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[t h i r d e d i t i o n]
Principles of
Biolog y
Robert J. Brooker
University of Minnesota – Minneapolis
Eric P. Widmaier
Boston University
Linda E. Graham
University of Wisconsin – Madison
Peter D. Stiling
University of South Florida
bro4086x_fm_i-xxiv.indd 1 10/16/19 12:27 AM

Principles of Biology: Helping Students Learn
Cutting-Edge Content
We can all agree that biology textbooks cover a lot of material. To help students see the “forest and not just the trees” and to learn
concepts that are essential to their future careers, the author team has developed pedagogical features to help students navigate the
content in Principles of Biology, 3e.
WAYS TO HELP STUDENTS NAVIGATE AND LEARN THE MATERIAL IN THIS TEXTBOOK
Focus on Core Principles In addition, a question at the end of each chapter is directly aimed
at exploring a particular biology principle related to the content of
Although it is intended for majors in the biological sciences, the chapter.
Principles of Biology is a shorter textbook that emphasizes core
principles. Twelve principles of biology are enunciated in Chapter 1,
and those principles are emphasized throughout the textbook.
This emphasis is achieved in two ways. First, the principles are
highlighted in selected figures in which a specific principle is
illustrated.
Learning Outcomes
Each section of every chapter begins with a set of learning

outcomes. These outcomes help students understand what they
should be able to do if they have mastered the material in that
section.
Formative Assessment
Many instructors are devoting more class time to active learning

and spending less time on directly discussing the textbook
material. When students are expected to learn more textbook
material on their own, it is imperative that they be given regular
formative assessments, so that they can gauge whether or not
they are mastering the material. Formative assessment is a
major feature of this textbook and is bolstered by McGraw-Hill
Connect®—a state-of-the-art digital assignment and assessment
platform. In Principles of Biology, formative assessment is provided
in multiple ways.
1. Each section of every chapter ends with a set of multiple-

choice questions.
2. Many figures have Concept Check questions, so that students
can determine if they understand the key points in the figure.
3. End-of-chapter questions continue to provide students with
feedback regarding their mastery of the material.
4. Further assessment tools are available in Connect. Question
banks, test banks, quantitative questions, and graphing inter-
active banks can be assigned by the professor. McGraw-Hill
SmartBook® provides students with real-time assessment
and feedback of their learning as they are moving through
each chapter, page-by-page.
viii Principles of Biology: Helping Students Learn Cutting-Edge Content

BioConnections and Evolutionary Connections
To help students broaden their understanding of biology,

two recurring features are BioConnections and Evolutionary
Connections. BioConnections are placed in key figure legends in
most chapters and help students relate a topic they are currently
learning to another topic elsewhere in the textbook, often in a
different unit. Evolutionary Connections provide a framework for
understanding how a topic in a given chapter relates to evolution,
the core unifying theme in biology.
Unit Openers
Unit openers serve two purposes. They allow the student to see the
big picture of the unit. In addition, the unit openers draw attention to
the principles of biology that will be emphasized in that unit.
Overall, the pedagogy of Principles of Biology has been designed

to foster student learning. Instead of being a collection of “facts
and figures,” Principles of Biology is intended to be an engaging
and motivating textbook in which formative assessment and many
other pedagogical features allow students to move ahead and
learn the material in a productive way.
Principles of Biology: Helping Students Learn Cutting-Edge Content ix

Content Changes to the Third Edition
The following are the major content changes that have occurred in Chapter 16 Transmission of Genetic Information from Parents to
the third edition. Offspring II: Epigenetics, Linkage, and Extranuclear Inheritance.
New information has been added regarding differences
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Biology. This chapter has a new
in epigenetic changes between finches in rural and urban
section on the adaptations that have occurred during the evolution
environments.
of a family of species known as birds-of-paradise.
Chapter 17 The Simpler Genetic Systems of Viruses and
Chapter 2 The Chemical Basis of Life I: Atoms, Molecules, and
Bacteria. Section 17.1 from the second edition is now divided into
Water. A Modeling Challenge has been added to Figure 2.2 to help
two sections in the third edition.
students interpret models that depict the structure of atoms.
Chapter 18 Genetic Technologies: How Biologists Study Genes
Chapter 4 Evolutionary Origin of Cells and Their General Features.
and Genomes. A few of the newer methods of DNA sequencing
The topic of droplet organelles, which are organelles formed by
are briefly discussed.
liquid-liquid phase separation, has been added. An example is the
nucleolus. A Modeling Challenge has been added that helps students Chapter 19 Evolution of Life I: How Populations Change from
understand how materials move through the Golgi apparatus. Generation to Generation. A Modeling Challenge has been added
to Figure 19.14 that asks students to draw a series of graphs that
Chapter 5 Membranes: The Interface Between Cells and Their
depict the effects of diversifying selection.
Environment. The topic of osmosis has been clarified to explain
why water moves in a particular direction. Chapter 21 How Biologists Classify Species and Study Their
Evolutionary Relationships. Information on the eukaryotic
Chapter 6 How Cells Utilize Energy. A new section (Section 6.9)
supergroups has been updated.
has been added on the topic of anaerobic respiration and
fermentation, and it includes two new figures. Chapter 22 The History of Life on Earth and Human Evolution.
The topic of human evolution has been updated.
Chapter 8 How Cells Communicate with Each Other and with the
Environment. A Modeling Challenge has been added to Figure 8.9 Chapter 23 Diversity of Microbial Life: Archaea, Bacteria,
that asks students to create a model that explains how the effects Protists, and Fungi. This chapter on the diversity of prokaryotic
of estrogen are reversed. and eukaryotic microbial life was heavily revised in the second
edition to integrate material previously covered in separate
Chapter 9 The information of Life: DNA and RNA Structure, DNA
chapters. A Modeling Challenge was added to Figure 23.22 that
Replication, and Chromosome Structure. The information on
asks the student to add endosymbiotic events to the eukaryotic
chromosome structure has been updated by describing the role
phylogenetic tree.
of SMC proteins in promoting the formation of radial loop domains
(see Figure 9.21). Chapter 24 Microbiomes: Microbial Systems on and Around
Us. This chapter, added to the second edition, integrates current
Chapter 10 The Expression of Genetic Material via Genes I.
information about microbes (archaea, bacteria, protists, and fungi)
Transcription and Translation. New information regarding the
within complex organism-gene systems known as microbiomes,
spliceosome has been added.
a major frontier of biological sciences. A Modeling Challenge
Chapter 11 The Expression of Genetic Information via Genes II: was added to Figure 24.10 that asks the student to evaluate the
Non-coding RNAs. Section 11.4 has been streamlined by focusing different concepts of lichen microbiomes.
on microRNAs (miRNAs) and small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs).
Chapter 25 Plant Evolution: How Plant Diversification Changed
Chapter 12 The Control of Genetic Information via Gene Planet Earth. A Modeling Challenge was added to Figure 25.10
Regulation. Information has been added that describes how that asks the student to sketch a graph that depicts the changes in
alternative splicing is regulated. carbon dioxide levels in Earth’s atmosphere over time.
Chapter 13 Altering the Genetic Material: Mutation, DNA Repair, Chapter 26 Invertebrates: The Vast Array of Animal Life
and Cancer. A Modeling Challenge has been added to Table 13.4 Without a Backbone. A new chapter-opening vignette describes
that asks students to create a model that shows how 5-bromouracil how seemingly complex patterns in butterfly wings are linked to
can cause a mutation. just a single gene. The implication of this work is that much of the
Earth’s biodiversity may be caused by relatively simple genetic
Chapter 14 How Eukaryotic Cells Sort and Transmit
changes. Several new BioConnections have been added to
Chromosomes: Mitosis and Meiosis. The topic of checkpoints has
existing figures.
been expanded and reorganized.
x Content Changes to the Third Edition

Chapter 27 Vertebrates: Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Chapter 36 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems: Transporting
Mammals. New opening paragraphs discuss the longevity of Solutes and Exchanging Gases. The Quantitative Analysis feature
naked mole rats. Researchers have speculated that a more that describes how blood pressure and resistance determine blood
detailed knowledge of naked mole rat biology may unlock the pressure has been supplemented with a Modeling Challenge that
secrets of aging for humans and other animals. Speaking of aging, requires the student to further explore how these three important
we discuss how Greenland sharks are probably the oldest living variables are related.
animals on Earth. A new section discusses the Cyclostomata, the
Chapter 37 Digestive and Excretory Systems: Maintaining
jawless fishes. Since mammals are amniotes, a new Modeling
Nutrient, Water, and Energy Balance and Removing Waste.
Challenge added to Figure 27.11 asks students to draw the
The importance of an animal’s microbiome to digestion is now
amniotic eggs of reptiles and eutherian mammals.
emphasized. A more detailed description of the anatomy of
Chapter 28 An Introduction to Flowering Plant Form and Function. alimentary canals and sphincters is included. A Modeling Challenge
A Modeling Challenge was added to Figure 28.10 that asks the that relates to antidiuretic hormone has been added to Figure 37.23.
student to draw a model of the cell wall of genetically modified plants.
Chapter 38 How Endocrine Systems Influence the Activities of
Chapter 29 How Flowering Plants Sense and Interact with Their All Other Organ Systems. The complex feedback relationship
Environments. Some new images were commissioned specifically between Ca2+ and parathyroid hormone has been edited for clarity
for this textbook, to aid student comprehension of key concepts. A and expanded on with a Modeling Challenge added to Figure 38.11.
Modeling Challenge was added to Figure 29.2 that asks the student to
Chapter 39 The Production of Offspring: Reproduction and
plan an experiment to be performed in space examining plant stimuli.
Development. The Impact on Public Health section has been
Chapter 30 How Flowering Plants Obtain and Transport updated to reflect current statistical data on human reproductive or
Nutrients. Some new images have been incorporated to foster developmental diseases and disorders.
student understanding. A Modeling Challenge was added to
Chapter 40 Immune Systems: How Animals Defend Against
Figure 30.9 that asks the student to draw models that show how
Pathogens and Other Dangers. Recent new information regarding
soil nutrients that are cations are affected by acid rain.
the evolution of toll-like receptors has been added. The structure
Chapter 31 How Flowering Plants Reproduce and Develop. A and function of immunoglobulins have been elaborated on
Modeling Challenge was added to Figure 31.10 that asks the in a new Modeling Challenge with Figure 40.7. The two major
student to draw a model that shows how synergids first interact mechanisms of cytotoxic T-cell action are now distinguished.
with the egg cell and then foster fertilization when the pollen tube
Chapter 41 Integrated Responses of Animal Organ Systems to
reaches the micropyle.
a Challenge to Homeostasis. The discussion of the structure,
Chapter 32 General Features of Animal Bodies, and Homeostasis function, and (new to this edition) evolution of baroreceptors
as a Key Principle of Animal Biology. The concept of how water and the baroreceptor reflex has been expanded, including a
distributes in an animal’s body fluid compartments has been new Modeling Challenge with Figure 41.3 and new Evolutionary
elaborated on in a new Modeling Challenge with Figure 32.13. Connections feature.
Chapter 33 Neuroscience I: The Structure, Function, and Evolution Chapter 42 Behavioral Ecology: The Struggle to Find Food and
of Nervous Systems. The description of animal nervous systems has Mates and to Pass On Genes. A new chapter-opening vignette
been reorganized under the banner of “Evolutionary Connections” to describes how selective breeding of red foxes in Russia has
emphasize how nervous systems evolved from simple nerve nets to produced different genetic lines of relatively tame foxes and more
complex systems such as those of vertebrates. A Modeling Challenge aggressive foxes. Genetic studies have shown how these behavioral
has been added to Figure 33.8 on the topic of action potentials. differences are related to changes in the foxes’ genomes.
Chapter 34 Neuroscience II: How Sensory Systems Allow Animals Chapter 43 Population Growth and Species Interactions. New
to Interact with the Environment. New information has been technological breakthroughs in ecology, including the use of
added to the section on color vision in animals, including recent drones and phone applications, are described. New technology
discoveries related to restoration of trichromatic vision in monkeys has allowed ecologists to better document wildlife abundance in
with dichromatic vision. A Modeling Challenge has been added to remote and inaccessible locations and document the spread of
Figure 34.21 that asks students to predict the consequence of two tree species across the United States.
different but simultaneously occurring visual disorders in humans.
Chapter 44 Communities and Ecosystems: Ecological
Chapter 35 How Muscles and Skeletons Are Adaptations for Organization of Large Scales. A new subsection in Section 44.6,
Movement, Support, and Protection. Recent information that together with Figure 44.20 and Figure 44.21, describes how the
is revising scientists’ understanding of the evolution of animal biomass distribution on Earth varies across taxa and location. Trees
skeletons has been added. A Modeling Challenge has been constitute by far the highest percentage of the Earth’s biomass,
added to Figure 35.8 on the cross-bridge cycle, specifically on about 80 percent.
how the cycle is arrested during rigor mortis.
Content Changes to the Third Edition xi

Chapter 45 Biomes: How Climate Affects the Distribution of Lake Erie and Lake Washington as examples. Also, Figure 46.25 on
Species on Earth. This chapter now provides greatly expanded the collapse of the Canadian cod industry has been updated, and
coverage of the Earth’s terrestrial biomes, with new text and many Section 46.7 on invasive species has been simplified.
new figures. A new Modeling Challenge with Figure 45.11 asks
Chapter 47 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology. Section 47.2
students to use temperature and precipitation data to position the
provides a fuller discussion of the ethical reasons for conserving
chaparral biome on a Whittaker plot.
biodiversity, while a new section, 47.3, discusses biodiversity and
Chapter 46 The Age of Humans. This chapter highlights new ecosystem function. Section 47.4 has simplified the debate around
research that shows how weathering of the Earth’s bedrock provides conservation strategies. The chapter, and the book, concludes with
about a quarter of the nitrogen circulating through the nitrogen a new subsection on conservation and sustainability.
cycle. The discussion of eutrophication has been modernized using
Strengthen Critical-Thinking Skills with Connect®

Critical-Thinking Skills given detailed feedback that walks through the problem-solving pro-
cess, using Socratic questions in a decision tree–style framework to
scaffold learning. Each step models and reinforces the learning process.
Detailed Feedback in Connect®
The feedback for each higher-level Bloom’s question (Apply,
Learning is a process of iterative development, of making mistakes, Analyze, Evaluate) follows a similar process: Clarify Question,
reflecting, and adjusting over time. The question and test banks in Gather Content, Choose Answer, Reflect on Process.
Connect® for Principles of Biology, third edition, are more than direct
assessments; they are self-contained learning experiences that sys- Unpacking the Concept
tematically build student learning over time. We’ve taken problem solving a step further. In each chapter, two
For many students, choosing the right answer is not necessarily higher-level Bloom’s questions from the question and test banks are
based on applying content correctly; it is more a matter of increasing broken down according to the steps in the detailed feedback.
their statistical odds of guessing. A major fault with this approach is Rather than leaving it up to the student to work through the detailed
that students don’t learn how to process the questions correctly, mostly feedback, we present a second version of the question in a stepwise for-
because they are repeating and reinforcing their mistakes rather than mat. Following the problem-solving steps, students need to answer ques-
reflecting and learning from them. To help students develop problem- tions about the problem-solving process such as “What is the key concept
solving skills, all higher-level Bloom’s questions in Connect® are sup- addressed by the question?” before answering the original question. A
ported with hints, to help students focus on important information for professor can choose which version of the question to include in the
answering the question. After submitting an answer, the student is assignment based on the problem-solving skills of the students.
xii Strengthen Critical-Thinking Skills with Connect®

Quantitative and Data Analysis
Data and Graphing

Interactives Bank
To help students develop ana-
lytical skills, Connect® for
Principles of Biology, third
edition, is enhanced with inter-
active data and graphing ques
tions. Students are presented
with a scientific problem and
the opportunity to manipulate
variables and compare differ-
ent data. A series of questions
follows the activity to assess if
the student understands and is
able to interpret the data and
results.
Quantitative Question Bank

The quantitative question bank contains more challenging algorithmic
questions, intended to help students practice their quantitative reason-
ing skills. Hints and guided solution options step students through a
problem before allowing them to tackle a similar problem.
Strengthen Critical-Thinking Skills with Connect® xiii

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Acknowledgments
The lives of most science-textbook authors do not revolve around an Reviewers for Principles of Biology, third edition
analysis of writing techniques. Instead, we are people who understand
Fernando Agudelo-Silva College of Marin
science and are inspired by it, and we want to communicate that infor-
mation to our students. Simply put, we need a lot of help to get it Sara E. Blumer-Schuette Oakland University
right.
Becky Brown College of Marin
Editors are a key component that help the authors modify the
content of their book so it is logical, easy to read, and inspiring. The Silke Buschmann Northern Arizona University
editorial team for Principles of Biology, third edition, has been a cata-
Elizabeth C. Co Boston University
lyst that kept this project rolling. The members played various roles
in the editorial process. Andrew Urban, Brand Manager for Majors Janet R. Donaldson The University of Southern Mississippi
Biology, did an outstanding job of overseeing the development of this
Jai Dwivedi St. John’s University
new text. Elizabeth Sievers, Senior Product Developer, has been the
master organizer. Liz’s success at keeping us on schedule is greatly Mary Ebersole Northern Virginia Community College Manassas
appreciated.
Markus Friedrich Wayne State University
We would also like to acknowledge our copy editor, Deb DeBord,
for keeping our grammar on track, as well as Angie Sigwarth and Rohini Ganjoo George Washington University
Jane Hoover for their excellent efforts at proofreading.
Yan-Lin Guo The University of Southern Mississippi
Another important aspect of the editorial process is the actual
design, presentation, and layout of materials. It’s confusing if the Melissa A. Gutierrez The University of Southern Mississippi
text and art aren’t near each other or if a figure is too large or too
Sarah Hosch Oakland University
small. We are indebted to the tireless efforts of Jessica Portz, Content
Project Manager, and David Hash, Senior Designer, at McGraw-Hill Lisa Johansen University of Colorado Denver
Education. Likewise, our production company, MPS Limited, did an
Gerard R. Jozwiak Oakland University
excellent job with the paging and art revisions.
We would like to acknowledge the ongoing efforts of the superb David G. Knochel University of Colorado Denver
marketing staff at McGraw-Hill Education. Special thanks to Kelly
Cynthia W. Littlejohn The University of Southern Mississippi
Brown, Executive Marketing Manager, Life Sciences, for his ideas
and enthusiasm for this book. Mario L. Muscedere Boston University
Other staff members at McGraw-Hill Education have ensured
Matthew D. Overturf University of Louisiana Monroe
that the authors and editors were provided with adequate resources
to achieve the goal of producing a superior textbook. These include Thomas Sasek University of Louisiana at Monroe
G. Scott Virkler, Senior Vice President, Products & Markets; Michael
Christopher Steiner Wayne State University
Ryan, Vice President, General Manager, Products & Markets; and
Betsy Whalen, Vice President, Production and Technology Services. Shannon Stevenson University of Minnesota Duluth
We would like to thank the digital authors and subject mat-
Mark Sturtevant Oakland University
ter experts who helped in the development of the digital assets in
Connect® that support Principles of Biology, third edition. Dong-Hua Yang St. John’s University
The authors are grateful for the help, support, and patience of their Xin Zhou Northern Virginia Community College
families, friends, and students: Deb, Dan, Nate, and Sarah Brooker; Rachel Zufferey St. John’s University
Maria, Caroline, and Richard Widmaier; Jim, Michael, and Melissa
Graham; and Jacqui, Zoe, Leah, and Jenna Stiling.
xvi

CONTENTS
Feature Investigation: Anfinsen Showed That the Primary

CHAPTER 1 Structure of Ribonuclease Determines Its Three-Dimensional
Structure 51
An Introduction to Biology 1 Evolutionary Connections: Proteins Contain Functional
Domains 53
1.1 Principles of Biology and the Levels of Biological
3.7 Nucleic Acids 54
Organization 2
1.2 Unity and Diversity of Life 7
Evolutionary Connections: The Study of Evolution Allows Us to UNIT II Cells
Appreciate the Unity and Diversity Among Different Species 11
1.3 Biology as a Scientific Discipline 12
UNIT I Chemistry
©Steve Gschmeissner/Science Source
CHAPTER 4
©Vladislav Gajic/Shutterstock Evolutionary Origin of Cells
and Their General Features 59
CHAPTER 2 4.1 Origin of Living Cells on Earth 60
4.2 Microscopy 66
The Chemical Basis of Life I: 4.3 Overview of Cell Structure and Function 69
Atoms, Molecules, and Water 21 4.4 The Cytosol 74
4.5 The Nucleus and Endomembrane System 79
2.1 Atoms 22 4.6 Semiautonomous Organelles 85
2.2 Chemical Bonds and Molecules 25 Evolutionary Connections: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Are
2.3 Chemical Reactions 29 Derived from Ancient Symbiotic Relationships 88
2.4 Properties of Water 30 4.7 Protein Sorting to Organelles 89
Quantitative Analysis: Concentrations of Molecules in Solution 4.8 Extracellular Matrix and Plant Cell Walls 89
Can Be Defined by Mass and Moles 31 4.9 Systems Biology of Cells: A Summary 94
2.5 pH and Buffers 34
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 3
Membranes: The Interface Between Cells
The Chemical Basis of Life II: and Their Environment 98
Organic Molecules 37
5.1 Membrane Structure 99
3.1 The Carbon Atom and Carbon-Containing 5.2 Fluidity of Membranes 100
Molecules 38 5.3 Overview of Membrane Transport 103
3.2 Synthesis and Breakdown of Organic Molecules 40 5.4 Proteins That Carry Out Membrane Transport 107
3.3 Overview of the Four Major Classes of Organic Feature Investigation: Agre Discovered That Osmosis Occurs
Molecules Found in Living Cells 40 More Quickly in Cells with a Channel That Allows the Facilitated
3.4 Carbohydrates 41 Diffusion of Water 107
3.5 Lipids 44 5.5 Intercellular Channels 113
3.6 Proteins 47 5.6 Exocytosis and Endocytosis 114
5.7 Cell Junctions 116
xvii

xviii Contents
CHAPTER 6 UNIT III Genetics

How Cells Utilize Energy 121
6.1 Energy and Chemical Reactions 122
6.2 Enzymes 125
Quantitative Analysis: Enzyme Function Is Influenced by
Substrate Concentration and by Inhibitors 127
6.3 Overview of Metabolism and Cellular Respiration 129
6.4 Glycolysis 134
6.5 Breakdown of Pyruvate 137
6.6 Citric Acid Cycle 138
©Prof. Kenneth Seddon & Dr. Timothy Evans, Queen’s Univ. Belfast/SPL/
6.7 Oxidative Phosphorylation 138 Science Source
Feature Investigation: Yoshida and Kinosita Demonstrated
That the γ Subunit of ATP Synthase Spins 143
6.8 Connections Among Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat CHAPTER 9
Metabolism 145
6.9 Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation 146 The Information of Life: DNA and RNA Structure, DNA
Replication, and Chromosome Structure 187
CHAPTER 7
9.1 Properties and Identification of the
Genetic Material 188
How Cells Capture Light Energy Feature Investigation: Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty Used
via Photosynthesis 150 Purification Methods to Reveal That DNA Is the Genetic
Material 189
7.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 151
9.2 Nucleic Acid Structure 191
7.2 Reactions That Harness Light Energy 153
9.3 Discovery of the Double-Helix Structure of DNA 195
7.3 Molecular Features of Photosystems 158
9.4 Overview of DNA Replication 197
7.4 Synthesizing Carbohydrates via the
9.5 Molecular Mechanism of DNA Replication 200
Calvin Cycle 160
Feature Investigation: The Calvin Cycle Was Determined
9.6 Molecular Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes 204
by Isotope-Labeling Methods 162
7.5 Variations in Photosynthesis 165 CHAPTER 10
Evolutionary Connections: C4 and CAM Plants Have Evolved a
Mechanism to Minimize Photorespiration 165
The Expression of Genetic Information via Genes I:
Transcription and Translation 209
CHAPTER 8
10.1 Overview of Gene Expression 210
10.2 Transcription 211
How Cells Communicate with Each Other
10.3 RNA Modifications in Eukaryotes 213
and with the Environment 169 10.4 Translation and the Genetic Code 216
8.1 General Features of Cell Communication 170 Feature Investigation: Nirenberg and Leder Found That RNA
8.2 Receptor Activation 173 Triplets Can Promote the Binding of tRNA to Ribosomes 218
Quantitative Analysis: Receptors Have a Measurable Affinity for 10.5 The Machinery of Translation 220
Their Ligands 174 Evolutionary Connections: Comparisons of Small Subunit
8.3 Cell Surface Receptors 175 rRNAs Among Different Species Provide a Basis for Establishing
Evolutionary Relationships 224
8.4 Intracellular Receptors 177
8.5 Signal Transduction and Cellular Response via an 10.6 The Stages of Translation 225
Enzyme-Linked Receptor 178
Evolutionary Connections: Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Are Found CHAPTER 11
in Choanoflagellates and Animals 178
8.6 Signal Transduction and Cellular Response via a The Expression of Genetic Information via Genes II:
G-Protein-Coupled Receptor 180
Non-coding RNAs 229
11.1 Overview of Non-coding RNAs 230

Contents xix
11.2 Role of Non-coding RNAs in Eukaryotic DNA

Replication 234 CHAPTER 15
11.3 Effects of Non-coding RNAs on Chromatin Structure and
Transcription 235 Transmission of Genetic Information from Parents to
11.4 Effects of Non-coding RNAs on Translation and mRNA Offspring I: Patterns That Follow Mendel’s Laws 309
Degradation 236 15.1 Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance 310
Feature Investigation: Fire and Mello Showed That Double-
Quantitative Analysis: A Punnett Square Is Used to Predict the
Stranded RNA Is More Potent Than Antisense RNA in Silencing
Outcome of Crosses 314
mRNA 237
15.2 Chromosome Theory of Inheritance 316
11.5 Non-coding RNAs and Protein Sorting 239
15.3 Pedigree Analysis of Human Traits 319
11.6 Non-coding RNAs and Genome Defense 242
15.4 Variations in Inheritance Patterns and Their Molecular
11.7 Roles of Non-coding RNAs in Human Disease and Plant
Basis 320
Health 244
15.5 Sex Chromosomes and X-Linked Inheritance
Patterns 324
CHAPTER 12
CHAPTER 16
The Control of Genetic Information via Gene
Regulation 248 Transmission of Genetic Information from Parents to
12.1 Overview of Gene Regulation 249 Offspring II: Epigenetics, Linkage, and Extranuclear
12.2 Regulation of Transcription in Bacteria 252 Inheritance 327
12.3 Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes: Roles of
Transcription Factors 256 16.1 Overview of Epigenetics 328
12.4 Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes: Changes in 16.2 Epigenetics: Genomic Imprinting 329
Chromatin Structure and DNA Methylation 259 16.3 Epigenetics: X-Chromosome Inactivation 331
12.5 Regulation of RNA Splicing and Translation in 16.4 Epigenetics: Effects of Environmental Agents 334
Eukaryotes 262 16.5 Extranuclear Inheritance: Organelle Genomes 337
Evolutionary Connections: Chloroplast and Mitochondrial
Quantitative Analysis: Alternative Splicing Is More Prevalent in
Genomes Are Relatively Small but Contain Genes That Encode
Complex Eukaryotic Species 264
Important Proteins 337
16.6 Linkage of Genes on the Same Chromosome 340
CHAPTER 13 Feature Investigation: Bateson and Punnett’s Crosses of
Sweet Peas Showed That Genes Do Not Always Assort
Altering the Genetic Material: Mutation, DNA Repair, Independently 340
and Cancer 267
13.1 Consequences of Mutations 268
CHAPTER 17
13.2 Causes of Mutations 270
Feature Investigation: The Lederbergs Used Replica Plating to The Simpler Genetic Systems of Viruses and Bacteria 345
Show That Mutations Are Random Events 271 17.1 General Properties of Viruses 346
Quantitative Analysis: Testing Methods Determine If an Agent Is
17.2 Viral Reproductive Cycles 349
a Mutagen 274
17.3 Genetic Properties of Bacteria 354
13.3 DNA Repair 275
17.4 Gene Transfer Between Bacteria 357
13.4 Cancer 277 Evolutionary Connections: Horizontal Gene Transfer Is the
Transfer of Genes Between the Same or Different Species 360
CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER 18
How Eukaryotic Cells Sort and Transmit Chromosomes:
Mitosis and Meiosis 285 Genetic Technologies: How Biologists Study Genes
14.1 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle 286 and Genomes 363
14.2 Mitotic Cell Division 291 18.1 Gene Cloning 364
Evolutionary Connections: Cell Division in Bacteria Involves Quantitative Analysis: A DNA Library Is a Collection of Many
FtsZ, a Protein Related to Eukaryotic Tubulin 293 Different DNA Fragments Cloned into Vectors 367
14.3 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 297 18.2 Genomics: Techniques for Studying and Altering
Quantitative Analysis: Meiosis Enhances Genetic Diversity 301
Genomes 370
14.4 Variation in Chromosome Structure and Number 303

xx Contents
18.3 Bacterial and Archaeal Genomes 375

18.4 Eukaryotic Genomes 376 CHAPTER 21
Evolutionary Connections: Gene Duplications Provide Additional
Material for Genome Evolution, Sometimes Leading to the How Biologists Classify Species and Study Their
Formation of Gene Families 378 Evolutionary Relationships 433
18.5 Repetitive Sequences and Transposable Elements 380
21.1 Taxonomy 434
Evolutionary Connections: Every Species Is Placed into a
UNIT IV Evolution Taxonomic Hierarchy 435
21.2 Phylogenetic Trees 437
21.3 Cladistics 440
Quantitative Analysis: The Principle of Parsimony Is Used to
Choose from Among Possible Cladograms 443
21.4 Molecular Clocks 444
21.5 Horizontal Gene Transfer 446
CHAPTER 22
The History of Life on Earth and Human

©Mark Dadswell/Getty Images
Evolution 450
22.1 The Fossil Record 451
Quantitative Analysis: Radioisotopes Provide
CHAPTER 19 a Way to Date Fossils 452
22.2 History of Life on Earth 453
Evolution of Life I: How Populations Change from Evolutionary Connections: The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells Is
Generation to Generation 387 Hypothesized to Involve a Union Between Bacterial and Archaeal
Cells 457
19.1 Overview of Evolution 388
22.3 Human Evolution 463
19.2 Evidence of Evolutionary Change 391 Evolutionary Connections: Comparing the Genomes of Humans
19.3 Genes in Populations 398 and Chimpanzees 464
Evolutionary Connections: Genes Are Usually
Polymorphic 399
Quantitative Analysis: The Hardy-Weinberg Equation Relates UNIT V Diversity
Allele and Genotype Frequencies in a Population 400
19.4 Natural Selection 402
Feature Investigation: The Grants Observed Natural Selection
in Galápagos Finches 406
19.5 Genetic Drift 409
19.6 Migration and Nonrandom Mating 413
CHAPTER 20
Evolution of Life II: The Emergence of

New Species 416 ©David M. Phillips/Science Source
2 µm
20.1 Identification of Species 417
20.2 Reproductive Isolation 419 CHAPTER 23
20.3 Mechanisms of Speciation 422
Feature Investigation: Podos Found That an Adaptation Diversity of Microbial Life: Archaea, Bacteria, Protists,
for Feeding May Have Promoted Reproductive Isolation in and Fungi 477
Finches 424
20.4 Evo-Devo: Evolutionary Developmental 23.1 Introduction to Microorganisms 478
Biology 427 23.2 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Archaea 481
Evolutionary Connections: The Hox Genes Have Been Important 23.3 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Bacteria 482
in the Evolution of a Variety of Body Patterns 428 23.4 Diversity in Bacterial Cell Structure and
Metabolism 485

Contents xxi
23.5 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Protists 489

Evolutionary Connections: Primary Plastids and Primary CHAPTER 27
Endosymbiosis 494
23.6 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Fungi 499 Vertebrates: Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, and
23.7 Technological Applications of Microorganisms 507 Mammals 586
27.1 Vertebrates: Chordates with a Backbone 587
CHAPTER 24 27.2 Cyclostomes: Jawless Fishes 587
27.3 Gnathostomes: Jawed Vertebrates 590
Microbiomes: Microbial Systems on and Around Us 510 27.4 Tetrapods: Gnathostomes with Four Limbs 594
Feature Investigation: Davis and Colleagues Provided a Genetic-
24.1 Microbiomes: Diversity of Microbes and Functions 511 Developmental Explanation for Limb Length in Tetrapods 595
24.2 Microbiomes of Physical Systems 514 27.5 Amniotes: Tetrapods with a Desiccation-Resistant
24.3 Host-Associated Microbiomes 516 Egg 598
Feature Investigation: Blanton, Gordon, and Associates
27.6 Mammals: Milk-Producing Amniotes 603
Found That Gut Microbiota Affect the Growth of Malnourished
Children 522
24.4 Engineering Animal and Plant Microbiomes 524 UNIT VI Flowering Plants
CHAPTER 25
Plant Evolution: How Plant Diversification

Changed Planet Earth 528
25.1 Ancestry and Diversity of Land Plants 529
25.2 An Evolutionary History of Land Plants 536
25.3 Diversity of Modern Gymnosperms 539
25.4 Diversity of Modern Angiosperms 542
Evolutionary Connections: Flower Organs Evolved from Leaflike ©George Grall/Getty Images
Structures 544
Feature Investigation: Hillig and Mahlberg Analyzed Secondary
Metabolites to Explore Species Diversification in the Genus CHAPTER 28
Cannabis 547
25.5 Human Influences on Angiosperm Diversification 550 An Introduction to Flowering Plant Form and
Function 609
CHAPTER 26
28.1 From Seed to Seed: The Life of a Flowering
Plant 610
Invertebrates: The Vast Array of Animal Life
28.2 Plant Growth and Development 614
Without a Backbone 552 28.3 The Shoot System: Stem and Leaf Adaptations 618
26.1 Characteristics of Animals 553 Feature Investigation: Lawren Sack and Colleagues Showed That
26.2 Animal Classification 554 Palmate Venation Confers Tolerance of Leaf Vein Breakage 620
Evolutionary Connections: The Protostomes Consist of Two Major 28.4 Root System Adaptations 626
Clades—the Ecdysozoa and the Lophotrochozoa 557
26.3 Ctenophores: The Earliest Animals 560 CHAPTER 29
26.4 Porifera: The Sponges 561
26.5 Cnidaria: Jellyfish and Other Radially Symmetric How Flowering Plants Sense and Interact with Their
Animals 562
26.6 Lophotrochozoa: The Flatworms, Rotifers, Bryozoans,
Environments 630
Brachiopods, Mollusks, and Annelids 564 29.1 Overview of Plant Behavioral Responses 631
Quantitative Analysis: How Many Flukes? 566 29.2 Plant Hormones 634
26.7 Ecdysozoa: The Nematodes and Arthropods 572 Evolutionary Connections: Plant Gibberellin Responses Evolved
26.8 Deuterostomia: The Echinoderms in a Stepwise Manner 636
and Chordates 580 29.3 Plant Responses to Light 638

xxii Contents
29.4 Plant Responses to Gravity and Touch 641 32.2 Relationship Between Form and Function 699
29.5 Plant Responses to Attack 643 32.3 General Principles of Homeostasis 700
32.4 Homeostatic Regulation of Body Temperature 703
32.5 Homeostasis of Internal Fluids 707
CHAPTER 30 Feature Investigation: Cade and Colleagues Discovered Why
Athletes’ Performances Wane on Hot Days 710
How Flowering Plants Obtain and Transport Water, Mineral
Nutrients, and Organic Compounds 648
CHAPTER 33
30.1 Plant Nutritional Requirements 649
30.2 The Roles of Soil in Plant Nutrition 652 Neuroscience I: The Structure, Function, and Evolution of
30.3 Transport at the Cellular Level 656 Nervous Systems 714
Quantitative Analysis: The Water Potential Equation Can Be Used
to Predict Cellular Water Status 660 33.1 Cellular Components of Nervous Systems 715
Evolutionary Connections: Plants Have Evolved Cellular 33.2 Electrical Properties of Neurons and the Resting
Adaptations to Drought Stress 660 Membrane Potential 718
30.4 Plant Transport at the Tissue Level 661 Quantitative Analysis: An Ion’s Equilibrium Potential Depends on
30.5 Long-Distance Transport in Plants 663 Its Concentration Gradient 720
33.3 Generation and Transmission of Electrical Signals Along
Neurons 721
CHAPTER 31
33.4 Communication at Synapses 726
33.5 Evolution and Development of Nervous
How Flowering Plants Reproduce and Develop 672 Systems 729
31.1 An Overview of Flowering Plant Reproduction 673 Evolutionary Connections: Animals Evolved Increasingly
31.2 Flower Production, Structure, and Development 677 Complex Nervous Systems 729
Feature Investigation: Liang and Mahadevan Used Time-Lapse Video 33.6 Structure and Function of the Nervous Systems of
and Mathematical Modeling to Explain How Flowers Bloom 679 Humans and Other Vertebrates 732
31.3 Male and Female Gametophytes and Double Feature Investigation: Gaser and Schlaug Discovered That the
Fertilization 681 Sizes of Certain Brain Structures Differ Between Musicians and
31.4 Embryo, Seed, Fruit, and Seedling Development 684 Nonmusicians 737
31.5 Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 688 33.7 Impact on Public Health 739
Evolutionary Connections: Gene Expression Changes Explain
the Evolution of Plantlets in Kalanchoë 689 CHAPTER 34
UNIT VII Animals Neuroscience II: How Sensory Systems Allow Animals to
Interact with the Environment 744
34.1 Introduction to Sensation 745
34.2 Mechanoreception 746
34.3 Thermoreception and Nociception 751
34.4 Photoreception 752
Evolutionary Connections: Color Vision Is an Ancient Adaptation
in Animals 755
34.5 Chemoreception 758
Feature Investigation: Buck and Axel Discovered a Family
of Olfactory Receptor Proteins That Bind Specific Odor
©John Rowley/Getty Images Molecules 759
34.6 Impact on Public Health 762
CHAPTER 32 CHAPTER 35
General Features of Animal Bodies, and Homeostasis as a How Muscles and Skeletons Are Adaptations for
Key Principle of Animal Biology 693 Movement, Support, and Protection 765
32.1 Organization of Animal Bodies 694 35.1 Types of Animal Skeletons 766
Evolutionary Connections: Organ Development and Function Are 35.2 Skeletal Muscle Structure and the Mechanism of
Controlled by Hox Genes 699 Force Generation 768

Contents xxiii
Evolutionary Connections: Myosins Are an Ancient and Diverse

Family of Proteins 771 CHAPTER 38
35.3 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers and Their
Functions 775 How Endocrine Systems Influence the Activities of
35.4 Impact on Public Health 777 All Other Organ Systems 848
38.1 Types of Hormones and Their Mechanisms of Action 849
CHAPTER 36 38.2 Links Between the Endocrine and Nervous Systems 852
38.3 Hormonal Control of Metabolism and Energy
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems: Transporting Solutes Balance 854
and Exchanging Gases 780 Feature Investigation: Banting, Best, Collip, and MacLeod Were
the First to Isolate Active Insulin 858
36.1 Types of Circulatory Systems 781 38.4 Hormonal Control of Mineral Balance 861
Evolutionary Connections: A Four-Chambered Heart Evolved Evolutionary Connections: Hormones and Receptors Evolved as
from Simple Contractile Tubes 783 Tightly Integrated Molecular Systems 863
36.2 The Composition of Blood 784 38.5 Hormonal Control of Growth and Development 865
36.3 The Vertebrate Heart and Its Function 786 38.6 Hormonal Control of Reproduction 867
36.4 Blood Vessels 790 38.7 Impact on Public Health 867
36.5 Relationship Among Blood Pressure, Blood Flow, and
Resistance 793
Quantitative Analysis: Cardiac Output and Resistance Determine CHAPTER 39
Blood Pressure 794
36.6 Physical Properties of Gases 796 The Production of Offspring: Reproduction and
36.7 Types of Respiratory Systems 797 Development 870
36.8 Structure and Function of the Mammalian Respiratory
39.1 Overview of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction 871
System 800
Feature Investigation: Paland and Lynch Provided Evidence That
36.9 Mechanisms of Gas Transport in Blood 803
Sexual Reproduction May Promote the Elimination of Harmful
Quantitative Analysis: The Ability of Hemoglobin to
Mutations in Populations 872
Bind Oxygen Is Affected by Factors Such as Temperature, CO2,
39.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization 874
and pH 804
39.3 Human Reproductive Structure and Function 877
36.10 Control of Ventilation 806
39.4 Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals 883
39.5 General Events of Embryonic Development 885
CHAPTER 37
Digestive and Excretory Systems: CHAPTER 40

Maintaining Nutrient, Water, and Energy Balance Immune Systems: How Animals Defend Against Pathogens
and Removing Waste 813 and Other Dangers 895
37.1 Overview of Animal Nutrition 814
40.1 Types of Pathogens 896
37.2 General Principles of Digestion and Absorption of
40.2 Innate Immunity 897
Nutrients 817 Evolutionary Connections: Innate Immune Responses Require
37.3 Vertebrate Digestive Systems 818 Proteins That Recognize Features of Many Pathogens 899
Evolutionary Connections: Evolution and Genetics Explain Feature Investigation: Lemaitre and Colleagues Identified an
Lactose Intolerance 824 Immune Function for Toll Protein in Drosophila 899
37.4 Nutrient Use and Storage 828 40.3 Adaptive Immunity in Vertebrates 902
37.5 Regulation of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive 40.4 Impact on Public Health 912
States in Vertebrates 830
37.6 Excretory Systems in Different Animal Groups 833
37.7 Structure and Function of the Mammalian CHAPTER 41
Kidneys 836
37.8 Impact on Public Health 842 Integrated Responses of Animal Organ Systems to a
Feature Investigation: Marshall, Warren, and Coworkers Challenge to Homeostasis 916
Demonstrated a Link Between Bacterial Infection
and Ulcers 843 41.1 Effects of Hemorrhage on Blood Pressure and Organ
Function 917

xxiv Contents
41.2 The Rapid Phase of the Homeostatic Response to

Hemorrhage 919 CHAPTER 44
Evolutionary Connections: Baroreceptors May Have Evolved to
Minimize Increases in Blood Pressure in Vertebrates 921 Communities and Ecosystems: Ecological Organization
41.3 The Secondary Phase of the Homeostatic Response to at Large Scales 965
Hemorrhage 923
44.1 Patterns of Species Richness and Species Diversity 966
Quantitative Analysis: Calculating Species Diversity 968
44.2 Species Richness and Community Stability 970
UNIT VIII Ecology 44.3 Succession: Community Change 971
44.4 Island Biogeography 974
Feature Investigation: Simberloff and Wilson’s Experiments
Tested the Predictions of the Equilibrium Model of Island
Biogeography 977
44.5 Food Webs and Energy Flow 979
44.6 Biomass Production in Ecosystems 983
CHAPTER 45
Biomes: How Climate Affects the Distribution of

©Kirill Kukhmar/TASS/Alamy Species on Earth 988
45.1 Climate and Its Relationship to Biological
Communities 989
CHAPTER 42 45.2 Major Biomes 995
Evolutionary Connections: Continental Drift and Biogeography
Behavioral Ecology: The Struggle to Find Food and Help to Explain Species Distribution 999
Mates and to Pass on Genes 931

CHAPTER 46
42.1 The Influence of Genetics and Learning on
Behavior 932
Feature Investigation: Tinbergen’s Experiments Showed That
The Age of Humans 1002
Digger Wasps Learn the Positions of Landmarks to Find Their 46.1 Human Population Growth 1003
Nests 933 46.2 Global Warming and Climate Change 1005
42.2 Communication 936 46.3 Pollution and Human Influences on Biogeochemical
42.3 Living in Groups and Optimality Theory 938 Cycles 1008
Quantitative Analysis: Game Theory Establishes Whether Feature Investigation: Stiling and Drake’s Experiments with
Individuals Fight or Flee 940 Elevated CO2 Showed an Increase in Plant Growth but a Decrease
42.4 Altruism 941 in Herbivory 1009
42.5 Mating Systems 944 46.4 Pollution and Biomagnification 1014
46.5 Habitat Destruction 1016
CHAPTER 43 46.6 Overexploitation 1018
Quantitative Analysis: Ecologists Make Calculations to Determine
if Overexploitation is Occurring 1021
Population Growth and Species Interactions 948
46.7 Invasive Species 1022
43.1 Measuring Population Size and Density 949
Quantitative Analysis: Mark-Recapture Can Be Used to Estimate
Population Size 950
CHAPTER 47
43.2 Demography 951
43.3 How Populations Grow 954 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology 1027
43.4 Species Interactions 956 47.1 Genetic, Species, and Ecosystem Diversity 1028
Evolutionary Connections: Organisms Have Evolved Many 47.2 Value of Biodiversity to Human Welfare 1028
Defenses Against Natural Enemies 959
47.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function 1031
47.4 Conservation Strategies 1033
Appendix A Periodic Table of the Elements A-1

Appendix B Answers to In-Chapter and End-of-Chapter Questions B-1
Index I-1

1
An Introduction to Biology
The Raggiana bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea rag-

giana), which is the national bird of Papua New
Guinea. As discussed in Section 1.2, the striking
characteristics of male birds are the result of a type
of natural selection called sexual selection.
Chapter Outline
1.1 Principles of Biology and the
Levels of Biological Organization
1.2 Unity and Diversity of Life
1.3 Biology as a Scientific Discipline
Assessing Your Knowledge and Skills
©TeeJe/Getty Images
Biology is the study of life. The diverse an intriguing discipline. The study
forms of life found on Earth provide of life not only reveals the fascinat-
biologists with an amazing array of ing characteristics of living species
organisms to study. In many cases, the but also leads to the development
investigation of living things leads to of medicines that benefit the lives of
discoveries with far-reaching benefits. people.
Certain ancient civilizations, such as To make new discoveries, biolo-
the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians, gists view life from many different
discovered that the bark of the white perspectives. What is the composi-
willow tree (Salix alba) could be used tion of living things? How is life orga-
to fight fever. Chemists determined nized? How do organisms reproduce?
that willow bark contains a substance Sometimes the questions posed by
called salicylic acid, which led to the biologists are fundamental and even
development of the related com- philosophical in nature. How did liv-
pound acetylsalicylic acid, more com- ing organisms originate? Can we live
monly known as aspirin (Figure 1.1). forever? What is the physical basis for
Today, aspirin is taken for fever and memory? Can we save endangered
pain relief. species?
As a more recent example, Future biologists will continue to
researchers determined that the make important advances. Biologists
venom from certain poisonous snakes are scientific explorers looking for
contains a chemical that lowers blood answers to some of life’s most endur-
pressure in humans. By analyzing that ing mysteries. Unraveling these mys-
chemical, scientists have developed teries presents exciting challenges
drugs called ACE inhibitors that treat to the best and brightest minds.
high blood pressure (Figure 1.2). The rewards of a career in biology
These are just a couple of the include the excitement of forging
many discoveries that make biology into uncharted territory, the thrill of
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journey. The logging business is carried on most extensively around
the head waters of the great rivers in the northern part of Maine.
These, however, were too far distant, and the roads to them too little
travelled, to be visited with much pleasure or even safety, at this
season of the year. The camp which Mr. Davenport intended to visit
was situated on one of the tributaries of the Kennebec river, about
forty miles from Brookdale. Here they could obtain quite as correct
an idea of the loggers’ life as they could by going farther north,
though the business was carried on upon a smaller scale at this
place.
Fanny trotted off at a brisk pace, and soon the travellers found
themselves upon a road where no houses nor cultivated land could
be seen,—but tall forest trees rose on each side, and spread away in
the distance as far as the eye could see.
“What lots of woods,” said Clinton; “I don’t see why they go so far
after logs, when they are so plenty around here.”
“I suppose one reason is,” said his father, “that these forests are
not very convenient to a stream, so that the logs could not be easily
floated down to the saw-mills. Perhaps, too, the land belongs to
somebody who thinks the lumber will be more valuable by and by
than it is now. There are many large tracts of wood scattered over
the State, even in parts which have been settled for years.”
“I should think it would take a great many ages to use up all the
wood there is in this State,” continued Clinton.
“I hope it will be a great while,” remarked Mr. Davenport, “before
we are as badly off for wood as they are in some parts of the old
world. What would you think of buying fire-wood by the pound? Yet
this is the way it is sold in Paris and many other European cities. A
man who had travelled a great deal, once told me that he had known
wood to sell at the rate of eighty-five dollars a cord, in Naples. In
France, and Spain, too, wood is very scarce, and as but little coal is
used, the people learn to be very economical in the use of fuel. He
says it would cost a fortune for a man to keep up such fires in his
house, in Paris, as we do here. The trimmings of fruit trees and
grape vines, and everything that will burn, is carefully saved.
Lumber, for building purposes, is also much dearer than it is here,
and is much less used than with us. But some people think the time
will come when wood and lumber will be as dear here as they are
now in Europe.”
Patches of fenced lands, some of which had evidently been
cultivated, now began to appear, and in a few minutes a little
settlement of farm-houses became visible; but the travellers did not
stop, and were soon again in the forests, with no signs of civilization
around them but the road upon which they travelled. Most of the pine
trees had been cut down, in this tract, but a few lofty and noble
specimens remained, as if to show what had been there. The stumps
of these departed giants of the forest were scattered in every
direction, and some of them were of great size. They had no
measuring tape, but Mr. Davenport, after carefully examining one of
these stumps, calculated that it measured fully seventeen feet in
circumference, at the “cut.” There was a pine still standing, near by,
which he thought would measure almost as much as this. Its height
he estimated at one hundred and thirty feet.
But though there were few white pines left, there was no lack of
trees. Among those which Clinton recognized, was a small, scraggy
species of pine; the stiff, cone-shaped cedar; the mountain ash, with
its clusters of bright red berries; the noble and cleanly beech; the
thrifty, broad-headed butternut; the graceful birch, with its silvery
trunk; the maple, the larch, the spruce, etc. There was also a dense
growth of smaller trees or bushes, among which he found the hazel,
filbert, moose-wood, alder, bear-berry, winter-green, and other
familiar shrubs. The conversation turned upon the properties and
uses of these several trees,—for Mr. Davenport always improved
such occasions for giving Clinton useful information concerning the
objects around him. He told him what an excellent substitute beech
leaves were for straw, for filling beds; and how valuable the sugar-
maples will one day be considered, when the people get in the way
of making sugar as an article of export; and how the Shakers use the
wood of the butternut for making bowls, and sell the bark to the
apothecaries for medicinal purposes; and how fond the partridge is
of the little red bear-berries.
“As to the birches, which are so plenty along here, I suppose you
already know something of their peculiar virtues,” continued Mr.
Davenport.
“I guess a few of the boys at school discovered what they are
good for, this winter,” replied Clinton, with a laugh.
“Well, I made the same discovery myself, when I went to school,”
added Mr. Davenport. “The master got out of birch rods, one day,
and sent me off to cut some. The tree which we usually patronized
for this purpose was near by a pond where there happened to be
excellent skating; and as my skates were handy, I having hid them
under a log before going into school, I thought I would take a turn or
two round the pond, after cutting the twigs. I did so; and then
returned to school, with half a dozen long, stout rods. As the master
took them, he said, with a smile, ‘Ah, these look nice, but the proof of
the pudding is in the eating, so I will just test them a little.’ I laughed
at his pleasantry, and turned to go to my seat, when he said, ‘Here,
sir, come back, I’m in earnest—I want to test these a little before you
take your seat.’ And sure enough, he did test one of the longest of
them, so that I carried proofs of its virtues upon my legs for several
days after. ‘There,’ said he, after he had satisfied himself, ‘these rods
will do very well; now you may go to your seat, and when I send you
after the next lot, don’t you stop to skate on the pond!’ I afterwards
learned that he grew suspicious of my long absence, and sent out a
boy to see what had become of me, who reported to him that I was
skating. Ever since that day, I have had a very lively recollection of
the virtues of the birch tree.”
“Master Eaton often says boys are subject to some complaints that
have to be doctored on the botanical system—he says there is
nothing but oil of birch that will save them,” remarked Clinton.
“Speaking of the oil of birch,” said Mr. Davenport, “did you know
that it is valuable for tanning leather, as well as boys’ hides?”
“No, sir, I didn’t know there was really such a thing as the oil of
birch,” replied Clinton. “I thought people used the words only in fun.”
“There is such a substance, and it is said to be used in tanning
hides, and currying leather, in Russia. They distil it from the outside
bark of the tree. Did you never notice that the birch-bark often
remains entire, after the tree to which it belonged has gone to
decay?”
“Yes, sir, I know some trees back of our house that have been
dead ever since I can remember, and are all rotten inside, and yet
the bark looks as though it was alive.”
“That is because this oil in the bark preserves it from decay. And
there is another curious thing about this tree—it is generally the first
to spring up after a forest has been cut down, or burned over. I
suppose most of these birches that we see around us, have grown
up since the pines were cut down. They are not at all particular about
their location, but will manage to flourish wherever they can find a
standing place. They seem to take it for granted that a birch tree is
better than no tree, and so they squeeze in and fill up the spaces in
the forests, and settle down upon all unappropriated tracts. And in
fact they are not to be despised; for they grow rapidly, are rather
pretty, and are not only useful to tanners and school-masters, but
their branches make strong withes, when green, and their wood
makes good fuel, when seasoned.”
“Quite a catalogue of virtues,” remarked Clinton.
“Yes—and here we are, almost at Uncle Tim’s, nearly half through
our journey,” added Mr. Davenport.
Mr. Lewis, or “Uncle Tim,” as he was always called, was an old
pioneer, who settled down in this wilderness years ago, his “clearing”
being many miles distant from any neighbor. This was the last house
they would meet, on the road to the camp, and as Uncle Tim’s
dwelling was a sort of tavern, at which all travellers over the road
were accustomed to stop, Mr. Davenport had determined to rest
Fanny there until the next morning.
CHAPTER XV.
THE CLEARING.
U NCLE TIM was very glad to see Mr. Davenport and Clinton, as
he always was to see travellers. He called Bill, one of his boys,
to go and put up the horse, while he led the strangers into the house,
where his wife had already set about preparing something for them
to eat, for it was past noon, and the family had just finished their
dinner.
Clinton soon slipped outside, to take a look at the premises, for his
curiosity was much excited by the novel appearance of things. The
clearing was very large, and not a native tree had been left upon it;
but it was completely surrounded by a straight, unbroken line of
forest, which looked like a perpendicular wall. The land consisted of
gentle slopes and valleys, and was divided into separate fields, by
fences made of stumps and logs. Nearly in the centre of the clearing
stood the house and barn. They were both built of spruce logs,
placed one upon another, cob-house fashion, the chinks between
them being filled up with clay and moss. From the centre of the
house rose a huge stone chimney. The windows were glazed in the
common manner. As Clinton was looking around, Uncle Tim came
out and spoke to him:—
“What do you think of it, young man?” he said; “do you suppose
you could build as good a house as this, with nothing but an axe?”
“I guess not,” replied Clinton; “but you didn’t build it with an axe,
did you?”
“I didn’t have much of anything else to work with, I assure you,”
said Uncle Tim. “There’s no knowing what you can do with an axe,
until you set out and try. But come in—I guess your dinner’s about
ready.”
Uncle Tim guessed right. The table was covered with tempting
food, in great profusion, and Clinton and his father sat down to it with
a good appetite.
“You don’t starve yourselves, up here in the woods,” said Mr.
Davenport, glancing at the heaping dishes.
“No,” said Uncle Tim, “we can generally find something to eat; but
it’s a pity you didn’t come along a little sooner, so as to have had
some of our dinner.”
But the travellers did not pity themselves, if Uncle Tim did; for with
the fried ham and eggs, the nice wheaten bread, the delicious milk,
the sweet cakes and mountain cranberry sauce, the rich cheese, and
tea sweetened with molasses, they were in no danger of starving.
After their meal, Clinton renewed his examination of the house;
and Uncle Tim seeing he was interested in it, began to tell him how
he built it. He pitched upon the spot about twenty years before; and
after securing his title, he took his axe and went to work cutting down
trees. The first trees he felled, he used in building a “camp,” a hut
made of logs and covered with bark. After he had cleared about an
acre, and lopped off the limbs of the fallen trees, he set them on fire
in the fall. The logs, which remained unconsumed, were afterwards
cut into lengths of ten or twelve feet, piled together in heaps, and
again set on fire. Thus he had burned hundreds of cords of wood, to
get rid of it, which would have sold for six or seven dollars a cord,
could he have sent it to Portland or Boston. In the spring he planted
his corn and potatoes, and then went to work again with his axe and
cleared another piece. By-and-by he began to feel lonesome, for
thus far he had been entirely alone, with the exception of a couple of
trusty dogs; so he went back to the town from which he came,
married a wife, and then returned to his home in the forest. After a
while their family began to increase, and so they built a larger and
better house,—the one in which they were now sitting.
This was the substance of Uncle Tim’s story, although he made a
much longer one of it than I have done; for it was not very often that
he saw a stranger, and when he did, his tongue was pretty sure to
enjoy a holiday,—not of rest, but of action.
By this time, Mrs. Lewis had cleared off the table, and Clinton was
not a little astonished to see it suddenly converted into a rude but
capacious arm-chair! The round top of the table was turned up
against the wall, thus forming the back of the chair; and the frame
which supported it, became the arms. The object of this was to
economize space as well as furniture,—for in log houses there is
seldom any room to waste upon useless articles.
There were five rooms, but the partitions, instead of being of
plastering, were made of wood. Clinton, noticing this, said:—
“I thought you said you built this house with an axe; but how did
you make your boards for the doors, and partitions, and floors?”
“Boards? Why, bless you, there isn’t a board in the house. These
things are splints, not boards. I made them by splitting spruce logs.
The roof is covered with them, too, and I’m going to clapboard the
house with the same things afore next winter.”
Clinton’s mistake was very natural, for the floor and partitions were
almost as smooth and straight as though made of sawed and planed
boards. Clinton noticed in the floor, however, a great number of small
holes, which Uncle Tim told him were made by the spikes that the
drivers fix upon their boots to prevent their slipping off the logs. This
led Clinton to another discovery. The river, to whose head waters
they were going, passed through Uncle Tim’s clearing; but as it was
frozen over, and the ice partially covered with snow, Clinton had not
noticed it before. It was down this river that the logs and their iron-
shod drivers came, and the latter were in the habit of stopping at
uncle Tim’s for supplies.
Seeing a noble looking dog asleep in the chimney-corner, Clinton
inquired if that was one of the two that came with him when he first
settled in the woods.
“No,” said Uncle Tim, “but he’s a son of theirs, and a worthy
successor he is, too,—aint you, Hunter?” Hunter, at the mention of
his name, started from his doze, and wagged his bushy tail, which
said “Yes,” as plain as tail could speak. “He considers the poultry
under his charge,” continued Uncle Tim, “just as his father and
mother did afore him, and he wont suffer a hawk or any big bird to
come within twenty rods of the chickens. He’s great on Ingins, too,—
he smells ’em a mile off, and barks long afore they’re in sight.”
“Do you have many Indians about here?” inquired Clinton.
“Not many; a few stragglers come along once in a while. Red-
skins aint so plenty as they were when I first came here, nor half so
saucy either. They know it’s their fate to give way to their betters,
and it makes them sort of humble like.”
Clinton now went out to the barn, where he found two stout, hearty
lads, larger than himself, giving the cattle their suppers. These were
Uncle Tim’s sons. “Bill” and “Jim” were the only names by which he
heard them called. Their faces were brown, their hands large and
rough, and their clothing was of the coarsest description; but their
bodies were finely developed, and, like their father, they were
shrewd and intelligent, though they had never enjoyed a day’s
schooling. Clinton took hold and helped them about their work, and
soon he felt very well acquainted with them. They asked him a great
many questions about Brookdale, and he, in return, was quite as
inquisitive about their home. He was astonished to learn, as he did,
in the course of the conversation, that Bill, the eldest of these great,
broad-shouldered, wide-chested, and long-legged boys, was only
about a year older than himself, while Jim was actually his junior by
three months. Hard work, constant exposure to the air, and hearty
food, had hastened their growth to a remarkable degree.
The barn was larger than the house, and was built in much the
same way, though there were only wooden shutters to the windows
instead of glass, and the wood generally was not so smoothly
finished as it was in the house. The stock consisted of horses, cows,
oxen, pigs and hens. The ground served as a floor, in the lower
story; but overhead there was a loft, in which hay, straw, and other
articles were stored. Clinton learned from the boys, that their father
raised all the hay and grain necessary for the stock. Potatoes, grass,
and oats, were their principal crops, but they generally had small
patches of wheat and Indian corn. There were a few apple trees,
which Uncle Tim had raised from the seed, but the boys said the fruit
was sour and crabbed, fit only for “sarse,” or the pigs.
When Clinton returned to the house, he found preparations
making for supper. The fire-place,—the only one the house could
boast,—was almost large enough to admit of roasting an ox whole;
and the heap of burning logs, four feet long and unsplit, looked as if
Mrs. Lewis was intending to accomplish some such feat. But it was
only her ordinary fire, such as she always had to boil the tea-kettle,
and bake a pan of cakes. The fire-place was built of stone, and there
was a hearth of the same material before it. An iron crane swung
over the fire, from which the tea-kettle and baking kettle were
suspended, by hooks shaped like the letter S. Near the ceiling, over
the hearth, a string was stretched across the room, on which a few
stockings were drying.
The arm-chair was now converted into a table, and supper was
soon ready. It was very similar to the meal of which Mr. Davenport
and Clinton had already partaken. Uncle Tim’s two boys did not
come to the table until the others had risen, as there was not room
enough for all. After the boys had finished their supper, Clinton
asked them if they would not go down with him to the river. They
complied with his request, and as they were on their way, they
passed some logs, by the side of which there was an axe, with a
remarkably long helve or handle.
“Hullo,” said Clinton, “I guess that axe was made for a giant.”
“No,” said Bill, “the helve has to be long so that the chopper can
stand on the log when he cuts, so fashion,” and he jumped upon the
log, and gave it two or three blows that made it crack to the centre.
Clinton found the river narrower than he expected, and as the
snow had drifted in, there was not much ice to be seen. The boys
told him, however, that in the spring the stream was two or three
times as wide and deep as it was now, and they described to him its
lively appearance in a freshet, when thousands of logs were swept
down its swift current, every day, and the jolly drivers were
continually passing, to start off those timbers that happened to lodge
against the rocks or shores.
“I’m going to be a logger,” said Bill; “they have first-rate times up in
the woods, in the winter, and it’s real fun to see them go down the
river in the spring.”
“Poh,” said Jim, “I’ll bet you’ll get enough of it in one season.
Father says it’s the hardest life a fellow can choose.”
“And what do you mean to be, Jim?” inquired Clinton.
“I want to be a carpenter,” replied Jim, “but father wont get me any
tools, nor let me go away to learn the trade. Do you have any tools
where you live, Clinton?”
“Yes, lots of them. My father used to be a carpenter, and has got a
whole set of tools, and lets me use them as much as I please.”
“O, how I wish I had some tools,” continued Jim. “I mean to ask
father to let me go over and see yours some time.”
“I wish he would let you go,” said Clinton. “I’d show you all our
tools, and how to use them, too.”
Night was fast drawing on, and the boys had now reached the
house, where they found Uncle Tim and Mr. Davenport talking about
the elections. There was in the room an article of furniture called a
settle, a bench large enough for three or four to sit upon, with a high
back, and arms to lean upon at each end. Clinton did not notice this
particularly as it stood in the back part of the room; but when the
boys moved it up to the fire, and all three seated themselves upon it,
he was much pleased with it.
“Father,” he said, during a pause in the conversation, “I wish we
had one of these seats—don’t you suppose I could make one?”
“I think very likely you could,” replied Mr. Davenport.
“I mean to try, when I get home,” added Clinton, and he examined
it still more carefully, to see how it was constructed.
“That settle was my grand-father’s, Master Clinton,” said Uncle
Tim, “and you must see if you can’t make one that will last as long as
that has—then your grand-children will have something to remember
you by.”
“I’ll try,” said Clinton, with a laugh.
“‘I’ll try’—those are good words, my boy,” said Uncle Tim. “That’s
what Col. Miller said, when Gen. Brown asked him if he could carry
Queenstown Heights. ‘I’ll try,’ said he, and sure enough he did try,
and gained a splendid victory, and Congress gave him a gold medal,
with ‘I’ll try’ engraved on it. So you stick to that motto, Master Clinton,
and I guess your grand-children will have a settle to remember you
by—don’t you think so?”
Clinton laughed, and seeing Uncle Tim was in so pleasant a mood,
he asked him if he wouldn’t let Jim go over to see him, some time.
Jim, finding the ground was broken, lost no time in putting in a word
for himself; and as Mr. Davenport said he should like to have the
boys visit Clinton, Uncle Tim gave a sort of half promise that Jim
should go, some time when he could spare him.
The rest of the evening was spent in listening to Uncle Tim’s
stories of his early life in the woods. He related many interesting
accounts of his adventures with bears and wolves, and other savage
animals, which were then more numerous than now. One of his
anecdotes, which greatly amused Clinton, was as follows:—
“Now I’m going to tell you a story,” said Uncle Tim, “that happened
a good many years ago, up in Vermont. I guess it was afore I was
born, but never mind, it may be just as new to you, for all that. There
were three brothers that went from Massachusetts and settled close
together in the wilderness, up there. They all lived in one log hut, and
ate out of the same porringer, but each fellow had his own patch of
land, and as it was pleasanter being together than alone, they
agreed to take turns in working upon each other’s farms. One day, all
hands worked on Jake’s farm, the next day on Sam’s, and the next
on Bill’s—perhaps I haven’t got the names right, but never mind that.
But by-and-by one of them got sort of jealous, or dissatisfied, or
something of that kind, and said he would not work that way any
longer, no how. So the other two stuck together, and let the odd
sheep do as he pleased. Well, one day, while the two that agreed
were working in the field, they heard a tremendous outcry from the
other brother’s lot. So they up and seized their rifles, which they
always kept right under their noses, and ran to see what the matter
was. They expected to see some horrible sight, you know, but what
do you suppose they found? Why, there was their brother up in a
little sapling, rocking to and fro, and bellowing with all his might, and
below was a great bear, looking up dreadful earnest at him. It seems
the bear came suddenly at him, and as he hadn’t time to go after his
rifle, he sprung to the nearest sapling, which he knew the bear
couldn’t climb. But the sapling was so slender it bent over like a bow,
bringing him in such a position that he had to hold on with both his
feet and hands, and the bent part of his body, which was covered
with his buckskin breeches, hung down almost within reach of the
bear. Old Bruin soon discovered this, and so stood up on his hind
legs, to see if he couldn’t reach him that way; but all he could do was
to give the fellow a push with his fore paw, which set him and his
sapling to swinging back and forth. His claws did not go through the
buckskin breeches, but the man thought he was a gone case, and
roared dreadfully. The bear then squatted on his haunches to enjoy
the sport, and when the force of the blow was spent, and the man
began to get steady, he up and gave him another start. When the
other two fellows saw the state of the case, they laughed about as
loud as their brother hollered, and it was some time afore they could
steady their hands so as to put a bullet into the bear. After that
scrape all three of them hitched horses together again and went to
work on the old plan. The old bear paid dear for his sport, but you
can’t say he didn’t do some good in the world, can you? If it hadn’t
been for him, just as likely as not the fuss among those brothers
would have grown bigger and bigger, until they quarrelled just like
cats and dogs.”
At nine o’clock, Uncle Tim wound up his yarns, and soon after all
retired to bed. They ascended to the second floor by means of a
ladder. There were two bed-rooms, with a space between them,
which served both as an entry and a store room. The great chimney
came up through this entry. Each bed-room had one window, in the
gable end of the house, but the space between the rooms was dark,
except when the chamber doors were open. The roof came down
nearly to the floor, on each side, and in the centre of the rooms, a tall
man could hardly stand erect. Mr. Davenport and Clinton slept in one
of these rooms, and Bill and Jim in the other. Uncle Tim and his wife
had a bed-room down stairs. A straw bed made up upon the floor,
without a bedstead, a large chest, and one chair, were the only
furniture in the room where Clinton slept. There were several long
wooden pegs driven into the logs which served as rafters, upon
which they hung their clothing; and soon both were sleeping as
sweetly as though they had been quartered in the best room of a
“first-class hotel.”
CHAPTER XVI.
THE LOGGERS.
T HE sun rose clear, the next morning, and after an early and
bountiful breakfast, Mr. Davenport and Clinton bid good-bye to
Uncle Tim and his family, and resumed their journey. The country
through which they rode was much the same as that they had
already passed over, with the exception that it was if possible even
more stern and wild, not a single house or cultivated spot meeting
their eyes during the whole forenoon’s ride. After the first hour,
Clinton was not quite as lively as usual. In fact, he felt a trifle less
cheerful than ordinary—he could not tell whether it sprang from a
touch of home-sickness, or from a sense of lonesomeness. But his
unpleasant feelings arose more from the influence of the dreary
winter scenery upon his mind, than from either of these causes. His
father, noticing this, chatted away in a more lively strain than usual,
and after awhile succeeded in dispelling the tinge of gloom from his
mind.
The road being travelled but very little, the sleighing was poor, and
there was no prospect of their reaching their destination before the
middle of the afternoon. Accordingly, about noon, they reined up, for
the purpose of resting the horse, and eating their dinner. Having
given Fanny a wisp of hay, to take up her mind, they collected
together a heap of dead wood, the remnants of fallen trees, etc.,
which they found near the road, and set it on fire. It burned finely,
and sent out a cheerful warmth, in which they seated themselves,
and partook with a keen relish of the various good things which
Clinton’s mother had stowed away in the sleigh-box.
After halting about an hour at this place, they resumed their
journey, and a ride of about three hours brought them within hearing
of the loggers. The first indication they had that they were near the
camp, was the loud “Gee, haw-buck, whoa!” of a man who was
driving oxen. These sounds had a very enlivening effect upon
Clinton, who could scarcely refrain from jumping from his seat, and
running ahead, so impatient was he to see some signs of humanity
in the dreary wilderness. But in a few moments, they came in sight of
the camp, and soon they noticed two or three men, with long hair
and immense whiskers, approaching them from different directions.
Mr. Davenport recognized an old acquaintance in one of them, and
received a most hearty welcome from him.
“Mr. Jones,” said Mr. Davenport, “my boy has long wanted to see
how the loggers live; and as I had a little leisure and the weather and
sleighing were promising, I thought I would gratify his wishes.”
“I am right glad to see you, and him, too,” said Mr. Jones; and he
seized Clinton by the hand, and gave it a gripe and a shake which he
felt for ten minutes afterward;—“why, I haven’t laid eyes on a child or
a youngster, for four months, and it’s a real treat to see you, I can tell
you. I’ve got a boy of my own, at home, about your size, and a fine
little fellow he is, too. I’m afraid you’ll find rather poor quarters here in
the camp, but you are welcome to such accommodations as we
have, just so long as you’ll stay.”
The horse was taken from the sleigh and led to the cattle hut, and
Mr. Jones conducted Mr. Davenport and Clinton to one of the camps,
where he told them to make themselves at home. He offered them
food, which they declined until the usual supper-hour. He had many
questions to ask concerning what was going on in the world, from
which the loggers are almost shut out; and as he and Mr. Davenport
were absorbed in their conversation, Clinton slipped out to
reconnoitre the premises.
The camp, he found, was situated in the midst of the woods; and
not, as he expected to find it, in a clearing. There was no scenery at
all; the tall trees shut out the prospect on every side, and the only
opening for the eye was towards the clear, blue heavens above.
Only a few trees had been cut down, to serve as material for the
houses, or as fuel. This spot was chosen for the sake of the shelter it
afforded in severe weather, and also, because there was an
excellent spring of water convenient to it.
Clinton now turned his attention to the camps. These were built of
logs, but in a style much inferior to Uncle Tim’s house, in the
clearing. As they are but temporary affairs, the loggers only aim at
making them habitable for one or two winters. There were three of
these buildings, one of which was used by the oxen. They were each
about twenty feet long by fifteen wide and were built of logs placed
one on the top of another, and the whole sides and roof covered with
bark. Each camp had one door, but no windows. A hole in the middle
of the roof, three or four feet square, served both for a chimney and
a window.
Clinton now returned to the camp, where his father and Mr. Jones
were sitting, and began to inspect the interior. He found there were
no partitions,—for the loggers have no occasion for more than one
room. The principal feature of the interior was the fire-place. This
was directly under the hole in the roof, and was about six feet in
diameter. The ground had been dug out nearly two feet deep, to
make a bed for the fire and ashes, and the space was surrounded by
stones. Benches, made of split logs, were arranged around the fire,
which served both as seats and tables. He noticed that the door had
a wooden latch, which was very ingeniously whittled to resemble an
iron one. The only other articles in the room were a pork barrel,
water bucket, basin, dipper, towel, a few cooking and eating utensils,
and a dozen greasy and well-worn books and newspapers. The floor
was thickly strewn with leaves of arbor vitæ, especially under the
eaves, which came down to within three feet of the ground. These
formed the loggers’ beds.
Such was the rude house in which Clinton was to spend two or
three nights. He afterwards found that it differed from the cattle hut
only in having a fire-place, and an outlet through the roof. But that
fire-place, with the “rousing fire” which it afforded at all hours of the
day and night, made the hovel comparatively cheerful and
comfortable. So far from feeling disappointed with his quarters,
Clinton longed for bed-time to come, that he might enjoy the new
sensation of sleeping in such a romantic place.
At sunset, the men began to return from their work. They all wore
coarse but warm and durable clothing, and one article seemed
universal among them, namely, red flannel shirts. Their beards and
hair had not been trimmed since they left home. As they arrived at
their quarters, they flocked around Mr. Davenport and Clinton, as if a
strange face was a very unusual sight among them, as, indeed, it
was. When they had all returned from their work, Clinton counted
twenty men and six yoke of oxen.
Having washed their faces and hands, the men now commenced
preparations for supper, in both camps. It was fast growing dark, but
they had no lamps, the blazing fire lighting up their houses very
brilliantly. Kettles of water were boiled, and tea was made. Presently,
one of the men began to poke round in the ashes and coals, and
soon drew forth a large baking-kettle, which had been buried there
two hours before. On taking off the cover, a huge loaf of bread
presented itself, which even an accomplished housewife might have
been proud to own, so far as appearance was concerned. This, with
a few slices of boiled salt pork, and tea sweetened with molasses
and without milk, constituted their supper. They had no butter, but
spread molasses on their bread, instead. Clinton ate heartily of the
homely fare. The bread proved quite as nice as it looked, and even
the tea tasted pleasantly to him. Mr. Davenport emptied what
remained of the contents of the baskets which his wife had stowed
away in the sleigh-box, saying that he would exchange his cakes
and pies for a little of their bread, when he started for home. He and
Clinton had consumed but a small part of their provisions, and this
disposal of the surplus appeared to gratify the loggers very much, as
they had not tasted of any luxuries of this kind for many a day.
After supper, the men gathered around the fire, on the benches,
and talked, and told stories, until nearly ten o’clock, when one after
another began to creep away to his bed of leaves, and stretch
himself out, with his feet towards the fire. Clinton and his father soon
followed their example, and extended themselves upon the soft
leaves, without removing their clothing. The novelty of their position,
the crackling and glare of the fire, and the breathing and snoring of a
dozen strong men, did not permit either of them to sleep much
during the first part of the night. Clinton lay for more than two hours,
at times watching the stars through the opening in the roof, and then
gazing steadfastly at the flickering fire and the curling smoke
spangled with sparks. But at last he fell asleep, though he awoke
again, several times, before morning. Occasionally, one of the men,
who happened to awake, would get up and put a fresh log upon the
fire, which is kept burning by night as well as by day.
By sunrise, the next morning, the men in both camps had
despatched their breakfasts, and turned out the oxen, and were
ready to commence the day’s work. Mr. Davenport and Clinton
determined to accompany them to the scene of their operations,
which was a short distance from the camp, and spread over a
considerable extent of ground. The men did not all work together, but
after proceeding a little way, they separated into three different
gangs. The choppers, or those who cut down the trees, formed one
party, and proceeded by themselves to their particular spot. Another
gang were called swampers. It was their business to clear roads
from the felled trees to the landing place on the banks of the river,
where the logs remain until the breaking up of the ice in the spring,
when they are rolled into the water. The third party were teamsters,
whose business it was to haul the logs from the forest to the stream.
These last had the assistance of the oxen, which were attached to
little “bobsleds,” as they were called, upon which the heavy end of
the log was placed, while the other dragged upon the snow.
Clinton had abundant time to witness the operations of all these
gangs, during the day. He found there was not much of either novelty
or variety, in their labors, which in fact differed but little from the
routine of the wood-chopper, which he had often witnessed at home.
The sturdy strokes of the choppers, followed by the falling of the
noble tree,—the stripping of the prostrate trunk of its branches,—the
clearing of a passage way for the oxen through the small growth,
and the hauling of the log to the river’s bank, were by no means
novel sights to him. At the landing-place he found hundreds of logs
piled up, awaiting the opening of the river. Each log had a peculiar
and uniform mark cut in the sap-wood, by an axe, somewhat
resembling a crow’s foot, by which the owner would be enabled to
know it when it should reach the great boom far away down the river,
and become mixed up with thousands of other logs, belonging to
many different persons. Each owner has his own private mark or
device, which is bored or cut into all his logs, and thus he is always
able to distinguish them from those of other lumber-men.
Clinton kept with the loggers all day, witnessing their operations,
and asking questions about their business. Indeed, he did not dare
to go far from them, for fear of getting lost in the woods. At sunset,
he returned with them from their labors, and after the homely
evening meal, he sat and listened to the stories of the loggers, until
bed-time. These stories were mostly of encounters with bears and
wolves in the wilderness, of hunting excursions, and of adventures
and exploits in the logging-camp and upon the river. One of the
oldest and most intelligent of the men related the following

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Strengthen Critical-Thinking Skills with Connect®

xii Strengthen Critical-Thinking Skills with Connect®

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Data and Graphing

Quantitative Question Bank

Strengthen Critical-Thinking Skills with Connect® xiii

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You’re in the driver’s seat.

They’ll thank you for it.

Make it simple, Solutions for your

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Effective, efficient studying.

Study anytime, anywhere. “I really liked this

Calendar: owattaphotos/Getty Images

Learning for everyone.

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Feature Investigation: Anfinsen Showed That the Primary

©Steve Gschmeissner/Science Source

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CHAPTER 6 UNIT III Genetics

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11.2 Role of Non-coding RNAs in Eukaryotic DNA

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18.3 Bacterial and Archaeal Genomes 375

The History of Life on Earth and Human

Evolution of Life II: The Emergence of

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23.5 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Protists 489

Plant Evolution: How Plant Diversification

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Evolutionary Connections: Myosins Are an Ancient and Diverse

Digestive and Excretory Systems: CHAPTER 40

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41.2 The Rapid Phase of the Homeostatic Response to