the crust (a
suite of anorthosite, norite, and troctolite)
until just before formation of the Nectaris
basin;
2. Nectarian Period, mainly impact melt and
ejecta associated with Nectaris basin and
later impact features;
3. Early Imbrian Epoch, consisting mostly of
basin-related materials associated at the
beginning with Imbrium basin and ending
with Orientale basin;
4. Late Imbrian Epoch, characterized by
mare basalts post-dating Orientale basin;
5. Eratosthenian Period, represented by
dark, modified ejecta of Eratosthenes cra-
ter; and
6. Copernican Period, characterized by rela-
tively fresh bright-rayed ejecta of Coperni-
cus crater.
 Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE   13

Figure 2.2 Lunar stratigraphy: (A) Photograph of the Moon. Provided by Gregory Terrance (Finger Lakes
Instrumentation, Lima, New York; www.fli-cam.com).
14  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE

Figure 2.2 (Continued) (B) Copernicus region of the Moon. Approximate location of this region is shown on
a photograph of the Moon. Copernicus crater (C) is 93 km in diameter and centered at latitude (lat) 9.7°N, longitude
(long) 20.1°W. Copernicus is representative of bright-rayed crater material formed during the lunar Copernican
Period. Its ejecta and secondary craters overlie Eratosthenes crater (E), which is characteristic of relatively dark
crater material of the Eratosthenian Period. In turn, Eratosthenes crater overlies relatively smooth mare materials (M)
of the Late Imbrian Epoch. The oldest geologic unit in the scene is the rugged rim ejecta of Imbrium basin (I), which
defines the base of the Early Imbrian Epoch (Lunar Orbiter IV image mosaic; north at top; illumination from right; cour-
tesy of US Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Team).

Mars the Moon (Fig. 2.4). Beginning in the 1970s

The Red Planet has a geologic character sim-
ilar to the Moon, with vast expanses of cratered
terrain and lava plains, but with the important
addition of features resulting from the activity
of wind and water over time. This results in a
geologically complex surface history; geologic
mapping has assisted in unraveling it, follow-
ing the approaches developed for studies of
with the Mariner 9 and Viking spacecraft, and
continuing with a flotilla of additional orbiters
and landers beginning in the 1990s, Mars has
become a highly investigated planet. Geologic
mapping led to characterization of periods
and epochs as on the Moon (e.g., reviews in
Tanaka, 1986; Kallenbach et al., 2001; Nimmo
and Tanaka, 2005; Tanaka et al., 2014)
(Fig. 2.1).
 Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE   15

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16  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE

90° N
Boreum
Va s t i t a s B o r e a l i s
60° N

Acidalia Deuteronilus
Utopia Alba Tempe
Arcadia
30° N
Olympus Arabia
Elysium Chryse
Amazonis Lunae
Isidis Syrtis
Tharsis Xanthe Major
0° N 120° 180° 240° 300° 0° E 60°
Valles Margaritifer
Marineris Sabaea
Tyrrhena
Daedalia S y r i a
Hesperia Cimmeria Thaumasia
30° S
Noachis
Promethei Sirenum Hellas
Argyre
Aonia Malea
60° S
Australe
90° S

GEOLOGIC UNITS
A polar layered deposits H materials N-EH volcanic materials
EA Vastitas Borealis unit LN-EH knobby materials N materials
LH-LA volcanic materials LN-EH materials EN massif material

Figure 2.4 Global geologic map of Mars. Generalized geologic map of Mars showing distribution of major
material types and their ages. Chronologic unit abbreviations: N, Noachian; H, Hesperian; A, Amazonian; E, Early; L,
Late. (Adapted from Nimmo and Tanaka (2005).) Terrain names shown without descriptor terms. Mollweide projection,
using east longitudes, centered on 260°E, Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) shaded-relief base illuminated from
the East. On Mars, 1° latitude = 59 km.

The pre-Noachian period represents the
age of the early crust and is not represented
in known outcrops, but a Martian meteorite,
ALH84001, was crystallized at ∼4.5 Ga.
Heavily cratered terrains formed during
the Noachian Period. These include large
impact basins of the Early Noachian Epoch,
vast cratered plains of the Middle Noachian,
and intercrater plains resurfaced by fluvial
and possibly volcanic deposition during the
Late Noachian when the atmosphere appar-
ently was thicker and perhaps warmer and
heat flow was higher.
Hesperian Period rocks are much less cra-
tered and record waning fluvial activity but
extensive volcanism, particularly during the
Early Hesperian Epoch. Mars Express and
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter data indicate
that clay minerals occur in some Noachian
strata, whereas hydrated sulfates are mostly
in Hesperian rocks. A thick permafrost zone
developed as the surface cooled, and much of
the fluvial activity during the Late Hesperian
Epoch occurred as catastrophic flood out-
bursts through this frozen zone, perhaps initi-
ated by magmatic activity.
The Amazonian Period began with expan-
sive resurfacing of the northern lowlands,
perhaps by sedimentation within a large
body of water. Much lower levels of volcanism

and fluvial discharges, coupled with aeolian
deposition and erosion continued into the
Middle and Late Amazonian Epochs. Contin-
ued weathering has led to iron oxidation of
surface materials.
The polar plateaus, covered by bright
deposits of residual ice as well as seasonally
waxing and waning meter-thick CO2 frost, are
among the youngest features on the planet.
Ice-rich mantles and glacial-like deposits at
middle and equatorial latitudes signal climate
oscillations in the relatively recent geologic
record.
The NASA rover, Curiosity, is investigat-
ing Gale Crater, which formed toward the end
of the Noachian Period (Le Deit et al., 2012).
This crater was partly filled by fluvial, deltaic,
and lacustrine sediments over a few hundred
million years during the early part of the Hes-
perian Period. These deposits were partially
exhumed by wind erosion during the middle
Hesperian (ca. 3.3 to 3.1 billion years ago) to
form the massive Aeolis Mons (Mount Sharp)
of cyclic sediment deposits up to 5-km thick
and 6000 km2 in area within the Gale crater
(e.g., Grotzinger et al., 2015). There has been
only very slow eolian erosion since the middle
Hesperian.
Mercury
The innermost planet was partly imaged
by flybys of the Mariner 10 spacecraft in 1974
and 1975, enabling stratigraphic studies that
reveal a remarkably similar surface history to
that of Earth’s Moon (e.g., Spudis and Guest,
1988). Consequently, a Mercurian chronol-
ogy was developed based on impact basins
and craters that may have similar histories to
comparable lunar features (Fig. 2.1).
Thus, five major periods have been pro-
posed that correspond to those of the Moon, as
follows:
pre-Tolstojan (equivalent to the lunar
pre-Nectarian)
Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE   17
Tolstojan (Nectarian)
Calorian (Imbrian)
Mansurian (Eratosthenian)
Kuiperian (Copernican)
Absolute ages for these periods are much
more uncertain than for the Moon and Mars.
Venus
The Venusian surface has been investi-
gated extensively with orbiters and landers,
most recently by the Magellan orbiter with
its mapping radar in the 1990s. Impact cra-
ter densities are low. Statistics of nearly 1000
impact craters on its surface indicate that
Venus has an average surface age of hundreds
of millions of years. Despite its spectacular
volcanic surface dotted with thousands of
volcanoes and broad fields of lava flows, all of
which has been tectonically disrupted to vary-
ing degrees, the details of the global geologic
evolution of this Earth’s twin planet in size
are not well constrained. Possibilities range
from local to regional events driven by mantle
plumes to global volcanic and tectonic evolu-
tion driven by atmospheric greenhouse-heat-
ing effects on Venusian climate (e.g., Bougher
et al., 1997).
Other solar system bodies
The solid surfaces of asteroids and sat-
ellites of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Nep-
tune show varying degrees of cratering that
reflect surface ages (e.g., Schenk et al., 2004).
Although asteroids are commonly saturated
with craters, indicating their primordial ori-
gin, some asteroids, comet nuclei, and other
bodies demonstrate later resurfacing as their
rocky or icy crusts evolved. Dating these sur-
faces relies on inferences of the populations
of projectiles across time and space. Absolute
dates are very poorly constrained. Complica-
tions in estimates of cratering rates include
the relative importance of asteroids in the
18  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE
inner solar system versus that of comets and
other icy materials of the Kuiper Belt.
Selected publications
and websites
Cited publications
Bougher, S.W., Hunten, D.M., Phillips, R.J., 1997. Venus II:
Geology, Geophysics, Atmosphere, and Solar Wind
Environment. The University of Arizona Press,
Tucson. 1362 pp.
Grotzinger, et al., 2015. Deposition, exhumation, and
paleoclimate of an ancient lake deposit, Gale crater,
Mars (47 authors total) Science 350: 177. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aac7575 summary; full
version (12 pp.) at.
Hartmann, W.K., 2005. Martian cratering 8: isochron
refinement and the chronology of Mars. Icarus 174:
294–320.
Kallenbach, R., Geiss, J., Hartmann, W.K., 2001. Chronol-
ogy and Evolution of Mars. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht. 498 pp.
Le Deit, L., Hauber, E., Fueten, F., Mangold, N., Pondrelli,
M., Rossi, A., Jaumann, R., 2012. Model age of Gale
Crater and origin of its layered deposits. In: Third
International Conference on Early Mars: Geologic and
Hydrological Evolution, Physical and Chemical
Environments, and the Implications for Life (Lake
Tahoe, Nevada, 21–25 May 2012): 7045.pdf. http://
www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/earlymars2012/
pdf/7045.pdf.
Nimmo, F., Tanaka, K., 2005. Early crustal evolution of
Mars. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
33: 133–161.
Schenk, P.M., Chapman, C.R., ZahnIe, K., Moore, J.M.,
2004. Ages and interiors: the cratering record of the
Galilean satellites. In: Bagenal, F., Dowling, T.E.,
McKinnon, W.B. (Eds.), Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites
and Magnetosphere. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, pp. 427–456.
Shoemaker, E.M., Hackman, R.J., 1962. Stratigraphic
basis for a lunar time scale. In: Kopal, Z., Mikhailov,
Z.K. (Eds.), The Moon. Academic Press, London,
pp. 289–300.
Spudis, P.D., Guest, J.E., 1988. Stratigraphy and geologic
history of Mercury. In: Vilas, F., Chapman, C.R.,
Matthews, M.S. (Eds.), Mercury. The University of
Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 118–164.
Stöffler, D., Ryder, G., 2001. Stratigraphy and isotope ages
of lunar geologic units: chronological standards for
the inner solar system. Space Science Reviews 96: 9–54.
Strom, R.G., Malhotra, R., Ito, T., Yoshida, F., Kring, D.A.,
2005. The origin of planetary impactors in the inner
solar system. Science 309: 1847–1850.
Tanaka, K.L., 1986. The stratigraphy of Mars. Proceedings
of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 17,
Part 1. Journal of Geophysical Research 91: E139–E158.
Tanaka, K.L., Hartmann, W.K., 2008. 2 planetary time
scale. In: Ogg, J.G., Ogg, G., Gradstein, F.M. (Eds.),
The Concise Geologic Time Scale. Cambridge
University Press, pp. 13–22.
Tanaka, K.L., Hartmann, W.K., 2012. The planetary time
scale. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg,
G., (Coordinators). The Geologic Time Scale 2012.
Elsevier Publisher, pp. 275–298. (An overview on the
geologic history of all inner planets, Earth’s Moon,
and briefly on the moons of Mars and Jupiter.).
Tanaka, K.L., Skinner Jr., J.A., Dohm, J.M., Irwin III, R.P.,
Kolb, E.J., Fortezzo, C.M., Platz, T., Michael, G.G.,
Hare, T.M., 2014. Geologic Map of Mars: U.S.
Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3292,
Scale 1:20,000,000, Pamphlet 43. http://dx.doi.
org/10.3133/sim3292. http://pubs.usgs.gov/
sim/3292/.
Wilhelms, D.E., 1987. The geologic history of the Moon.
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1348 302
pp., 12 plates.
Selected further reading
Basaltic Volcanism Study Project, 1981. Basaltic
Volcanism on the Terrestrial Planets. Houston: Lunar
and Planetary Institute, Houston. 1286 pp.
Melosh, H.J., 2011. Planetary Surface Processes.
Cambridge University Press. 500 pp.
Websites (selected)
US Geological Survey Astrogeology Research
Program—astrogeology.usgs.gov/, especially:
Astropedia: astrogeology.usgs.gov/search/.
Solar System Exploration (NASA)—solarsystem.nasa.
gov.
Welcome to the Planets (JPL, NASA)—pds.jpl.nasa.gov/
planets/.
Mars Exploration Program (NASA)—marsprogram.jpl.
nasa.gov/.
Wikipedia—Lunar Geologic Timescale—en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Lunar_geologic_time_scale; and Geologic
history or Mars: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Geological_history_of_Mars.
 3
PRECAMBRIAN

The Archean World. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution. Painting by Peter Sawyer. [http://ocean.si.edu/slideshow/
ocean-throughout-geologic-time-image-gallery]

Status of international The interval with no preserved rock record

subdivisions from the formation of the Earth at 4.567 to
ca. 4 Ga is named the “Hadean” Eon, a term
The first 4 billion years of Earth’s his- derived from Greek for “unseen place” and also
tory consist of the Hadean, Archean, and referring to the mythical Hades land of the dead
Proterozoic eons. The Precambrian sim- (Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy,
ply refers to the time interval and all rocks 2014). The Hadean is followed at ca. 4 Ga by the
that formed prior to the beginning of the Archean (from the Greek word meaning “begin-
Cambrian Period (base of Phanerozoic Eon) ning/origin”) and at ca. 2.5 Ga by the Proterozoic
at 541 Ma. (from Greek for “earlier life”) (Fig. 3.1).
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59467-9.00003-0
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 19
 Current subdivision of the Precambrian Time Scale
Age
(Ma)
0
Cenozoic Age of Mammals

Phanerozoic
200
Mesozoic Age of Dinosaurs

Coals, amphibians and insects

400 Paleozoic
Mainly only ocean life
600 Ediacaran Ediacaran Fauna

proterozoic proterozoic
Cryogenian Glacial deposits

Neo-
800
Tonian
1000
Stenian Long period of stable
one-celled-life ecosystems in
1200 Meso- apparently constant environments
Ectasian Supercontinent Rodinia
Proterozoic

1400 (~1300 to 900 Ma)

Calymmian
1600
Statherian
Paleoproterozoic

1800
Supercontinent Columbia/Nuna
Orosirian formation, then break-up
2000
Increased burial of organic carbon
2200 Rhyacian (”L-J” 13C positive excursion)
Oxygen begins to accumulate in
2400 Siderian atmosphere; major glaciations
Oxygen levels rise in oceans
causing banded-iron formations
archean archean archean archean

2600
Paleo- Meso- Neo-

2800 Sedimentary basins on stable

or growing continents
3000

3200
Growth of nuclei of continents

3400
Archean

3600 Earliest preserved sedimentary

rocks and chemical traces of life
Eo-

3800
Oldest preserved pieces of
4000
continental crust

Rapid crust formation & recycling;

4200 heavy meteorite bombardment.
Hadean Earliest Life (Prokaryotes,
(informal) simple-celled) evolved?
4400
Accretion of Earth; then giant
4567
Moon-forming impact event

Figure 3.1 The current Precambrian time scale. The current Precambrian eons, eras, and periods, from the Interna-
tional Commission on Stratigraphy, based on Plumb and James (1986) and Plumb (1991). Note that Precambrian is not a
formal time scale unit and that all divisions of the Precambrian are chronometric (fixed dates at base). Exceptions are
the Cryogenian and the Ediacaran. The base of the Cryogenian Period was initially set at 850 Ma (Plumb, 1991), but was
revised in 2014/2015 to the ca. 720 Ma date of the onset of the first global glaciation—the criteria for placement of a
future GSSP. The base of the Ediacaran is a chronostratigraphic GSSP at the termination of the last Cryogenian glacia-
tion dated as 635 Ma (see next chapter). Only era divisions are shown for the Phanerozoic Eon. In the years since these
Precambrian divisions were standardized in 1990, our dating of major events and cycles in Precambrian geologic history
have indicated that the current Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages (GSSAs) do not adequately convey this history.

Although microbial life existed through-
out the Archean and Proterozoic, the lack of a
diverse and well-preserved fossil record prior
to the late Ediacaran, coupled with uncer-
tainties in geochemical or other stratigraphic
means of correlations, is a challenge to estab-
lish a formal chronostratigraphic scale. Radio-
isotopic dating was the main method for
correlating the Precambrian geologic records;
therefore, the Subcommission on Precambrian
Stratigraphy adopted the use of chronometric
GSSAs for the international subdivisions and
standardization of interregional geological
maps (Plumb and James, 1986; Plumb, 1991).
The Archean Eon is subdivided into four eras
(rounded to the nearest 100-myr boundaries),
and the Proterozoic into three eras and 10 peri-
ods (the first eight of which are rounded to the
nearest 50-myr boundaries). The two young-
est periods, Cryogenian (ca. 720 Ma to 635 Ma)
with its major glaciations and the Ediacaran
(635–541 Ma) with metazoan life forms, are
summarized in the next chapter. The dates for
these GSSA boundaries (and the poetic names
for the Proterozoic periods) were selected to
delimit major events in tectonics, surface con-
ditions, and sedimentation as known in 1990
(Table 3.1).
Summary of Precambrian
trends and events, and a
potential revised time scale
Since 1990, our knowledge and dating of
the development of Earth’s tectonic cycles,
crustal features, atmosphere and ocean com-
position, geochemical trends and excursions,
major volcanic and impact events, and stages
in evolution of life through the Precambrian
has vastly increased. Some major trends are
displayed in Fig. 3.2.
The shortcomings of the current rounded
dates for the chronometric subdivisions of
Precambrian time are: (1) a lack of ties of
Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN  21
stratigraphic boundaries to the actual rock
record, (2) the current divisions do not ade-
quately convey the major events in the fas-
cinating history of our planet, and (3) severe
diachroneity of global tectonic events. Hence,
major research efforts are underway by the
Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigra-
phy to replace the current GSSA chronometric
scheme to one that is more naturalistic with
GSSPs. In GTS2012, members of the Subcom-
mission on Precambrian Stratigraphy under
the leadership of Martin van Kranendonk,
suggested a possible stratigraphic scheme
(revised from Bleeker, 2004) that is principally
based on sedimentological, geochemical,
geotectonic, and biological events recorded in
the rock record with potential “golden spikes”
(Van Kranendonk et al., 2012) (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3).
The following summary is largely based on
the extensive Precambrian synthesis by Van
Kranendonk et al. (2012) and Van Kranendonk
(2014).
Hadean
The oldest solid materials in the solar sys-
tem, therefore the oldest rocks that would
have been incorporated in the accretion
of planet Earth, are considered calcium–
aluminum-rich aggregates in chondritic
meteorites that are dated as 4.567 Ga; and
that date is assigned as the beginning of the
Hadean Eon. After the giant Moon-forming
impact at ca. 4.5 Ga, the sphere of molten sili-
cate material cooled and differentiated into
the core and mantle. The oldest preserved
mineral crystals from cooling of magma on
Earth are zircons dated 4.4 Ga that were later
recycled into weakly metamorphosed sand-
stone in the Jack Hills of the Yilgarn Craton of
Western Australia. One of these zircons has
been reanalyzed by high-resolution map-
ping of radiogenic isotopes to yield a pre-
cise 4.374 ± 0.006 Ga date (Valley et al., 2014;
reviewed by Bowring, 2014). This early crust
was largely destroyed during the Late Heavy
22  Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN

Table 3.1 Nomenclature for periods of Proterozoic Eon in the current International
Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) geologic time-scale with their
intended characteristics

Period name Base (Ma) Derivation and geological process

Ediacaran ∼635 Ediacara  =  from Australian Aboriginal term “Earliest metazoan life”
for place near water
GSSP in Australia coincides with termination of glaciations and a pronounced carbon-
isotope excursion
Cryogenian ∼720 Cryos  =  ice; Genesis  =  birth “Global glaciation”
Glacial deposits, which typify the late Proterozoic, are most abundant during this
interval. Base, formerly at 850  Ma, was re-defined in 2014/2015 as onset of the first
global glaciation.
Tonian 1000 Tonas  =  stretch
Further major platform cover expansion (e.g., Upper Riphean, Russia.; Qingbaikou,
China; basins of northwest Africa), following final cratonization of polymetamorphic
mobile belts.
Stenian 1200 Stenos  =  narrow “Narrow belts of intense
metamorphism & deformation”
Narrow polymetamorphic belts, characteristic of the mid-Proterozoic, separated the
abundant platforms and were orogenically active at about this time (e.g., Grenville,
Central Australia).
Ectasian 1400 Ectasis  =  extension “Continued expansion of platform
covers”
Platforms continue to be prominent components of most shields.
Calymmian 1600 Calymma  =  cover “Platform covers”
Characterized by expansion of existing platform covers, or by new platforms on
recently cratonized basement (e.g., Riphean of Russia).
Statherian 1800 Statheros  =  stable, firm “Stabilization of cratons;
Cratonization”
This period is characterized on most continents by either new platforms (e.g., North
China, north Australia) or final cratonization of fold belts (e.g., Baltic Shield, north
America).
Orosirian 2050 Orosira  =  mountain range “Global orogenic period”
The interval between about 1900 and 1850  Ma was an episode of orogeny on virtually
all continents.
Rhyacian 2300 Rhyax  =  stream of lava “Injection of layered complexes”
The Bushveld Complex (and similar layered intrusions) is an outstanding event of this time.
Siderian 2500 Sideros  =  iron “Banded iron formations”(BIFs)
The earliest Proterozoic is widely recognized for an abundance of BIFs, which peaked
just after the Archean–Proterozoic boundary.
Modified from Plumb (1991).

Bombardment resurfacing of the inner solar
system planets and Moon (ca. 4.1 to 3.85 Ga).
The accretion of planet Earth, partial dif-
ferentiation of its core–mantle, and the for-
mation of the Moon from the ejected residual
from a massive impact with Earth all occurred
during the “Chaotian” interval between these
two dates (Van Kranendonk et al., 2012).
Archean
The oldest surviving rocks that have been
dated, the Acasta Gneiss Complex of the Slave
Craton in Canada, at 4.03 Ga (Bowring and
Williams, 1999), form the base of the Archean.
The oldest sedimentary rocks with preserved
primary features are in the Isua supracrustal
belt of the North Atlantic Craton, western
Greenland with an age of 3.81 Ga.
The oldest well-preserved structures
formed by life are stromatolites from ancient
microbial mats in the Dresser Formation of
the Warrawoona Group from the humorously
named “North Pole” dome region of the Pil-
bara Craton of Western Australia, dated at ca.
3.481 ± 0.002 Ga (e.g., Van Kranendonk et al.,
2008). The oldest known intertidal shoreline
deposit, the Strelley Pool Formation of Western
Australia, dated at ca. 3.43 Ga, contains stro-
matolites and candidates for organic micro-
fossils preserved in episodic silica cementation
(Brasier et al., 2015). The origins of life itself are
not known and remain a major challenge facing
science.
Van Kranendonk et al. (2012) suggest
using this suite of the oldest rock, the oldest
well-preserved sediment, and the oldest bio-
structure as chronostratigraphic boundaries
to delimit the Acastan and the Isuan periods
within a Paleoarchean Era.
Basins formed within the growing cratons
during the Mesoarchean Era, and this Era
could be subdivided with a GSSP at the base
of ca. 3 Ga quartz-rich sandstone in a platform
setting. Dating of crustal rocks indicate that
there was another widespread growth period
Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN  23
of continental crust beginning at ca. 2.78 until
2.63 Ga (e.g., O’Neill et al., 2015) (Fig. 3.2).
The expansion of photosynthetic life in
these basins removed carbon dioxide in the
form of stromatolite carbonates. However, car-
bon preserved in kerogen in these stromato-
lites during the interval from ca. 2.7 to 2.5 Ga
has highly negative δ13Corg values (down to
−61 per mille), indicative of a dominance
of 12C-enriched products from methane-
producing organisms or other methanogen-
esis process. The photosynthesis activity and
carbon burial also increased the influx and
concentration of oxygen waste products in the
atmosphere and oceans. The oxygen dissolv-
ing into the marine waters caused precipita-
tion of iron oxides, which resulted in a unique
episode of extensive banded iron formations
(BIF) beginning at ca. 2.6 Ga. The onsets of
these relatively rapid and easily correlated
global changes are options for redefining and
subdividing the Neoarchean Era into an earlier
“Methanian Period” before the methane-pro-
ducing microbes were inhibited by the rising
oxygen levels, followed by a “Siderian Period”
for the main episode of BIF deposition as char-
acterized by those in the Hamersley Basin of
Western Australia (Van Kranendonk et al.,
2012) (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3).
Proterozoic
The rising oxygen levels, increased weath-
ering rates, and burial of carbon led to major
changes in the Earth system beginning at
ca. 2.42 Ga—just after the traditional place-
ment for the Archean/Proterozoic boundary
at 2.5 Ga. Extensive removal of atmospheric
carbon dioxide contributed to the near-global
“Huronian” glaciations during ca. 2.4–2.25 Ga
(e.g., review by Tang and Chen, 2013). When
this “Snowball Earth” episode ended, it was a
different world. In the oxygenated oceans, the
complex-celled eukaryotic life forms with
aerobic metabolism appeared and thrived,
later evolving into Phanerozoic animals.
24  Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN

Precambrian Time Scale

Current Time scale Iron & 13C
carb Alternate Time
AGE Crust Potential scale
Oxygen (per-mille PDB)
Era

Era
(Ma) Period Formation -10 -5 0 5 10 GSSP Markers Period
Formation
600 Ediacaran Ediacaran Neopro-
proterozoic proterozoic

FA of Ediacaran Fauna 635

Cryogenian glaciation ICIE
Beginning of near-
global Glaciation
720 Cryogenian terozoic
Neo-

800 Bitter
Tonian Rodinia Springs

Mesoproterozoic
assembly
1000
Stenian
1200
Meso-

‘Rodinian’
Ectasian
1400
Calymmian
1600
Nuna/
Statherian Columbia
Paleoproterozoic

FA of sulphidic
assembly marine deposits 1780
1800
?

proterozoic
Orosirian ‘Columbian’

Paleo-
End of LJE /
2000 Start of Corg-rich 2060
Rise deposition
in O2 Lomagundi- ‘Jatulian’/
2200 Rhyacian Jatuli isotopic
FA of positive δ13C
2250 ‘Eukaryian’
anomalies and
Event flood basalts
“Huronian”
glaciations ‘Oxygenian’
FA of glacial deposits 2420
2400 Siderian
late Archean

archean
super-event Hamersley- Siderian

Neo-
archean archean archean archean

2600 type FA of Hamersley BIF 2630

Neo-

banded
FA of continental flood
iron formation
basalts and negative 2780 ‘Methanian’
2800 δ13Ckerogen values

‘Pongolan’
Meso-

FA of terrestrial basins 3020

archean
3000

Meso-
3200
‘Vaalbaran’
Paleo-

3400 FA of macroscopic 3490

fossils (stromatolites)

3600
archean

‘Isuan’
Paleo-
Eo-

3800 Earth's oldest 3810

supracrustal rocks
‘Acastan’
4000 Earth’s oldest rocks 4030
Hadean (informal) (Acasta Gneiss) Hadean (informal)

Figure 3.2 Major trends in Precambrian geologic history. (Modified from synthesis diagrams in Van Kranendonk
et al. (2012; figs 16.15 and 16.32 in that paper), Van Kranendonk (2014), and O’Neill et al. (2015)). Relative rates of
crustal accumulation and possible relationship to supercontinent accretion and breakup are based on the compilation
by McCulloch and Bennett (1994; see discussions in O’Neill et al., 2015). Carbon-isotope curves are smoothed versions
from the syntheses for the Archean through middle Proterozoic by Halverson et al. (2005), and for the late Proterozoic
by Cohen and Macdonald (2015) calibrated by them to the Cryogenian–Ediacaran time scale of Rooney et al. (2015).
“ICIE” is the Islay carbon-isotope excursion, and “FA” indicates a first-appearance level or the onset of an episode.
The age model is from Van Kranendonk et al. (2012).
 Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN  25

Proposed new subdivision of the Precambrian Time Scale

Age
(Ma)
0
Cenozoic Age of Mammals
Phanerozoic

200
Mesozoic Age of Dinosaurs

Coals, amphibians and insects

400 Paleozoic
Mainly only ocean life
541 First appearance of Ediacaran Fauna
600 Neopro- Ediacaran Ediacaran 635 End of Global Glaciation
terozoic Cryogenian Major ice ages
720 Beginning of near-global Glaciation
800 First appearance of δ13C anomalies
Mesoproterozoic

1000

1200
‘Rodinian’ Environment stability;
Proterozoic

reducing deep oceans

1400

1600

First appearance of sulphidic

1800 1780
marine deposits
‘Columbian’ Supercontinent formation
archean proterozoic

(Columbia/Nuna)
2000
Paleo-

2060 End of LJE / Start of Corg-rich deposition

‘Jatulian’/ Lomagundi-Jatuli isotopic
2200 ‘Eukaryian’ excursion 2250 First appearance of positive δ13C anomalies
Glaciations; rise in +/or breakout magmatism
‘Oxygenian’ atmospheric O
2
2400 2420 First appearance of glacial deposits
Siderian Deposition of banded iron formation;
waning continental growth
Neo-

2600 2630 First appearance of Hamersley BIF

‘Methanian’ Major crustal growth & recycling First appearance of continental flood
2780
2800 basalts and/or negative δ13Ckerogen values
‘Pongolan’ Basin deposition on
stable continents
archean

3000 3020 First appearance of terrestrial basins

Meso-
Archean

3200 Growth of stable continental nuclei;

‘Vaalbaran’ oldest macroscopic
evidence for life
3400
First appearance of macroscopic
3490
fossils (stromatolites)
3600 First preserved sedimentary rocks,
archean

‘Isuan’
Paleo-

with chemical traces of life

3800 3810 Earth's oldest supracrustal rocks
Oldest preserved pieces of
‘Acastan’ continental crust
4000 4030 Earth’s oldest rocks (Acasta Gneiss)
Hillsian’ or
‘Zirconian’

Rapid crust formation & recycling;

Hadean

4200 continued heavy meteorite

bombardement
‘Jack

‘Chaotian’ Earth’s oldest crustal material

4400 4404
Accretion of giant Moon-forming (detrital zircons)
impact event 4567 Formation of the solar system
4567

Figure 3.3 An option for a subdivision of the Precambrian time scale using geologic events. The definitions, age
estimates, and nomenclature for these subdivisions are by Van Kranendonk et al. (2012).
26  Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN
Extensive flood basalts erupted onto several
continental plates. The isotopic composition
of the global carbon cycle, which had been
remarkably stable through the late Archean,
suddenly underwent the largest positive
excursions in δ13Ccarb in the entire geologic
record. This Lomagundi–Jatuli Excursion
(LJE) was named after its initial recognition in
the Lomagundi province in Zimbabwe and
the Jatuli complex in Russian Karelia.
The LJE event ended suddenly at ca. 2.06 Ma,
nearly synchronous with (1) the eruption of
one of the world’s largest igneous provinces,
the Bushveld Complex in southern Africa (e.g.,
Cawthorn et al., 2006); (2) the largest impact
structure preserved on Earth, the Vredefort
impact in southern Africa at ca. 2.02 Ga, with
ca. 250-km diameter crater, which is larger
than the 180 km Chicxulub impact crater that
terminated the Cretaceous (e.g., Reimold and
Koeberl, 2014); (3) the formation of the earli-
est major phosphorite deposits; and (4) the
beginning of a previously unprecedented
accumulation of organic-rich “oil shale”
sedimentation in various parts of the world,
named the Shunga Event after the Shunga vil-
lage in northwest Russia where a single deposit
alone buried 250 billion tons of organic carbon
(e.g., Melezhik et al., 1999). Reviews by Van
Kranendonk et al. (2012), Young (2013), and
Van Kranendonk (2014) postulate causal rela-
tionships among all of these trends and events,
including possible influences upon the early
evolution of eukaryote life. The global record
of these remarkable geologic features may be
used to correlate and subdivide the early part
of the Paleoproterozoic (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3).
Between about 1.8 and 1.4 Ga, the majority
of the continental plates were merged into the
Nuna/Columbia supercontinent of uncertain
configuration, and again were united between
about 1.0 and 0.7 Ga into the Rodinia super-
continent (e.g., Li et al., 2008; Meert, 2012,
2014; Evans, 2013). This Nuna–Rodinia inter-
val is a unique “quiet” time in Earth’s history,
which has been termed the “boring billion”
(e.g., Young, 2013; Cawood and Hawkesworth,
2014). For the majority of this quiet time, evi-
dence is relatively lacking for the evolution of
new life forms, major climatic changes, stron-
tium- or carbon-isotope excursions, new pas-
sive margins, and the formation of important
ore deposits. Therefore, this interval is diffi-
cult to subdivide (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3).
There were major events on the regional
scale. At 1.85 Ga, the enormous Sudbury
bolide impact left a 200–250-km crater in
southern Canada. The North American plate
was also affected by the giant Mackenzie vol-
canic dike swarm in north Canada at 1.27 Ga,
by the major Keweenawan flood basalts in the
Midcontinent Rift System at 1.12 to 1.09 Ga,
and the Franklin giant dike swarm in north
Canada and northwest Greenland at 0.72 Ga
(Ernst et al., 2008). Other continental blocks
experienced similar large igneous provinces
(LIPs); but, unlike the common coincidence of
LIPs and environmental disruptions through
the Phanerozoic, there has not yet been a
direct correlation of any of these LIPs with
other geochemical excursions that can be
used for global correlation. However, toward
the end of this interval there are two signifi-
cant negative excursions in δ13Ccarb (Fig. 3.2)—
the Bitter Springs event at ca. 810 Ma and the
Islay anomaly at 735–740 Ma (e.g., Halverson
and Shields-Zhou, 2011; Strauss et al., 2014).
The onset of the Cryogenian “Snowball
Earth” glaciations at ca. 720 Ma was pre-
ceded by regional glaciations indicated by
the Gucheng and Bayisi diamictites near
base of Nanhuan System of China at ca. 760
or 740 Ga (e.g., Stratigraphic Chart of China
(2015)) and perhaps by the Kaigas Formation
of Africa at ca. 740 Ma (reviewed in Shields-
Zhou et al. (2012)), although dating of this
Kaigas event is uncertain (e.g., Rooney et al.,
2015). The Cryogenian and the postglacial
Ediacaran periods of the Neoproterozoic are
summarized in the next chapter.

Acknowledgments
This brief Precambrian summary of selected highlights
and current stratigraphic issues relied heavily on the
detailed overview and synthesis by Van Kranendonk et al.
(2012), and on discussions with Martin Van Kranendonk
and Jim Gehling. Martin Van Kranendonk reviewed an
early version of the graphics, database, and text.
Selected publications
and websites
Cited publications
Only select publications were cited in this review
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Pre-2011 literature is well summarized in the
synthesis by Van Kranendonk et al. (2012) and
some of the cited publications below.
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scale. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Smith, A.G.
(Eds.), A Geologic Time Scale 2004. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, pp. 141–146.
Bowring, S.A., Williams, I.S., 1999. Prisocan
(4.00–4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern
Canada. Contributions Mineralogy and Petrology
134: 3–16.
Bowring, S.A., 2014. Closing the gap. Nature Geoscience
7: 169–170.
Brasier, M.D., Anticliffe, J., Saunders, M., Wacey, D., 2015.
Changing the picture of Earth’s earliest fossils
(3.5–1.9 Ga) with new approaches and new discover-
ies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America (PNAS)
112: 4859–4864. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/
pnas.1405338111.
Cawood, P.A., Hawkesworth, C.J., 2014. Earth’s middle
age. Geology 42: 503–506.
Cawthorn, R.G., Eales, H.V., Walraven, F., Uken, R.,
Watkeys, M.K., 2006. The Bushveld Complex. In:
Johnson, M.R., Anhaeusser, C.R., Thomas, R.J. (Eds.),
The Geology of South Africa. Geological Society of
South Africa/Council for Geoscience, Johannesburg/
Pretoria, pp. 261–281.
Cohen, P.A., Macdonald, F.A., 2015. The Proterozoic
record of eukaryotes. Paleobiology 41: 610–632.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/pab.2015.25.
Ernst, R.E., Wingate, M.T.D., Buchan, K.T., Li, Z.X., 2008.
Global record of 1600–700 Ma Large Igneous Provinces
(LIPs): implications for the reconstruction of the
proposed Nuna (Columbia) and Rodinia superconti-
nents. Precambrian Research 160: 159–178.
Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN  27
Evans, D.A.D., 2013. Reconstructing pre-Pangean supercon-
tinents. Geological Society of America Bulletin 125:
1735–1751. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/B30950.1.
Halverson, G.P., Hoffman, P.F., Schrag, D.P., Maloof, A.C.,
2005. Towards a Neoproterozoic composite carbon-
isotope record. Geological Society of America Bulletin
117: 1181–1207.
Halverson, G.P., Shields-Zhou, G., 2011. Chemostratig-
raphy and the Neoproterozoic glaciations. In:
Arnaud, E., Halverson, G.P., Shields-Zhou, G.
(Eds.), The Geological Record of Neoproterozoic
Glaciations, 36. Geological Society, London,
Memoirs, pp. 51–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/
M36.4 (Chapter 4).
Li, Z.X., Bogdanova, S.V., Collins, A.S., Davidson, A.,
DeWaele, B., Ernst, R.E., Fitzsimons, C.W., Fuck, R.A.,
Gladkochub, D.P., Jacons, J., Karlstrom, K.E., Lu, S.,
Natapov, L.M., Pease, V., Pisarevsky, S.A., Thrane, K.,
Vernikovsky, V., 2008. Assembly, configuration and
break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis. Precam-
brian Research 160: 179–210.
McCulloch, M.T., Bennett, V.C., 1994. Progressive growth
of the Earth’s continental crust and depleted
Mantle – geochemical constraints. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 58: 4717–4738.
Melezhik, V.A., Fallick, A.E., Filippov, M.M., Larsen, O.,
1999. Karelian shungite – an indication of 2.0 Ga-old
metamorphosed oil-shale and generation of
petroleum: Geology, lithology and geochemistry.
Earth-Science Reviews 47: 1–40.
Meert, J.G., 2012. What’s in a name? The Columbia
(Paleopangaea/Nuna) supercontinent. Gondwana
Research 21: 987–993.
Meert, J.G., 2014. Strange attractors, spiritual interlop-
ers and lonely wanderers: the search for pre-­
Pangean supercontinents. Geoscience Frontiers 5:
155–166.
O’Neill, C., Lenardic, A., Condie, K.C., 2015. Earth’s
punctuated tectonic evolution: cause and effect. In:
Roberts, N.M.W., Van Kranendonk, M.J., Parman, S.,
Shirey, S., Clift, P.D. (Eds.), Continent Formation
Through Time 389. Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, pp. 17–40. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1144/SP389.4.
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brian time: Recommendations and suggestions by
the Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy.
Precambrian Research 32: 65–92.
Plumb, K.A., 1991. New Precambrian time scale. Episodes
14: 139–140.
Reimold, W.U., Koeberl, C., 2014. Impact structures in
Africa: a review. Journal of African Earth Sciences
93: 57–175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jafrearsci.2014.01.008.
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 APPENDIX A
PROTOCOL SIGNED FEBRUARY 23, 1904

Article I
For the purpose of maintaining a permanent and solid friendship
between Japan and Korea, and firmly establishing peace in the Far
East, the Imperial Government of Korea shall place full confidence in
the Imperial Government of Japan and adopt the advice of the latter
in regard to improvements in administration.

Article II
The Imperial Government of Japan shall in a spirit of firm
friendship ensure the safety and repose of the Imperial House of
Korea.

Article III
The Imperial Government of Japan definitely guarantees the
independence and territorial integrity of the Korean Empire.

Article IV
In case the welfare of the Imperial House of Korea or the territorial
integrity of Korea is endangered by aggression of a third Power or
internal disturbances, the Imperial Government of Japan shall
immediately take such necessary measures as the circumstances
require; and in such cases the Imperial Government of Korea shall
give full facilities to promote the action of the Imperial Japanese
Government.
The Imperial Government of Japan may, for the attainment of the
above-mentioned object, occupy, when the circumstances require it,
such places as may be necessary from strategical points of view.

Article V
The Governments of the two countries shall not in future, without
mutual consent, conclude with a third Power such an arrangement
as may be contrary to the principles of the present Protocol.

Article VI
Details in connection with the present Protocol shall be arranged
as the circumstances may require between the Representative of
Japan and the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs of Korea.
 APPENDIX B
PROTOCOL SIGNED AUGUST 22, 1904

Article I
The Korean Government shall engage as Financial Adviser to the
Korean Government, a Japanese subject recommended by the
Japanese Government, and all matters concerning finance shall be
dealt with after his counsel being taken.

Article II
The Korean Government shall engage as diplomatic adviser to the
Department of Foreign Affairs, a foreigner recommended by the
Japanese Government, and all important matters concerning foreign
relations shall be dealt with after his counsel being taken.

Article III
The Korean Government shall previously consult the Japanese
Government in concluding treaties and conventions with foreign
Powers, and in dealing with other important diplomatic affairs, such
as the grant of concessions to, or contracts with, foreigners.
 APPENDIX C
CONVENTION OF JULY 24, 1907

The Governments of Japan and Korea, with a view to the early

attainment of the prosperity and strength of Korea, and to the speedy
promotion of the welfare of the Korean people, have agreed upon
and concluded the following stipulations:—

Article I.—The Government of Korea shall follow the

direction of the Resident-General in connection with the
reform of the administration.
Article II.—The Government of Korea shall not enact any
law or ordinance, or carry out any important administrative
measure, except with the previous approval of the Resident-
General.
Article III.—The judicial affairs of Korea shall be kept
distinct from the ordinary administrative affairs.
Article IV.—No appointment or dismissal of Korean
officials of the higher grade shall be made without the consent
of the Resident-General.
Article V.—The Government of Korea shall appoint to
official positions under it such Japanese as may be
recommended by the Resident-General.
Article VI.—The Government of Korea shall not engage
any foreigner without the consent of the Resident-General.
Article VII.—The first clause of the Agreement between
Japan and Korea, signed on the 22d day of the 8th month of
the 37th year of Meiji, is herewith abrogated.
 In faith whereof, the undersigned, duly authorized by their
respective Governments, have signed this agreement and
affixed their seals thereto.
(L. S.) Marquis Hirobumi Ito,
H. I. J. M’s. Resident-General.
The 24th day of the 7th month of the 40th year of Meiji.
(L. S.) Yi Wan-yong,
H. I. K. M’s. Minister, President of State.
The 24th day of the 7th month of the 11th year of Kwang-
mu.

[The clause in the Protocol of August, 1904, which is declared

abrogated by the seventh article of the new Convention, apparently
refers to the promise of the Korean Government to engage a
Japanese subject as their official Financial Adviser. It was, of course,
rendered unnecessary by the new Convention.]
 APPENDIX D
SUMMARY OF THE MOST RECENT MEASURES
FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF THE KOREAN
GOVERNMENT

The revised Organic Regulations of the Korean Government,

published by an extra of the Official Gazette (December 23, 1907),
cover the five Administrative Departments for Home Affairs, Finance,
Justice, Education, and Agriculture, Commerce and Industry. As for
the Cabinet and War Office, they had not as yet reported any
changes introduced in their Regulations. In addition to the particular
Organic Regulations for each department there are Regulations
common to all the Departments, the War Office not being excepted.
The latter Regulations consist of 21 articles which outline the
responsibility and duty of the Ministers, Vice-Ministers, and other
officials, and fix the date for the enforcement of all the revised
Regulations for January 1, 1908. Regulations for the organization of
the different offices under the Departments of Home, Finance, and
Justice were promulgated at the same time, including the Provincial
Governor’s Office, Metropolitan Police Office and Customs Office.
To give a brief epitome of the Regulations for each administrative
department: The Home Office is to contain three bureaus for local
affairs—Police, Engineering, and Hygienics, with a Director for each.
The rest of the staff consists of 12 secretaries, 5 commissioners, 5
engineering experts, 3 translators, 62 clerks, 10 police sergeants, 5
assistant engineering experts and a number of policemen. The
Finance Department contains the three bureaus of Revenue,
Accounts, and Managing Finance, each with a Director. Thirteen
secretaries, 7 commissioners, 2 translators, and 100 clerks
constitute the staff of this Department. The Department of Justice will
have bureaus for Civil and Criminal Affairs, and each bureau is
controlled by a Director. The regular staff of this department
comprises 9 secretaries, 4 commissioners, 3 translators, and 40
clerks. In the Department of Education there are bureaus for School
Affairs and for Edition and Compilation, with a Director each. The
regular staff includes 7 secretaries, 4 commissioners, 3 engineering
experts, 28 clerks, and 6 assistant engineering experts. The
Department of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry will be divided
into five bureaus—namely, Agriculture, Commercial and Industrial,
Forestry, Mining, and Marine Products; and each bureau has a
Director at its head. The regular staff of this Department includes 8
secretaries, 5 commissioners, 15 technical experts, 1 translator, 49
clerks, and 60 assistant technical experts.
In addition, each Department has a Minister’s Chamber, and a
private secretary will be appointed to each Minister of State.
The Regulations for the Financial Department provide for the
creation of a Temporary Bureau for investigation of the national
resources, with a staff consisting of a Director, a secretary, 3
commissioners, and 5 technical experts.
More detailed regulations for the different offices under these
departments are to be issued later.
The most recent advices from Korea report that the rioting, arson,
and murder, headed by the disbanded Korean soldiers, is greatly
diminished, and that the country is reverting to its normal condition
so far as deeds of disorder and violence are concerned. The visit of
the Crown Prince of Japan greatly gratified the pride and appeased
the fears of the Imperial family and Yang-bans of Korea. Before
leaving Seoul, Prince Ito laid the corner-stone of the new building of
the Young Men’s Christian Association in that city. The Crown Prince
of Korea, the son of Lady Om, whose guardianship Prince Ito has
taken upon himself, accompanied by Ito, arrived in Tokyo, where he
is to be placed in the Peers School, and was received with
distinguished honors both by the Imperial Family of Japan and by the
populace. The reports also show that the trade relations have had a
significant increase between the two countries; but the most
significant item is this: the exports of Korean products, which are for
the most part rice and beans, exceed the imports from Japan by
some 3,000,000 yen. The establishment of friendly relations between
the two countries appears, therefore, to be moving forward rapidly;
and the political and economical redemption of the peninsula
appears to have been successfully begun. The first and, of
necessity, most doubtful and difficult in the stages of the Passing of
the Old Korea may therefore be said to have been already
accomplished.
 FOOTNOTES
[1] For the following description of Seoul, besides my own
observations, I am chiefly indebted to a series of articles
published during our stay there by Dr. G. Heber Jones in the
Seoul Press.
[2] This may seem incredible, but it is a fact that, as late as the
spring of 1907, even a basket of fruit could not be sent to the
Emperor with the confidence that the eunuchs and palace
servants would not steal it all. At every garden-party the dishes
and even the chairs had to be carefully watched.
[3] It is now proper to say, since his own abdication and the
Convention of July, 1907, have followed, that the Korean Emperor
after repeated denials, confessed at the time to a faithful foreign
friend (not a Japanese) that he had given to Mr. Hulbert a large
sum of money to execute a certain commission the nature of
which he kept secret. In spite of this friend’s importunate urging
and vivid representation of what the consequences of the act
might be to himself and to his family, His Majesty refused to
telegraph a recall of the commission. He did, however, so far yield
to the same pleading as to agree not to furnish a further sum of
money which had been asked in behalf of the influence of another
“foreign friend,” the editor of the most violently anti-Japanese
newspaper.
[4] This document probably emanated from the same press in
Seoul—conducted by a subject of Japan’s friendly ally, Great
Britain—from which came the lying bulletin that afterward caused
so much bloodshed on the morning of Friday, July 19th. It is a
comfort to know that this same editor has since been indicted by
his own Government for the crime of stirring up sedition,
condemned to give bonds, and threatened with deportation if his
offences are repeated.
[5] Hulbert, The History of Korea, I, p. 368.
[6] Japan, I, p. 69 f.
[7] See The History of the Empire of Japan, (volume prepared
for the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago, 1903), p. 38 f.
 [8] Ibid., p. 47.
[9] The History of the Empire of Japan, p. 278 f.
[10] Ibid., p. 280.
[11] See Griffis, The Hermit Nation, p. 159.
[12] See The History of the Empire of Japan, p. 304.
[13] Japan, IV, p. 207.
[14] See The History of the Empire of Japan, p. 403 ff.
[15] This is on the authority of Mr. D. W. Stevens, whose
acquaintance with the facts is most accurate and full.
[16] China’s Intercourse with Korea from the XVth Century to
1895, p. 1 f.
[17] Foreign Relations of the United States, 1871, p. 112.
[18] Quoted from the paper referred to above.
[19] For this account, as here given verbatim, I am indebted to
the Hon. D. W. Stevens, who was at the time of my visit, “Adviser
to the Korean Council of State and Counsellor of the Resident-
General.”
[20] The list of these reforms is given in the volume of the U. S.
Foreign Relations, containing the report sent to the United States
by Minister Sill, September 24, 1894.
[21] International Law and Diplomacy of the Russo-Chinese
War, p. 43 f.
[22] Hershey, International Law and Diplomacy of the Russo-
Chinese War, p. 44 f.
[23] Ibid., p. 45 f. See also the account of Dr. K. Asakawa, The
Russo-Japanese Conflict, p. 263 ff.
[24] So Mr. Whigham, in his admirable book on Manchuria and
Korea. (London, Isbiter & Company), p. 123.
[25] The Passing of Korea, p. 167.
[26] See on this and allied points, the lecture delivered by Mr.
Rockhill, at the United States Naval War College, Newport,
August 5, 1904.
[27] The Passing of Korea, p. 210 f.
[28] Manchuria and Korea, p. 119.
 [29] See Appendix A for its text.
[30] See Appendix B.
[31] War and Neutrality in the Far East, p. 216 f.
[32] See especially Hulbert, The Passing of Korea, p. 464 f.
[33] The narrative which follows may be trusted to correct most
of these misstatements. But among them, some of the more
important may here be categorically contradicted. Such are, for
example, the statements that armed force was used; that General
Hasegawa half drew his sword to intimidate Mr. Han; that
Hagiwara seized the latter with the aid of gendarmes and police;
that the Minister of Agriculture continued to hold out; that he and
Minister Pak, during the conference, withdrew from the Japanese
Legation and betook themselves to the Palace, denouncing the
compact (something no one acquainted with the geographical
relations of the two places would be likely to assert with a sincere
belief); that the Emperor ordered the consenting Ministers to be
assassinated; that Japanese troops patrolled the streets all night,
etc., etc. One curiously characteristic error of Mr. Hulbert is
involved in the statement, published in one of the papers of the
United States, which makes his commission by the Korean
Emperor to lodge an appeal with President Roosevelt the cause
of hastening the Japanese Government in their iniquitous coup
d’état. The truth is that the Japanese Government had made all
the preparations for Marquis Ito’s departure, and the plan
afterward carried out had been carefully formulated, weeks before
it was known that Mr. Hulbert was going to the United States. The
Marquis was only waiting the return of Baron Komura to Japan
before leaving for Korea. No thought whatever was at any time
given to Mr. Hulbert. It is, in general, late now to say that the
efforts of those “friends of Korea,” who have taken the Korean ex-
Emperor’s money while holding out to him the hope of foreign
intervention, have done him and his country, rather than Japan,
an injury impossible to repair.
[34] In order to understand the following negotiations and all
similar transactions conducted in characteristic Korean style, it
should be remembered that delay, however reasonable it may
seem or really be, is in fact utilized for purposes not of reflection
and judicious planning for future emergencies, but the rather for
arranging intrigues, securing apparent chances of escape from
the really inevitable, with the result of an increasing unsettlement
of the Imperial mind.
 [35] He was preparing to go when the Minister of the
Household called with a message requesting the Marquis to
postpone the conclusion of the Treaty two or three days.
[36] None of the party gathered in the council chamber saw Mr.
Han after that. It seems from the accounts subsequently given by
Palace officials that a little later Mr. Han went upstairs still deeply
agitated. His evident purpose was to gain access to the Emperor,
which, as he had not requested an audience, was a flagrant
violation of etiquette from the Korean point of view. But the poor
man in his confusion turned the wrong way and stumbled into
Lady Om’s quarters. Some of the officials led him to a small
retiring room, where he spent the night. The next morning it was
officially announced that he had been dismissed from office in
disgrace and would be severely punished. Marquis Ito
immediately begged that the Emperor would pardon him, and, in
deference to this request, Mr. Han was permitted to go into
retirement with no other punishment than the loss of his office.
The whole proceeding was one of those things which apparently
can happen only in Korea and not excite any one’s special
wonder. No one seemed to know precisely why the Minister was
punished. He was amiable, not very strong mentally, but well-
meaning and of comparatively good repute; he had done his best
to carry out the Emperor’s wishes as he understood them, and,
having failed, as was inevitable, his grief was the best proof
possible of his sincerity; and one would think it might have excited
sufficient pity to preclude resentment. However, it should be
added that the sincerity manifest in Mr. Han’s grief did not extend
to his memory or his powers of narration. At least that is an
inference which one may draw from certain published accounts of
these occurrences—Mr. Han having seemingly been the fountain-
head of the information.
[37] The Marquis’ reasons for refusing hardly need explanation.
Japan had already secured some measure of control over the
internal administration of Korea by previous arrangements. The
acceptance of the proposed amendment would have been
virtually an abrogation of these arrangements, notably of the most
important portion of the Protocols of February 23 and August 22.
To that, of course, the Marquis could not agree. Besides this, the
control of Korea’s foreign relations necessarily required some
measure of control and guidance over the administration of her
internal affairs. The relations between external and internal
affairs, their frequent interdependence, is so intimate, that it would
have been a grave mistake to assume the obligations which the
one imposed without the power to guard against complications
which might follow from maladministration of the other. As the
case stands, the insertion of the word “primarily,” while soothing
Korean susceptibilities, does not affect the control of the
Protectorate in any material respect.
[38] The following facts with regard to the possession of the
Imperial seal of Korea and its affixing to this important document,
are given on the authority of Mr. D. W. Stevens. They are a
complete refutation of the charges which have been made
regarding this part of the entire transaction. It was the
unavoidable delay in bringing the seal to the Palace which gave
rise to these extraordinary stories. “What actually happened,”
says Mr. Stevens, “was this. While the treaty was being copied,
Mr. Pak went to the telephone and directed the clerk in charge of
the seal at the Foreign Office to bring it to the Palace. After some
delay he went again to the telephone and repeated the order. At
the time the only two persons in the office were the clerk in
charge of the seal and Mr. Numano, my Japanese assistant. Both
were just then reading in the room where the clerk slept and
where the seal was kept. The telephone bell rang, and the clerk
who answered it informed Mr. Numano that Mr. Pak had ordered
the seal to be brought to the Palace. He was putting on his street
clothing preparatory to obeying the order when the Chief of the
Diplomatic Bureau of the Foreign Office came into the room and
asked the clerk where he was going. The clerk informed him,
whereupon he went to the telephone and called up Mr. Pak. He
implored the latter not to agree to the Treaty and, finally, receiving
Mr. Pak’s peremptory order to cease interfering, threw himself
down upon the clerk’s bed in great grief. After this, there was no
further interruption from any quarter, and the seal was taken
quietly to the Palace.”
It throws light upon the control and use of this seal to observe
that, when in the summer of 1907 he was committed to the
responsibility for the Commission to The Hague Conference by
the fact that the commissioners were ready to prove their Imperial
authorization by showing the Imperial seal, His Majesty did not
admit this as evidence in proof of their claim. Nevertheless, there
is no doubt that this use of his seal was also with his knowledge
and permission. And, now, in connection with the various details
inaugurated under the new Treaty which followed this violation of
the Treaty of November, 1905, we are told that henceforth the
Imperial seal will be kept in a safe especially prepared for it, and
carefully protected from intrusion.
[39] It is a significant fact that this memorial which is here
followed very closely—and in the most important places even
literally—has received no attention from the hostile critics of
Japan. It would seem as though neither Mr. Hulbert nor Mr. Story
is aware of the existence of such a memorial. This is the more
remarkable in the case of the former, because he was for years
resident in Seoul, was familiar with the Korean language, and was
gathering material for his written account of the affair while upon
the ground.
[40] It will, therefore, clearly appear that no one acquainted with
this memorial can honestly place any confidence in His Majesty’s
subsequent denials of the significance of these facts. Shall we not
also be obliged to add, that no one who is acquainted with the
memorial is entitled to the confidence of any one else, if he puts
confidence in the denials of the Emperor. Amazement at the
audacity of the falsehoods which have been told with regard to
this historically important transaction would seem to be the fitting
attitude of mind.
[41] This part of the memorial agrees closely with the
statements in the first part of the chapter, as to what was then
said.
[42] The purpose of this significant Memorial, we repeat, is self-
evident. The Ministers, who had agreed to the Treaty by the
Emperor’s commands and with his concurrence and approval,
were being attacked as traitors. The Emperor himself was secretly
favoring the attack and endeavoring to create the impression that
he had not agreed to the Treaty, but that it was the work of the
recreant Cabinet without his approval. The Memorial forced him
to abandon that position once and for all. As before stated, it was
officially promulgated with the Imperial sanction, and should have
ended all controversy at once. In any country but Korea, and with
any but the class of writers whom these incidents have
developed, that would have been its result.
[43] An amusing illustration of the ex-Emperor’s way of filling
his privy purse is found in the following authentic incident. At one
time the large sum of 270,000 yen was wanted in cash to pay a
bill for silks and jades which, it was alleged, had been purchased
in China for Lady Om. When the request was made to exhibit the
precious goods which had cost so enormous a sum, and which
were going to make so large an unexpected drain upon
insufficient revenues, the show of materials was entirely
unsatisfactory. But, if not the goods, at least the bill itself could be
produced. A bill was then brought to light, with the items made out
in due form, but by a Chinese firm of merchants in Seoul instead
of in China. The Chinese Consul-General, on being inquired of,
replied that there was indeed such a reputable Chinese firm in the
city; and he desired to have the matter further investigated lest
the credit and business honor of his countrymen might suffer by
connection of this sort with His Majesty’s efforts to obtain ready
money. Investigation elicited the fact that a certain Court official
had visited this firm and inquired how much such and such things
would cost, if purchased in Shanghai. But no goods had been
delivered or even actually ordered!
[44] See Hulbert, The History of Korea, II, p. 61 f.
[45] The History of Korea, I, p. 339.
[46] See Hulbert, The History of Korea, II, p. 54.
[47] Hulbert, The Passing of Korea, pp. 50, 58.
[48] The Passing of Korea, p. 67.
[49] The Passing of Korea, pp. 38, 41.
[50] Ibid., p. 43.
[51] See the account of the “Baby War” and “Breast Hunters,”
The History of Korea, II., p. 245.
[52] The Passing of Korea, pp. 311, 319, 369.
[53] Ibid., p. 283.
[54] Ibid., p. 247.
[55] Whigham, Manchuria and Korea, p. 185.
[56] See a pamphlet bearing this title as an “Authorized
Translation of Official Documents published by the Resident-
General, in Seoul, January, 1907,” p. 7.
[57] During all my visit in Korea it was commonly reported by
those intimate at Court that the Crown Prince was an imbecile
both in body and in mind. But in his boyhood he was rather more
than ordinarily bright, and his mother, the murdered Queen, was
the most clever and brilliant Korean woman of her time. It is not
strange, then, that since his accession to the throne and in view
of his obviously sensible way of yielding to good advice from
others, in spite of the evil influence of his father, the impression
has been made that he might have been feigning imbecility in
order to escape plots to assassinate him, which were formed in
the interests of a rival claimant to the throne.
[58] Issue of Saturday, March 16, 1907.
[59] So the report on the “State of the Progress of the
Reorganization of the Finances of Korea, March, 1907.”
[60] Administrative Reforms in Korea, p. 18.
[61] A cho is nearly 2½ acres.
[62] See Administrative Reforms in Korea, p. 19.
[63] State of the Progress of the Reorganization of the
Finances of Korea, March, 1907, p. 20.
[64] Administrative Reforms in Korea, p. 15.
[65] It should be noted in this connection that this appointment
is one of the very few which, like that of the Resident-General,
proceed directly from the Emperor of Japan himself.
[66] Summary of the Financial Affairs of Korea, p. 5.
[67] In interpreting this it should be remembered that the
Japanese sen is equal in value to one-half a cent in American
gold, or about one farthing in English currency. 100 sen = 1 yen,
and 1,000 rin = 1 yen.
[68] “There had been,” says Mr. D. W. Stevens, “some criticism
because such a law was considered necessary; and Japanese
legal procedure was accused of being defective, on this account,
by certain foreign critics. But in the late seventies the British Court
at Yokohama released a man who had been detected
counterfeiting Japanese money, on the ground that there was no
British law under which to punish him, and that Japanese law
against counterfeiting did not apply to British subjects in Japan.
And the highest British courts have held that a contract to
smuggle goods into a foreign country is a valid contract as
between British subjects in Great Britain.” The entire matter is
dwelt upon at such length because it illustrates so well the
inability of the Koreans for “independent” management of their
own internal affairs, and also the animus and propriety of much of
the anti-Japanese criticism.
[69] The quotations are from the pamphlet, Administrative
Reforms in Korea, p. 11 f.
 [70] See Summary of the Financial Affairs of Korea, p. 5.
[71] See the incidents—which are of a sort to be almost
indefinitely multiplied—on page 285 f.
[72] Dr. Allen, then American Consul-General, in a report upon
Educational Institutions and Methods in Korea, 1898.
[73] See Administrative Reforms in Korea, p. 4 f.
[74] Official Minutes of the Korean Mission Conference, 1906,
p. 41.
[75] Korean Review, of February, 1904.
[76] It is significant to notice in this connection that previous to
his several commissions from the Korean Emperor, this writer
held a quite different view from that which he afterward advocated
with regard to the underlying principle of all the recent relations
between the two countries. In the same article he says: “The
present chaotic state of the national finances and of popular
discontent, show something of what Russian influence has
accomplished in Korea; and the people are coming to realize the
fact. They are passionately attached to the theory of national
‘independence.’ We say theory advisedly. This word
‘independence’ is a sort of fetich to which they bow, but they think
that independence means liberation from outside control alone,
forgetting that genuine independence means likewise a liberation
from evil influences within, and that liberty, so far from being carte
blanche to do as one pleases, is in truth the apotheosis of law.”
[77] Among the many falsehoods told by the Koreans and their
“Foreign Friends,” in their endeavors to excite pity for themselves,
and, possibly, interference with the Japanese Administration in
Korea, none is more ridiculous than that the latter were reviving
the use of torture. It should be borne in mind that, previous to the
Convention of July, 1907, which followed upon the promulgation
of this and other more important false charges by the
commissioners to The Hague Conference, the Japanese
Residency-General’s power did not extend to the interference with
the execution of the Korean law upon Korean criminals.
Preliminary examination by beating with a stick was then legal;
according to credible current report it was practiced upon the
vice-Minister of Education, when, during my visit to Korea, he was
accused of having contributed money toward effecting the
assassination of the Ministry (see p. 51). All this is quite different
from the retort which might be made to critics from the United
States to remember the practice of “water-cure” in the Philippines,
etc.
[78] Quoted, as are the following paragraphs bearing quotation
marks, from the pamphlet prepared under the supervision of the
Resident-General, and published in Seoul, January, 1907, on
Administrative Reforms in Korea. [These quotations are made
exactly, and without attempt to change the language in
accordance with our use of legal terms.]
[79] The following incident illustrates the habitual behavior of
the Korean Daily News, edited by Mr. Bethell, in both an English
and a native edition. Dr. Jones, one of the most faithful and useful
of the Missionary body in Korea, had previously incurred the bitter
enmity of this paper by publicly announcing (see p. 61 f.) the
intention to assist the Resident-General in his plans, so far as his
own work as a missionary permitted, for the up-raising of Korea.
At the time when the Korean troops, in a wholly unprovoked way,
fired upon the crowd in the streets of Seoul, Dr. Jones published
in the Seoul Press an account of what he himself saw. The
account was not accompanied by any harsh criticism of the
conduct of the troops. But “shortly afterwards a Korean attached
to the vernacular paper visited him and, attacking him fiercely,
denounced him as an enemy of Korea. This was followed by a
savage attack in the Korean edition of the News, giving an
entirely false account of what Dr. Jones had done and said. It was
in fact an invitation to murder.” Dr. Jones at once appealed to the
American Consul-General and he to the British. The editor was
forced to retract and apologize, but this by no means
compensated for the damage his article had done.
[80] This fact has been clearly proven by papers found on the
body of Yi-Sei-chik, when he was afterward arrested and detained
at headquarters, as well as by his personal statements.
[81] This serious charge was made by the writer and published
to a friendly nation, on the basis of no personal knowledge, not to
say careful investigation, and after casual conversation with a
small number of witnesses who belong to the class peculiarly
liable to be deceived both as to facts and as to causes of such
alleged incidents.
[82] Deplorable, on account of its effect, direct and indirect,
upon the Koreans, upon Marquis Ito’s efforts at reform, and upon
the missionary cause in Japan as well as Korea.
 [83] It has been asserted that the value of the land staked off by
the Japanese military authorities near Seoul was 6,000,000 yen.
As the result of a “painstaking and impartial investigation” it was
found that, at the highest market price, this land would not have
brought more than 750,000 to 1,000,000 yen. The Korean way in
such matters is well illustrated by the experience of the Young
Men’s Christian Association in Seoul, who, when one small piece
of land was needed to complete their site, were obliged to invoke
an official order preventing the sale to any other party; and even
then paid a price probably two or three times its true market
value. Compare also what is said, p. 98 f., about the Pyeng-yang
affair.
[84] What is the state of the case in certain portions of the West
is truthfully told in the following paragraph quoted from a popular
journal: “In the matter of cheating Indians and acquiring public
lands in ways which bear all the ethical aspects of theft, there is
no public or private morality either in Oklahoma or any other of
those Western States where Indians and public lands continue to
exist.”
[85] On one occasion the British and Chinese Ministers jointly
urged the payment of indemnity in the case of two Chinamen, one
a British protégé, who had been injured in a fight with tax-
collecting officials at a place to which Chinese junks were in the
habit of resorting. The British protégé had died of his wounds,
both he and his companion having been confined after the fight in
the magistrate’s yamen. The Korean local officials contended that
only one person had been killed—namely, the wounded
Chinaman. When confronted with the fact that, according to their
own report, there was a dead Chinaman in the yamen the
morning after, they replied that this man was not in the fracas at
all; he had merely crawled into the yamen during the night, and
had died of some unknown disease. The picture of this shrewd
Celestial going to the yamen to die, apparently for the purpose of
fraudulently foisting an incriminating corpus delicti upon the
innocent Korean official, did not appeal to the British Minister, and
he got his indemnity.
[86] See “The Japanese in Korea,” Extracts from The Korean
Review, p. 46 f.
[87] The Far East (London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1901), p. 337 f.
[88] Korea (Chas. Scribner’s Sons, 1904), pp. 128 f.; 274 f.
Perhaps the underlying reason for much of Mr. Hamilton’s rather
vituperative criticism of affairs in Korea may be found in Chapter
XII, where Japanese, American, and British merchants, and Lord
Salisbury are all severely taken to task because too much of
Korea’s trade is falling into other than English hands.
[89] According to the testimony of travellers in the interior of
Korea, it is extremely difficult to get any food, accommodation, or
service, even when desirous of paying the highest prices, on
account of the experience with their own travelling officials, who
never expect to pay for anything exacted from the country people.
[90] It furnished Mr. Hulbert and Mr. Bethell, however, with a
striking instance of the way in which the Japanese are robbing the
Koreans.
[91] An occurrence, which might easily have become a much
celebrated instance of a Japanese attempt at robbery and
oppression of the Koreans, came to the writer’s notice in a private
but entirely trustworthy way. One of the ex-Emperor’s real foreign
friends was sent for some time ago and found His Majesty in a
state of intense alarm and excitement over a plot of the
Residency-General which had just been made known to him. A
certain foreigner had authorized the story that the Japanese
authorities were trying to purchase three houses owned by a
Chinese and situated just opposite the Palace, with a view to tear
them down and erect barracks for the Japanese soldiers on the
spot. The price offered by the Japanese was 60,000 yen; but if
His Majesty would furnish 65,000 yen, this friendly foreigner
would buy the property for him, and so defeat the nefarious
project of the Japanese. The Emperor wished at once to borrow
the money. It was suggested, however, that His Majesty should
allow inquiry to be made before parting with so much of his privy
purse. Whereupon, the following conversation was held between
the Chinese owner and the person to whom the Emperor looked
to procure for him the needed sum:
“I understand the three houses you own are offered for sale.”
“Well, I do not particularly wish to sell them; but that
Frenchman, Mr. ⸺, has been here and wanted to get them. He
said he wished to put up a large store in their place.”
“How much do you ask for the houses?”
“They are worth 13,000 yen; but if any one will take all three of
them, he may have them for 12,000 yen in cash.”