Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ebook download Smith & Tanagho’s General Urology 19th Edition Jack W. Mcaninch - eBook PDF all chapter
ebook download Smith & Tanagho’s General Urology 19th Edition Jack W. Mcaninch - eBook PDF all chapter
https://ebooksecure.com/download/smith-tanaghos-general-urology-
ebook-pdf/
https://ebooksecure.com/download/campbell-walsh-wein-urology-
ebook-pdf/
https://ebooksecure.com/download/general-organic-biological-
chemistry-ebook-pdf/
https://ebooksecure.com/download/vaughan-asburys-general-
ophthalmology-ebook-pdf/
Vaughan & Asbury's General Ophthalmology 19th Edition
Paul Riordan-Eva - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/vaughan-asburys-general-
ophthalmology-ebook-pdf-2/
https://ebooksecure.com/download/campbell-walsh-wein-handbook-of-
urology-ebook-pdf/
https://ebooksecure.com/download/general-organic-and-biological-
chemistry-ebook-pdf/
https://ebooksecure.com/download/principles-of-general-organic-
biological-chemistry-ebook-pdf/
https://ebooksecure.com/download/campbell-walsh-urology-12th-
edition-review-3e-mar-2-2020_0323639690_elsevier-ebook-pdf/
a LANGE medical book
Edited by
New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto
ISBN: 978-1-25-983434-9
MHID: 1-25-983434-4
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-1-25-983433-2,
MHID: 1-25-983433-6.
All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trade-
marked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringe-
ment of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps.
McGraw-Hill Education eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions or for use in
corporate training programs. To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Us page at www.mhprofessional.com.
Notice
Medicine is an ever-changing science. As new research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge, changes in treatment and
drug therapy are required. The authors and the publisher of this work have checked with sources believed to be reliable in their
efforts to provide information that is complete and generally in accord with the standards accepted at the time of publica-tion.
However, in view of the possibility of human error or changes in medical sciences, neither the authors nor the publisher nor any
other party who has been involved in the preparation or publication of this work warrants that the information contained herein is
in every respect accurate or complete, and they disclaim all responsibility for any errors or omissions or for the results obtained
from use of the information contained in this work. Readers are encouraged to confirm the informa-tion contained herein with
other sources. For example and in particular, readers are advised to check the product information sheet included in the package
of each drug they plan to administer to be certain that the information contained in this work is accurate and that changes have
not been made in the recommended dose or in the contraindications for administration. This recommendation is of particular
importance in connection with new or infrequently used drugs.
TERMS OF USE
This is a copyrighted work and McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work
is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the
work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit,
distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill Education’s prior consent. You
may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to
use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms.
THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES
OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED
FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK
VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, IN-
CLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICU-
LAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work
will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its
licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any
damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill Education has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through
the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill Education and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special,
punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been
advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such
claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
Contents
Contributors vii 10 Laparoscopic Surgery 149
Preface xi
David B. Bayne, MD, MPH;
J. Stuart Wolf, Jr., MD, FACS;
1 Anatomy of the Genitourinary Tract 1
Marshall L. Stoller, MD; & Thomas Chi, MD
Emil A. Tanagho, MD; &
Tom F. Lue, MD, ScD (Hon), FACS 11 Robotic Surgery in Urology 167
Maxwell V. Meng, MD, MPH
2 Embryology of the Genitourinary System 17
Emil A. Tanagho, MD; Hiep T. Nguyen, MD; 12 Urinary Obstruction & Stasis 177
& Michael DiSandro, MD
Marshall L. Stoller, MD; &
Tom F. Lue, MD, FACS, ScD (Hon)
3 Symptoms of Disorders of the
Genitourinary Tract 31
13 Vesicoureteral Reflux 191
Benjamin N. Breyer, MD, MAS, FACS
Thomas W. Gaither, MD, MAS; &
Hillary L. Copp, MD, MS
4 Physical Examination of the
Genitourinary Tract 41
14 Bacterial Infections of the
Maxwell V. Meng, MD, MPH; & Genitourinary Tract 201
Emil A. Tanagho, MD
Mary K. Wang, MD; &
Hillary L. Copp, MD, MS
5 Urologic Laboratory Examination 49
Anobel Y. Odisho, MD, MPH; 15 Specific Infections of the
Sima P. Porten, MD, MPH; & Genitourinary Tract 229
Kirsten L. Greene, MD, MS
Emil A. Tanagho, MD; &
Christopher J. Kane, MD, FACS
6 Radiology of the
Urinary Tract 63
16 Sexually Transmitted Infections 243
Daniela Franz, MD; Scott Gerst, MD; &
Hedvig Hricak, MD, PhD Kristin Madden, PharmD;
Amanda B. Reed-Maldonado, MD, FACS;
& John N. Krieger, MD
7 Vascular Interventional Radiology 107
Ryan Kohlbrenner, MD; & Roy L. Gordon, MD 17 Urinary Stone Disease 259
Marshall L. Stoller, MD
8 Retrograde Instrumentation of
the Urinary Tract 117
18 Injuries to the Genitourinary Tract 291
Marshall L. Stoller, MD
Benjamin N. Breyer, MD, MAS, FACS
9 Percutaneous Endourology and
Ureterorenoscopy 129 19 Urothelial Carcinoma: Cancers of the
Bladder, Ureter, and Renal Pelvis 309
David B. Bayne, MD, MPH;
Joachim W. Thüroff, MD; Badrinath R. Konety, MD, MBA; &
Rolf Gillitzer, MD; & Thomas Chi, MD Peter R. Carroll, MD, MPH
iii
Laurence S. Baskin, MD
47 History and Physical Examination in
Pediatric Urology 769
44 Male Infertility 703
Michael DiSandro, MD
Thomas J. Walsh, MD, MS; &
James F. Smith, MD, MS
48 Introduction to Clinical
Research Design 781
45 The Aging Male 735
June M. Chan, ScD; David Tat, DO; &
James F. Smith, MD, MS; Stacey Kenfield, ScD
Bogdana Schmidt, MD, MPH; &
Thomas J. Walsh, MD, MS Index 793
vii
Tom F. Lue, MD, FACS, ScD (Hon) Amanda B. Reed-Maldonado, MD, FACS
Professor of Urology Chief, Male Reproductive Urology
Emil Tanagho Endowed Chair in Clinical Urology Department of Urology
Department of Urology Tripler Army Medical Center
UCSF School of Medicine Honolulu, Hawaii
San Francisco, California
Mack Roach III, MD
Kristin Madden, PharmD Professor of Radiation Oncology and Urology
Pharmacist Department of Urology
Department of Veterans Affairs UCSF School of Medicine
San Antonio, Texas San Francisco Comprehensive Cancer Center
San Francisco, California
Jack W. McAninch, MD, FACS, FRCS(E)(Hon)
Professor of Urology Tami S. Rowen, MD, MS
UCSF School of Medicine Assistant Professor
San Francisco, California Departments of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and
Reproductive Sciences
Michelle L. McDonald, MD UCSF School of Medicine
Urologist San Francisco, California
San Diego, California
Bogdana Schmidt, MD, MPH
Maxwell V. Meng, MD, MPH Urologic Oncology Fellow
Professor Stanford University Medical Center
Department of Urology Stanford, California
UCSF School of Medicine
San Francisco, California Alan W. Shindel, MD, MAS
Associate Professor
Hiep T. Nguyen, MD Department of Urology
Associate Professor University of California
Surgery and Urology Davis, California
Harvard Medical School and Children’s Hospital
Boston, Massachusetts
xi
1
Anatomy of the
Genitourinary Tract
Emil A. Tanagho, MD; & Tom F. Lue, MD, ScD (Hon), FACS
Urology deals with diseases and disorders of the adrenal ▶▶Blood Supply
gland, the male genitourinary tract, and the female
urinary tract. These systems are illustrated in Figures 1–1 A. Arterial
and 1–2. Each adrenal gland receives three arteries: one from the infe-
rior phrenic artery, one from the aorta, and one from the
ADRENALS renal artery.
B. Venous
▶▶Gross Appearance
A. Anatomy Blood from the right adrenal gland is drained by a very short
vein into the vena cava; the left adrenal vein terminates in the
Each kidney is capped by an adrenal gland, and both left renal vein.
organs are enclosed within Gerota’s (perirenal) fascia.
Each adrenal gland weighs 4–5 g. The right adrenal is tri- ▶▶Lymphatics
angular in shape; the left is more rounded and crescentic.
The average dimensions are 3 cm width, 5 cm length, and The lymphatic vessels accompany the suprarenal vein and
1 cm thickness. Each gland is composed of a cortex, chiefly drain into the lumbar lymph nodes.
influenced by the pituitary gland, and a medulla derived
from chromaffin tissue (Avisse et al, 2000; O’Donoghue KIDNEYS
et al, 2010).
▶▶Gross Appearance
B. Relations A. Anatomy
Figure 1–2 shows the relationships between the adrenals and The kidneys lie along the borders of the psoas muscles and
other organs. The right adrenal lies between the liver and are therefore obliquely placed. The position of the liver
the vena cava. The left adrenal lies close to the aorta and is causes the right kidney to be lower than the left (Figures 1–2
covered on its lower surface by the pancreas. The spleen lies and 1–3). The adult kidney weighs between 125 and 170 g in
superior and lateral to it. men and 115 and 155 g in women. It is about 10–12 cm long,
5–7 cm wide, and 3–5 cm thick.
The kidneys are supported by the perirenal fat (which is
▶▶Histology enclosed in the perirenal fascia), the renal vascular pedicle,
The adrenal cortex, which makes up 85% of the mass, is com- abdominal muscle tone, and the general bulk of the abdomi-
posed of three distinct layers: the outer zona glomerulosa, the nal viscera (Rusinek et al, 2004). Variations in these factors
middle zona fasciculata, and the inner zona reticularis. The permit variations in the degree of renal mobility. The aver-
medulla lies centrally and is made up of polyhedral cells with age descent on inspiration or on assuming the upright posi-
hormone-containing granular cytoplasm. These chromaf- tion is 4–5 cm. Lack of mobility suggests abnormal fixation
fin cells are accompanied by a small number of sympathetic (eg, perinephritis), but extreme mobility is not necessarily
ganglion cells. pathologic.
▲▲Figure 1–1. Anatomy of the male genitourinary tract. The upper tract and midtract have urologic function only.
The lower tract has both genital and urinary functions.
▲▲Figure 1–2. Relations between the kidneys, ureters, and bladder (anterior aspect).
On longitudinal section (Figure 1–4), the kidney is seen gastrointestinal symptoms that accompany kidney diseases
to be made up of an outer cortex, a central medulla, and the (Glassberg, 2002).
internal calices and pelvis. The cortex is homogeneous in
appearance. Portions of it project toward the pelvis between ▶▶Histology
the papillae and fornices and are called the columns of A. Nephron
Bertin. The medulla consists of numerous pyramids formed
by the converging collecting renal tubules, which drain into The functioning unit of the kidney is the nephron, which is
the minor calices at the tip of the papillae. composed of a tubule that has both secretory and excretory
functions (Figure 1–4). The secretory portion is contained
largely within the cortex and consists of a renal corpuscle and
B. Relations
the secretory part of the renal tubule. The excretory portion of
Figures 1–2 and 1–3 show the relationships between the this duct lies in the medulla. The renal corpuscle is composed
kidneys and adjacent organs and structures. Their intimacy of the vascular glomerulus, which projects into Bowman’s cap-
with intraperitoneal organs and the autonomic innervation sule, which, in turn, is continuous with the epithelium of the
that they share with these organs explain, in part, some of the proximal convoluted tubule. The secretory portion of the renal
▲▲Figure 1–3. Relations between the kidneys (posterior aspect). The dashed lines represent the outline of the kidneys,
where they are obscured by overlying structures.
tubule is made up of the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of the posterior surface. The anterior branch supplies both
of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule. upper and lower poles as well as the entire anterior surface.
The excretory portion of the nephron is the collecting The renal arteries are all end arteries.
tubule, which is continuous with the distal end of the ascend- The renal artery branches further divide into interlobar
ing limb of the convoluted tubule. It empties its contents arteries, which travel in the columns of Bertin (between the
through the tip (papilla) of a pyramid into a minor calyx. pyramids) and then arch along the base of the pyramids
(arcuate arteries). These arteries then divide as interlobular
B. Supporting Tissue arteries. From these vessels, smaller (afferent) branches pass
to the glomeruli. From the glomerular tuft, efferent arterioles
The renal stroma is composed of loose connective tissue and
pass to the tubules in the stroma.
contains blood vessels, capillaries, nerves, and lymphatics.
B. Venous
▶▶Blood Supply (Figures 1–2, 1–4, and 1–5)
The renal veins are paired with the arteries, but any of them
A. Arterial
will drain the entire kidney if the others are tied off.
Usually there is one renal artery, a branch of the aorta that Although the renal artery and vein are usually the sole blood
enters the hilum of the kidney between the pelvis, which vessels of the kidney, accessory renal vessels are common and
normally lies posteriorly, and the renal vein. It may branch may be of clinical importance if they are so placed so as to com-
before it reaches the kidney, and two or more separate arter- press the ureter, in which case hydronephrosis may result.
ies may be noted (Budhiraja et al, 2010). In duplication of the
pelvis and ureter, it is common for each renal segment to have
its own arterial supply. ▶▶Nerve Supply
The renal artery divides into anterior and posterior The renal nerves derived from the renal plexus accompany
branches. The posterior branch supplies the midsegment the renal vessels throughout the renal parenchyma.
▲▲Figure 1–4. Anatomy and histology of the kidney and ureter. Upper left: Diagram of the nephron and its blood supply.
(Courtesy of Merck, Sharp, Dohme: Seminar. 1947; 9[3].) Upper right: Cast of the pelvic caliceal system and the arterial
supply of the kidney. Middle: Renal calices, pelvis, and ureter (posterior aspect). Lower left: Histology of the ureter. The
smooth-muscle bundles are arranged in both spirally and longitudinally. Lower right: Longitudinal section of kidney
showing calices, pelvis, ureter, and renal blood supply (posterior aspect).
▲▲Figure 1–5. (A) The posterior branch of the renal artery and its distribution to the central segment of the posterior
surface of the kidney. (B) Branches of the anterior division of the renal artery supplying the entire anterior surface of the
kidney as well as the upper and lower poles at both surfaces. The segmental branches lead to interlobar, arcuate, and
interlobular arteries. (C) The lateral convex margin of the kidney. Brödel’s line, which is 1 cm from the convex margin, is
the bloodless plane demarcated by the distribution of the posterior branch of the renal artery.
▶▶Lymphatics
The lymphatics of the kidney drain into the lumbar lymph
nodes.
▶▶Gross Appearance
A. Anatomy
a capacity of 400–500 mL. The wall of the bladder is about ▶▶Blood Supply
3–5 mm in thickness; it is thinner when it is distended.
A. Arterial
A. Anatomy The bladder is supplied by the superior, middle, and inferior
When empty, the adult bladder lies behind the pubic sym- vesical arteries, which arise from the anterior trunk of the
physis and is largely a pelvic organ. In infants and children, internal iliac (hypogastric) artery, and by smaller branches
it is situated higher (Berrocal et al, 2002). When it is full, it from the obturator and inferior gluteal arteries. In females,
rises well above the symphysis and can readily be palpated the uterine and vaginal arteries also send branches to the
or percussed. When overdistended, as in acute or chronic bladder.
urinary retention, it may cause the lower abdomen to bulge
visibly. B. Venous
Extending from the dome of the bladder to the umbilicus Surrounding the bladder is a rich plexus of veins that ulti-
is a fibrous cord, the median umbilical ligament, which rep- mately empties into the internal iliac (hypogastric) veins.
resents the obliterated urachus. The ureters enter the bladder
posteroinferiorly in an oblique manner and at these points ▶▶Nerve Supply
are about 5 cm apart (Figure 1–6). The orifices, situated at
the extremities of the crescent-shaped interureteric ridge that The bladder receives innervation from sympathetic and
forms the proximal border of the trigone, are about 2.5 cm parasympathetic nervous systems. The sensory afferent of
apart. The trigone occupies the area between the ridge and the bladder originates from both subepithelial nerve endings
the bladder neck. and nerve fibers between detrusor muscle bundles (Andersson,
The internal sphincter, or bladder neck, is not a true cir- 2010; Birder et al, 2010; McCloskey, 2010).
cular sphincter but a thickening formed by interlaced and
converging muscle fibers of the detrusor as they pass distally ▶▶Lymphatics
to become the smooth muscle component of the urethra. The lymphatics of the bladder drain into the vesical, external
iliac, internal iliac (hypogastric), and common iliac lymph
B. Relations nodes.
In males, the bladder is related posteriorly to the seminal
vesicles, vasa deferentia, ureters, and rectum (Figures 1–7 PROSTATE GLAND
and 1–8). In females, the uterus and vagina are interposed
between the bladder and rectum (Figure 1–9). The dome ▶▶Gross Appearance
and posterior surfaces are covered by peritoneum; hence, in
A. Anatomy
this area, the bladder is closely related to the small intestine
and sigmoid colon. In both males and females, the bladder is The prostate is a fibromuscular and glandular organ lying just
related to the posterior surface of the pubic symphysis, and, inferior to the bladder (Figures 1–6 and 1–7). The normal
when distended, it is in contact with the lower abdominal prostate weighs about 20 g and contains the posterior urethra,
wall. which is about 2.5 cm in length. It is supported anteriorly by
the puboprostatic ligaments and inferiorly by the urogenital
diaphragm (Figure 1–6). The prostate is perforated posteri-
▶▶Histology (Figure 1–10) orly by the ejaculatory ducts, which pass obliquely to empty
The mucosa of the bladder is composed of transitional epi- through the verumontanum on the floor of the prostatic ure-
thelium. Beneath it is a well-developed submucosal layer thra just proximal to the striated external urinary sphincter
formed largely of connective and elastic tissues. The mucosa (Figure 1–11).
may be considered as a single functional unit that consists The prostate can be subdivided into two ways: by lobe
of the epithelial layer, basement membrane, and lamina pro- or by zone. The lobe classification is often used in cystoure-
pria. Physical or chemical stress on the bladder elicits releases throscopic examinations and consists of five lobes: anterior,
of multiple factors that modulate afferent and efferent nerve posterior, median, right lateral, and left lateral. The zone clas-
activities (Fry and Vahabi, 2016). External to the submu- sification is often used in pathology. McNeal (1981) divides
cosa is the detrusor muscle that is made up of a mixture of the prostate into four zones: peripheral zone, central zone
smooth-muscle fibers arranged at random in a longitudi- (surrounds the ejaculatory ducts), transitional zone (sur-
nal, circular, and spiral manner without any layer formation rounds the urethra), and anterior fibromuscular zone (Myers
or specific orientation except for proximity to the internal et al, 2010) (Figure 1–12). The segment of urethra that tra-
meatus, where the detrusor muscle assumes three definite verses the prostate gland is the prostatic urethra. It is lined
layers: inner longitudinal, middle circular, and outer longitu- by an inner longitudinal layer of muscle (continuous with
dinal (John et al, 2001). a similar layer of the vesical wall). Incorporated within the
▲▲Figure 1–7. (A) Anatomic relationship between the bladder, prostate, prostatomembranous urethra, and root of
the penis. (B) Histology of the testis. Seminiferous tubules lined by supporting basement membrane for the Sertoli and
spermatogenic cells. The latter are in various stages of development. (C) Cross sections of the testis and epididymis.
(Images [A] and [C] reproduced with permission from Walsh PC, Campbell MF: Campbell’s Urology, 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA:
Saunders; 1992.)
▲▲Figure 1–8. Top: Relations between the bladder, prostate, seminal vesicles, penis, urethra, and scrotal contents.
Lower left: Transverse section through the penis. The paired upper structures are the corpora cavernosa. The single
lower body surrounding the urethra is the corpus spongiosum. Lower right: Fascial planes of the lower genitourinary
tract. (After Wesson.)
prostate gland is an abundant amount of smooth muscula- separated from the rectum by the two layers of Denonvilliers’
ture derived primarily from the external longitudinal bladder fascia, serosal rudiments of the pouch of Douglas, which
musculature. This musculature represents the involuntary once extended to the urogenital diaphragm (Raychaudhuri
smooth muscle sphincter of the posterior urethra in males. and Cahill, 2008) (Figure 1–8).
▲▲Figure 1–9. Anatomy and relations of the bladder, urethra, uterus and ovary, vagina, and rectum.
▲▲Figure 1–10. Left: Histology of the prostate. Epithelial glands embedded in a mixture of connective and elastic tissue
and smooth muscle. Right: Histology of the bladder. The mucosa is transitional cell in type and lies on a well-developed
submucosal layer of connective tissue. The detrusor muscle is composed of interlacing longitudinal, circular, and spiral
smooth-muscle bundles.
▶▶Histology
▶▶Nerve Supply The mucous membrane is pseudostratified. The submu-
The prostate gland receives a rich innervation from the sym- cosa consists of dense connective tissue covered by a thin
pathetic and parasympathetic nerves of the inferior hypogas- layer of muscle that, in turn, is encapsulated by connective
tric plexus. tissue.
▶▶Histology The arterial supply to the epididymis comes from the internal
spermatic artery and the artery of the vas (deferential artery).
The fascia covering the cord is formed of loose connective
tissue that supports arteries, veins, nerve, and lymphatics. B. Venous
The vas deferens is a small, thick-walled tube consisting of an
internal mucosa and submucosa surrounded by three well- The venous blood drains into the pampiniform plexus, which
defined layers of smooth muscle encased in a covering of becomes the spermatic vein.
fibrous tissue. Above the testes, this tube is straight. Its proxi-
mal 4 cm tends to be convoluted. ▶▶Lymphatics
The lymphatics drain into the external iliac and internal iliac
▶▶Blood Supply (hypogastric) lymph nodes.
A. Arterial
TESTIS
The external spermatic artery, a branch of the inferior epigas-
tric, supplies the fascial coverings of the cord. The internal ▶▶Gross Appearance
spermatic artery passes through the cord on its way to the
testis. The deferential artery is close to the vas. A. Anatomy
The average testicle measures about 4 × 3 × 2.5 cm
B. Venous (Figure 1–7). The volume can be measured by an orchidom-
The veins from the testis and the coverings of the spermatic eter or by a formula with ultrasonic measurement (length ×
cord form the pampiniform plexus, which, at the internal width × height × 0.71). The average volume is 18 mL (rang-
inguinal ring, unites to form the spermatic vein. ing from 12 to 30 mL). The testicle has a dense fascial cov-
ering called the tunica albuginea testis, which, posteriorly,
is invaginated somewhat into the body of the testis to form
▶▶Lymphatics the mediastinum testis. This fibrous mediastinum sends
The lymphatics from the spermatic cord empty into the fibrous septa into the testis, thus separating it into about
external iliac lymph nodes. 250 lobules.
lies the urethral bulb. This portion of the corpus spongiosum FEMALE URETHRA
is surrounded by the bulbospongiosus muscle.
The suspensory ligament of the penis arises from the linea ▶▶Gross Appearance
alba and pubic symphysis and inserts into the fascial covering
of the corpora cavernosa. The adult female urethra is about 4 cm long and 8 mm in
diameter. It is slightly curved and lies beneath the pubic sym-
physis just anterior to the vagina.
▶▶Histology
A. Corpora and Glans Penis ▶▶Histology
The corpora cavernosa, the corpus spongiosum, and the The epithelial lining of the female urethra is squamous in
glans penis are composed of smooth muscles, intracaverno- its distal portion and pseudostratified or transitional in the
sal struts (corpus cavernosum only), and endothelium-lined remainder. The submucosa is made up of connective and
sinusoids. The sympathetic and parasympathetic (as well as elastic tissues and spongy venous spaces. Embedded in it are
the nonadrenergic, noncholinergic [NANC]) nerve termi- many periurethral glands, which are most numerous distally;
nals are often seen around the vessels and near the smooth the largest of these are the periurethral glands of Skene that
muscles. open on the floor of the urethra just inside the meatus.
External to the submucosa is a longitudinal layer of
B. Urethra smooth muscle continuous with the inner longitudinal
layer of the bladder wall. Surrounding this is a heavy layer
The urethral mucosa that traverses the glans penis is formed
of circular smooth-muscle fibers extending from the exter-
of squamous epithelium. Proximal to this, the mucosa is tran-
nal vesical muscular layer. This constitutes the involuntary
sitional in type. Underneath the mucosa is the submucosa that
internal urethral sphincter. Distal to this is the external stri-
contains connective and elastic tissue and smooth muscle. In
ated (voluntary) sphincter surrounding the middle third of
the submucosa are the numerous glands of Littre, whose ducts
the urethra composed of smooth and striated muscles within
connect with the urethral lumen. The urethra is surrounded by
the midurethra (Ashton-Miller and Delancey, 2009; Morgan
the vascular corpus spongiosum and the glans penis.
et al 2009; Thor and de Groat, 2010).
B. Venous BIBLIOGRAPHY
The superficial dorsal vein lies external to Buck’s fascia and
drains to the saphenous vein. The deep dorsal vein is placed Adrenals
beneath Buck’s fascia and lies between the dorsal arteries. The Avisse C et al: Surgical anatomy and embryology of the adrenal
cavernous veins drain the hilum and crura of the penis. These glands. Surg Clin North Am 2000;80:403–415.
veins connect with the pudendal plexus that drains into the O’Donoghue PM et al: Genitourinary imaging: Current and emerg-
internal pudendal vein and periprostatic plexus. ing applications. J Postgrad Med 2010;56:131–139.
Kidneys
▶▶Lymphatics
Budhiraja V et al: Renal artery variations: Embryological basis and
Lymphatic drainage from the skin of the penis is to the super- surgical correlation. Rom J Morphol Embryol 2010;51:533–536.
ficial inguinal and subinguinal lymph nodes. The lymphat- Glassberg KI: Normal and abnormal development of the kidney:
ics from the glans penis pass to the subinguinal and external A clinician’s interpretation of current knowledge. J Urol 2002;
iliac nodes. The lymphatics from the proximal urethra drain 167:2339.
into the internal iliac (hypogastric) and common iliac lymph Rusinek H et al: Renal magnetic resonance imaging. Curr Opin
nodes (Wood and Angermeier, 2010). Nephrol Hypertens 2004;13:667–673.
Calices, Renal Pelvis, and Ureter Spermatic Cord and Seminal Vesicles
Koff SA: Requirements for accurately diagnosing chronic partial Bhosale PR et al: The inguinal canal: Anatomy and imaging fea-
upper urinary tract obstruction in children with hydronephrosis. tures of common and uncommon masses. Radiographics 2008;
Pediatr Radiol 2008;38(Suppl 1):S41–S48. 28(3):819–835.
Sozen S et al: Significance of lower-pole pelvicaliceal anatomy on Jen PY et al: Colocalisation of neuropeptides, nitric oxide synthase
stone clearance after shockwave lithotripsy in nonobstructive iso- and immunomarkers for catecholamines in nerve fibres of the
lated renal pelvic stones. J Endourol 2008;22(5):877–881. adult human vas deferens. J Anat 1999;195(Pt 4):481–489.
Kim B et al: Imaging of the seminal vesicle and vas deferens. Radio-
graphics 2009;29(4):1105–1121.
Bladder
Andersson KE: Detrusor myocyte activity and afferent signaling.
Neurourol Urodyn 2010;29(1):97–106. Testis, Scrotum, and Penis
Berrocal T et al: Anomalies of the distal ureter, bladder, and urethra Bidarkar SS, Hutson JM: Evaluation and management of the
in children: Embryologic, radiologic, and pathologic features. abnormal gonad. Semin Pediatr Surg 2005;14:118.
Radiographics 2002;22:1139. Henry BM et al: Variations in the arterial blood supply to the
Birder L et al: Neural control of the lower urinary tract: Peripheral penis and the accessory pudendal artery: A meta-analysis
and spinal mechanisms. Neurourol Urodyn 2010;29(1):128–139. and review of implications in radical prostatectomy. J Urol
Fry CH, Vahabi B: The role of the mucosa in normal and abnormal 2017;198(2):345–353.
bladder function. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2016;119(Suppl 3): Kim W et al: US MR imaging correlation in pathologic conditions of
57–62. the scrotum. Radiographics 2007;27(5):1239–1253.
John H et al: Ultrastructure of the trigone and its functional implica- Klonisch T et al: Molecular and genetic regulation of testis descent
tions. Urol Int 2001;67(4):264–271. and external genitalia development. Dev Biol 2004;270:1.
McCloskey KD: Interstitial cells in the urinary bladder—localization Wood HM, Angermeier KW: Anatomic considerations of the penis,
and function. Neurourol Urodyn 2010;29(1):82–87. lymphatic drainage, and biopsy of the sentinel node. Urol Clin
North Am 2010;37(3):327–334.
Prostate Gland
McNeal JE: The zonal anatomy of the prostate. Prostate 1981;2:
Female Urethra
35–49. Ashton-Miller JA, Delancey JO: On the biomechanics of vaginal birth
Myers RP et al: Making anatomic terminology of the prostate and and common sequelae. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 2009;11:163–176.
contiguous structures clinically useful: Historical review and sug- Delancey JO: Why do women have stress urinary incontinence?
gestions for revision in the 21st century. Clin Anat 2010;23:18–29. Neurourol Urodyn 2010;29(Suppl 1):S13–S17.
Raychaudhuri B, Cahill D: Pelvic fasciae in urology. Ann Roy Coll Morgan et al: Urethral sphincter morphology and function with and
Surg Engl 2008;90:633–637. without stress incontinence. J Urol 2009;182(1):203–209.
Saokar A et al: Detection of lymph nodes in pelvic malignancies with Thor KB, de Groat WC: Neural control of the female urethral and
computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Clin anal rhabdosphincters and pelvic floor muscles. Am J Physiol
Imaging 2010;34:361–366. Regul Integr Compar Physiol 2010;299:R416–R438.
2
Embryology of the
Genitourinary System
At birth, the genital and urinary systems are related only in nearby primary nephric duct as it grows caudally to join
the sense that they share certain common passages. Embryo- the cloaca (Figure 2–1). This primary nephric duct is now
logically, however, they are intimately related. Because of the called the mesonephric duct. After establishing their con-
complex interrelationships of the embryonic phases of the nection with the nephric duct, the primordial tubules elon-
two systems, they are discussed here as five subdivisions: gate and become S-shaped. As the tubules elongate, a series
the nephric system, the vesicourethral unit, the gonads, the of secondary branches increase their surface exposure,
genital duct system, and the external genitalia. thereby enhancing their capacity for interchanging material
with the blood in adjacent capillaries. Leaving the glomeru-
NEPHRIC SYSTEM lus, the blood is carried by one or more efferent vessels that
soon break up into a rich capillary plexus closely related to
The nephric system develops progressively as three distinct
the mesonephric tubules. The mesonephros, which forms
entities: pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros.
early in the 4th week, reaches its maximum size by the end
of the second month.
▶▶Pronephros
The pronephros is the earliest nephric stage in humans, and ▶▶Metanephros
it corresponds to the mature structure of the most primitive
The metanephros, the final phase of development of the
vertebrate. It extends from the 4th to the 14th somites and
nephric system, originate from both the intermediate meso-
consists of 6–10 pairs of tubules. These open into a pair of
derm and the mesonephric duct. Development begins in the
primary ducts that are formed at the same level, extend cau-
5–6-mm embryo with a budlike outgrowth from the meso-
dally, and eventually reach and open into the cloaca. The pro-
nephric duct as it bends to join the cloaca. This ureteral bud
nephros is a vestigial structure that disappears completely by
grows cephalad and collects mesoderm from the nephro-
the 4th week of embryonic life (Figure 2–1).
genic cord of the intermediate mesoderm around its tip. This
mesoderm with the metanephric cap moves, with the grow-
▶▶Mesonephros ing ureteral bud, more and more cephalad from its point of
The mature excretory organ of the larger fish and amphib- origin. During this cephalic migration, the metanephric cap
ians corresponds to the embryonic mesonephros. It is becomes progressively larger, and rapid internal differentia-
the principal excretory organ during early embryonic life tion takes place. Meanwhile, the cephalic end of the ureteral
(4–8 weeks). It, too, gradually degenerates, although parts bud expands within the growing mass of metanephrogenic
of its duct system become associated with the male repro- tissue to form the renal pelvis (Figure 2–1). Numerous out-
ductive organs. The mesonephric tubules develop from the growths from the renal pelvic dilatation push radially into
intermediate mesoderm caudal to the pronephros shortly this growing mass and form hollow ducts that branch and
before pronephric degeneration. The mesonephric tubules rebranch as they push toward the periphery. These form the
differ from those of the pronephros in that they develop a primary collecting ducts of the kidney. Mesodermal cells
cuplike outgrowth into which a knot of capillaries is pushed. become arranged in small vesicular masses that lie close to
This is called Bowman’s capsule, and the tuft of capillaries the blind end of the collecting ducts. Each of these vesicular
is called a glomerulus. In their growth, the mesonephric masses will form a uriniferous tubule draining into the duct
tubules extend toward and establish a connection with the nearest to its point of origin.
▲▲Figure 2–1. Schematic representation of the development of the nephric system. Only a few of the tubules of the
pronephros are seen early in the 4th week, while the mesonephric tissue differentiates into mesonephric tubules that
progressively join the mesonephric duct. During this time, the first sign of the ureteral bud from the mesonephric duct is
seen. At 6 weeks, the pronephros has completely degenerated and the mesonephric tubules start to do so. The ureteral
bud grows dorsocranially and has met the metanephrogenic cap. At the 8th week, there is cranial migration of the differ-
entiating metanephros. The cranial end of the ureteric bud expands and starts to show multiple successive outgrowths.
(Data from several sources.)
As the kidney grows, increasing numbers of tubules are the ends of the anterior pronephric tubules; (4) this pronephric
formed in its peripheral zone. These vesicular masses develop duct serves subsequently as the mesonephric duct and as such
a central cavity and become S-shaped. One end of the S gives rise to the ureter; (5) the nephric duct reaches the cloaca
coalesces with the terminal portion of the collecting tubules, by independent caudal growth; and (6) the embryonic ureter
resulting in a continuous canal. The proximal portion of the is an outgrowth of the nephric duct, yet the kidney tubules dif-
S develops into the distal and proximal convoluted tubules ferentiate from adjacent metanephric blastema.
and into Henle’s loop; the distal end becomes the glomeru-
lus and Bowman’s capsule. At this stage, the undifferentiated
mesoderm and the immature glomeruli are readily visible on ▶▶Molecular Mechanisms of Renal and
microscopic examination (Figure 2–2). The glomeruli are
Ureteral Development
fully developed by the 36th week or when the fetus weighs The kidney and the collecting system originate from the
2500 g (Osathanondh and Potter, 1964a, b). The metaneph- interaction between the mesonephric duct (Wolffian duct)
ros arises opposite the 28th somite (fourth lumbar segment). and the metanephric mesenchyme (MM). The uretic bud
At term, it has ascended to the level of the first lumbar or (UB) forms as an epithelial outpouching from the meso-
even the twelfth thoracic vertebra. This ascent of the kidney nephric duct and invades the surrounding MM. Reciprocal
is due not only to actual cephalic migration but also to differ- induction between the UB and MM results in branching
ential growth in the caudal part of the body. During the early and elongation of the UB from the collecting system and in
period of ascent (7th–9th weeks), the kidney slides above the condensation and epithelial differentiation of MM around
arterial bifurcation and rotates 90°. Its convex border is now the branched tips of the UB. Branching of the UB occurs
directed laterally, not dorsally. Ascent proceeds more slowly approximately 15 times during human renal development,
until the kidney reaches its final position. generating approximately 300,000 and 1 million nephrons
Certain features of these three phases of development must per kidney (Nyengaard and Bendtsen, 1992).
be emphasized: (1) the three successive units of the system This process of reciprocal induction is dependent on the
develop from the intermediate mesoderm; (2) the tubules at all expression of specific factors. Glial cell-derived neurotrophic
levels appear as independent primordia and only secondarily factor (GDNF) is the primary inducer of ureteric budding
unite with the duct system; (3) the nephric duct is laid down (Costantini and Shakya, 2006). GDNF interacts with sev-
as the duct of the pronephros and develops from the union of eral different proteins from the MM (eg, Wt1, Pax2, Eyal,
▲▲Figure 2–2. Progressive stages in the differentiation of the nephrons and their linkage with the branching collecting
tubules. A small lump of metanephric tissue is associated with each terminal collecting tubule. These are then arranged
in vesicular masses that later differentiate into a uriniferous tubule draining into the duct near which it arises. At one
end, Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus differentiate; the other end establishes communication with the nearby
collecting tubules.
Six1, Sall1) and from the UB itself (Pax2, Lim1, Ret) result- termination and tubule maintenance (hepatocyte growth fac-
ing in outgrowth of the UB (reviewed by Shah et al, 2004). tor, transforming growth factor-α, epidermal growth factor
Proper activation of the Ret/GDNF signaling pathway in receptor) (reviewed by Shah et al, 2004). BMP7, SHH, and
the tip of UB epithelium appears to be essential in the pro- Wnt11 produced from the branching ureteric bud induce the
gression of branching morphogenesis (reviewed by Michos, MM to differentiate. These factors induce the activation of
2009). B-catenin and Gata3 are important regulators of Ret Pax2, α-8-integrin, and Wnt4 in the renal mesenchymal cells,
expression, and correct activity of Ret is regulated by posi- resulting in condensation of the MM and the formation of
tive (Wnt11 from MM) and negative (Sprouty1 from the UB) pretubular aggregate and primitive renal vesicle (reviewed by
feedback signaling. Additional specific factors are required for Burrow, 2000). With the continued induction from the UB
(1) early branching (eg, Wnt4 and Wnt11, fgf 7–10); (2) late and the autocrine activity of Wnt4, the pretubular aggregates
branching and maturation (bmp2, activin); and (3) branching differentiate into comma-shaped bodies. Platelet-derived
Bab-el-Dschiser.
Das Herz des Basars ist ein kleiner, unregelmäßiger Marktplatz,
auf den die Hauptstraßen zusammenlaufen. Hier liegen mehrere
Kaffeehäuser. Auf der offenen Veranda des einen habe ich viele
Stunden zugebracht. Unter mir ein Gewimmel, wie in einem
Ameisenhaufen; würdig einherschreitende Orientalen im Turban
oder Fes und in weißen, braunen oder gestreiften Kopftüchern mit
Scheitelringen, Chaldäer und Syrier — im Fes, aber sonst
europäisch gekleidet —, Priester und Bettler, Frauen mit und ohne
Schleier, Hausierer und lärmende Kinder, Eseltreiber mit ihren
störrischen Langohren und Kameltreiber durchziehender
Karawanen, die nie ein Ende nahmen. Das Reizvollste aber war der
Blick über dies Gewimmel hinweg durch den mächtigen Rundbogen
des gegenüberliegenden Tores Bab-el-dschiser auf den nahen
Strom, die Brücke, die seine Ufer verbindet, und auf die Ruinenhügel
von Ninive.
In 35 Bogen zwischen mächtigen Steinpfeilern setzt die Brücke
über den Strom. Aber nur auf dem linken Ufer ist sie landfest; bei
niedrigem Wasserstand steht sie dort zum größten Teil auf dem
Trockenen. Die Strömung geht am rechten Ufer entlang, wo auch
das Bett am tiefsten ist, und bei Hochwasser, nach der
Schneeschmelze oder nach Frühjahrsregen, würde auch die stärkste
Steinbrücke der rasenden Gewalt des Wassers nicht widerstehen.
Deshalb hat man hier eine Pontonbrücke angesetzt, deren
Verbindungsteil mit der Steinbrücke, je nach dem Wasserstand,
seine Lage selbsttätig ändert. Auch unterhalb der festen Brücke läuft
ein Fußsteig, der aber nur bei niedrigem Wasserstand begangen
werden kann; jetzt war er überschwemmt. Die Brücke wurde vor
achtzig Jahren von einem Italiener gebaut, dessen Sohn noch jetzt
in Mosul leben soll.
Das orientalische Gepräge Mosuls wird starke Einbuße erleiden,
wenn nach dem Kriege die Bagdadbahn fertig ist, und Eisenbahnen,
Lokomotiven und Güterzüge die Kamele verdrängen. Schon jetzt
hatte die Regulierungsmanie eines Wali auch hier gewütet. Vom
künftigen Bahnhof brach man eine Straße quer durch die Stadt zum
Tigris. Dadurch fiel eine Menge schöner alter Häuser und Höfe der
Spitzhacke zum Opfer. Der Krieg verhinderte bisher den Neubau;
infolgedessen sah die Straße aus, als habe ein Erdbeben sie
zerstört, oder als hätten die Russen hier wie in Ostpreußen gehaust.
Halb abgerissene Häuser standen da, und bloßgelegte Höfe mit
hohen Gewölben, Säulen und Marmorarabesken boten einen
traurigen Anblick. Ich fragte den Gendarm, den mir der Kommandant
als Begleiter mitgegeben hatte, ob der für diese Zerstörung
verantwortliche Wali nicht gehängt worden sei. „Im Gegenteil,“
antwortete er lachend, „jedenfalls ist er Ehrenbürger von Mosul
geworden!“
Tunnel im Basar.
Erntetanz.
Am zweiten Sonntag lud mich der Chorbischof der syrischen
Kirche, Monseigneur Chajat, Fondateur de l’Institut Pius X. à
Mosoul, zu einer höchst originellen Tanzvorstellung kurdischer
Landleute, die zur Erntearbeit nach Mosul zu kommen pflegen. Die
Männer trugen Turbane, Westen, Leibgürtel und lange Hosen, die
Frauen leichte Kopftücher, Mieder oder Jäckchen und bunte Röcke.
Vier Musikanten spielten auf; ihre Instrumente waren ein Kanun, ein
zitherartiges Saitenspiel, das man aus den Knien hält, ein Oud oder
eine Gitarre, ein Dumbug oder eine Trommel und ein Tamburin mit
rasselnden Tellerchen an der Seite, genannt Daff (vgl. das Bild S.
348).
Dreiundzwanzigstes Kapitel.
Ninive.
I m vorigen Kapitel berichtete ich schon, daß ich am 11. Juni 1916
die alte Seldschukenburg in Mosul bestieg, die sich auf einem
steilen Felsen über dem rechten Ufer des Tigris erhebt, und zum
erstenmal die alte Königsstadt Ninive vor mir sah — oder vielmehr
die Stelle, wo sie ehemals gestanden hat. Keine grauen Massen
gewaltiger Mauern, keine Türme mit Zinnen, keine Terrassen von
Königspalästen oder festen Bürgerhäusern sind mehr zu sehen;
nicht einmal Reste ihrer Grundmauern ragen über der Erde hervor.
Alles ist verschwunden; nur drei ausgedehnte, gleichförmige Hügel
mit schroffen Abhängen verraten den Ort, wo vor Jahrtausenden die
Hauptstadt des assyrischen Weltreichs blühte. Von der
beherrschenden Höhe der Seldschukenburg aus erhält man aber
wenigstens einen ungefähren Begriff von der Lage und Größe dieser
Stadt, und die Phantasie glaubt den Lauf der Stadtmauer zu
erkennen. Sonst nichts als graubraune Wüste in glühendem
Sonnenbrand.
Und diesen Eindruck unendlicher Verwüstung erhielt ich auch, als
ich am 16. Juni mit Professor Tafel, der ebenfalls von Bagdad
herübergekommen war, auf dem Ruinenfeld selbst umherstreifte.
Nur an zwei Stellen dieses ungeheuern Friedhofes hat sich das
Leben noch festgenistet; die eine ist das Dorf Nebi Junus,
unmittelbar neben dem südlichen Hügel und selbst auf einer kleinen
Anhöhe gelegen, von der die Grabmoschee des Propheten Jonas
weithin sichtbar ist, und das Dorf Kujundschik, berühmt als einer der
ergiebigsten Fundorte der Assyriologen.
Die Droschke, mit der wir von Mosul über das Rollsteinpflaster
der Tigrisbrücke Ninive entgegenfuhren, war mit Seilen umschnürt,
weil ihre gesprungenen und eingetrockneten Radkränze und
Speichen auseinanderzufallen drohten. Auf dem linken Ufer bogen
wir rechts ab und hielten bald am Fuße des Abhangs, von wo ein
Fußweg zur Grabmoschee Nebi Junus hinaufführt. Es war gerade
Freitag und Gottesdienst in der Moschee.
Oberster Priester der Grabmoschee des
Propheten Jonas.
Man empfing uns freundlich und geleitete uns zu einer
Dachterrasse hinauf, von der aus eine Tür in den Tempel führte. In
einem kleinen Kiosk, einem Turmzimmer mit Fenstern nach allen
Himmelsrichtungen, die eine prächtige Aussicht auf das
gegenüberliegende Mosul darboten, mußten wir warten, bis die
Gebete zu Ende waren, die Allahs Segen auf den Sultan, auf Kaiser
Wilhelm und Kaiser Franz Joseph herabflehten und um Sieg über
die Feinde baten — eine erbauliche Zeremonie für die anwesenden
englischen Untertanen, wenn anders sie aufrichtige Gefühle für
England im Herzen hegten. Ein kleiner weißbärtiger Alter, den
Turban auf dem Kopf und eine Brille auf der Nase, leistete uns mit
mehreren andern Mohammedanern Gesellschaft.
Als die Gläubigen die Moschee zu verlassen begannen, zogen
wir die Schuhe aus; unser Führer ergriff meine Hand und bat uns
ihm zu folgen. Das Innere des Tempels war sehr einfach und
entbehrte jedes Schmucks, nur ein paar verschlissene Teppiche
lagen auf dem Boden. Seitwärts vor einem Gitterfenster standen
einige indische Mohammedaner im Gebet versunken. Durch dieses
Gitter sah man in die Krypta des Propheten Jonas hinab, ein dunkles
Loch, in dessen Mitte sich eine sarkophagähnliche Erhöhung abhob.
Das eigentliche Grab des Toten soll aber unter diesem Denkmal
liegen.