Organic Evolution: Main Evidences of Organic Evolution

Evidences from morphology/comparative anatomy & vestigial organs

Evidence from embryology
Evidence from paleontology.
Evidence from bio-chemistry and physiology
Evidence from Genetic.
Evidence from geographical distribution of animals (organisms).
Evidence from cytology.

In support of organic evolution important evidences are as follows:

1. Evidence from palaeontology.
From the fossil records it has been concluded that evolution has taken place from simple to
complex in a gradual order.
Types of fossils
1.Intact or entire organism-The fossil in which entire organisms or parts may get preserved in
original particularly in cold or dry regions of the world is called intact.e.g Insects are preserved
in amber.

2.Petrification-The fossil in which hard parts like bones teeth and exoskeleton of organisms are
preserved is called petrification.
3.Moulds or casts-The fossil in which impressions of the organisms are left is called mould.The
skeleton dacays leaving the impressions only which is an exact replica of organism caleed
moulds.

4.Compression:-the fossil In which internal structure of the organism is lost and thin carbon film
giving the outline of organism is left.

5. Imprints or impression:- the fossil which in the form of foot prints,prints of wings,skinor
impressions of crawling worms or snails.

In support of it, some evidences are given below.

(i) Number and Nature of Fossils in Early Rocks:
The rocks of early era (e.g., Proterozoic) contain less number of fossils than the rocks of later era
and only fossils of simple marine invertebrates are in these rocks. It is due to the fact that the life
first originated in sea as a simple form. So fossils were not in plenty in the beginning as they
were in later stage.

(ii) Distribution of Fossils in the Successive Strata:

The distribution of fossils indicates that early fossils present in the bottom rocks are simple,
however the recent fossils found in the upper layers of the rocks are more complex. It shows that
fossil forms become more and more complex as we proceed from earliest to the recent rocks.
The rocks of the Proterozoic era contain few fossils.
The palaeozoic era contains abundant fossils of invertebrates, fishes and amphibians. The rocks
of the mesozoic era have the fossils of great reptiles (dinosaurs) and primitive birds and
mammals. In the coenozoic era, the fossils of various mammals are abundant.
(iii) Disparity between the Past and Present Forms of Life:
On the basis of fossil study, it has been shown that the early organisms were very different from
their modern forms., the early man lived in the caves without any social life and spent their life
like beasts, but man progressed and the modern man has become civilized, and leads a vigorous
social life. Thus, the organisms have been changing since their appearance, which supports that
evolution has been taking place.
(iv) Missing Links (Transitional Forms):
The fossil organisms which show characters of two different groups of organisms are called
missing links.
Examples:
(a) Archaeopteryx (Archae — primitive, old, pteryx = wing):
It was found in the rocks of the Jurassic period.It is a missing link.It is a trasitional fossil
between birds and reptiles. It displays the characters of both the reptiles and birds.
Reptilian Characters of Archaeopteryx:
(a) The body axis is more or less lizard-like,
(b) A long tail is present,
(c) The bones are not pneumatic,
(d) The jaws are provided with similar teeth,
(e) The hand bears a typical reptilian plan and each finger terminates in a claw,
(f) Presence of a weak sternum,
(g) Presence of free caudal vertebrae as found in lizards.

Avian Characters of Archaeopteryx:

(a) Presence of feathers on the body,
(b) The two jaws are modified into a beak,
(c) The fore limbs are modified into wings,
(d) The hind-limbs are built on the typical avian plan,
(e) An intimate fusion of the skull bones as seen in the birds.
From the above facts, it is clear that the birds have been evolved from reptilian ancestors. Thus
‘birds are the glorified reptiles’.
(b) Ichthyostega:
It is a primitive fossil amphibian and is a missing link between fishes and amphibians.
(c) Seymouria:
It was a “missing link” between amphibians and reptiles.
(d) Lycaenops:
It was a mammal-like reptile. It is considered a “missing link” between reptiles and mammals.
(e) Cynognathus (Dog Jaw):
It was a mammal-like reptile and had characters of both reptiles and mammals. It was one of the
ancient reptilian ancestors of mammals.
(f) Basilosaurus:
This fossil whale had hind-limbs. It links the aquatic mammals to their terrestrial ancestors.

(v) Ancestries of Some Animals:

Palaeontologists have traced out complete evolutionary histories of some animals like horse,
camel and elephant and man from the studies of their fossils.
Evolution of Horse:
Origin of horse took place in Eocene epoch. The first fossil of the horse was found in North
America. It was named Eohippus, but later renamed Hyracotherium.

Evolutionary Trend:
The continuous change of a character within an evolving lineage is called evolutionary trend. A
lineage is an evolutionary sequence, arranged in linear order from an ancestral group to a
descendant group. A trend may be progressive (a general increase in size of organs) or
retrogressive (a general degeneration and loss of organs).
The following list identifies the major evolutionary trend of horses.
(a) Increase in size,
(b) Elongation of neck and head,
(c) Lengthening of fore and hind limbs,
(d) Reduction of lateral digits,
(e) Increase in length and thickness of the third digit,
(f) Straightening and stiffening of the back,
(g) Increase in size and complexity of the brain,
(h) Better developed sense organs,
(i) Increase in tooth length,
(j) Increase in width of incisors,
(k) Replacement of premolars by molars.
(l) Increase in crown height of molars,
(m) Increased lateral support of teeth by cement,
(n) Increased surface area of cusps by the development of enamel ridges (change in premolars
and molars teeth from browsing type to grazing type).
Evolution of Modern Horse is briefly described as follows:
Eohippus (= Hyracotherium):
The evolution of modern horse began about 60 million years ago in the Eocine epoch. As stated
earlier first fossil named Eohippus, ‘dawn horse’, was found in North America. This horse was
about the size of a fox or terrier dog (a type of small haired dog for unearthing foxes), only 30
cm high at the shoulders. It had short head and neck.
The fore feet were with four complete fingers (2, 3, 4 and 5) and one splint of first finger and the
hind feet with three functional toes (2, 3 and 4) and two splints of first and fifth toes. Splints are
reduced and non-functional side fingers and toes of horse. Teeth were within complete cement.
Molar teeth had no serrations. Low-crowned molar teeth were adapted to browsing of soft lush
vegetation.
Mesohippus:
Mesohippus, the intermediate horse, evolved from Hyracotherium about 40 million years ago
during Oligocene epoch. It was of the size of modern sheep, about 60 cm high at the shoulders.
Four feet had three fingers and one splint of fifth finger and hind feet possessed three toes, but
the middle one was longer than others and supported most of the body weight. Molar teeth had
some serrations.
Merychippus:
Merychippus, the ruminating horse, arose from Mesohippus in Miocene epoch about 25 million
years ago. It was of the size of small pony, about 100 cm high at the shoulders. It was with
longer neck. Its fore and hind feet had three fingers and three toes, the middle finger and toe
being longer than others and supported entire body weight. There was no splint. Teeth were
longer with cement. Molar teeth had well developed serrations.
Pliohippus:
Pliohippus, the Pliocene horse, evolved from Merychippus in Pliocene epoch about 10 million
years ago. It was the size of modern pony, about 120 cm high at the shoulders. Its each fore and
hind foot had one complete finger and one complete toe and two splints hidden beneath the skin.
Pliohippus is, therefore, referred to be the first one toed horse. The molar teeth were long with
well developed cement and serrations. Teeth were adapted for eating grass.
Equus:
This is the modern horse which arose from Pliohippus in Pleistocene epoch about nine to ten
lakh years ago in North America and later spread throughout the world except Australia. It is
about 150 cm high at the shoulders. It has a long head and a long neck. Each fore and hind foot
of the modern horse has one finger and one toe and two splints. The crowns of molar teeth are
elongated with enameled ridges, and are highly suitable for grinding.
2. Evidences from Comparative Anatomy and Morphology:
There are similarities and differences among organisms of today and those existed years ago.
These evidences are as follows.
(i) Organ Systems:
The different systems of animal body are similar in many groups of organisms, e.g., nervous sys-
tem, blood vascular system, respiratory system, excretory system, etc. Respiratory system of
terrestrial vertebrates has two lungs, a trachea, a larynx, nasal chambers and nostrils. Likewise,
the blood vascular system of all vertebrates contains a heart, arteries, veins and lymph vessels.
Transport systems of plants have similar types of conducting channels of xylem and phloem. The
presence of similar organ systems indicate a common ancestry. Despite broad similarity, the
organ systems of various groups have varied degree of specialization according to the habitat and
scale of evolution.

(ii) Homologous organs:

The organs which have the same fundamental structure but are different in functions are called
homologous organs. These organs follow the same basic plan of organisation during their
development. But in the adult condition, these organs are modified to perform different functions
as an adaptation to different environments. The homologous structures are a result of divergent
evolution. Homology indicates common ancestry.
Examples:
(a) The fore-limbs of man, cheetah, whale and bat have the same basic structural plan. In each
case the fore-limb consists of humerus, radio-ulna, carpals, metacarpals and digits. The skeletal
parts of the fore-limbs of all these vertebrates are similar in structure and arrangement. But the
fore-limbs of these animals have different shapes and functions. In man they are used for
grasping, in cheetah for running, in whale for swimming and in bat for flying.
(b) Another example of homologous organs is of different mouth parts of some insects. The
mouth parts of cockroach, honey bee, mosquito and butterfly have the same fundamental plan. In
each of these insects the mouth parts comprise labrum, a pair of mandibles and two pairs of
maxillae, but they have different functions to perform, keeping in view their different feeding
habits. The mouth parts in cockroach are adapted for biting and chewing. In honey-bee for
chewing and lapping, in mosquito for piercing and sucking, in house-fly for sponging and in
butterfly for siphoning.
(c) Homology is also seen amongst the molecules. This is called molecular homology. For
example, the proteins found in the blood of man and ape are similar. The phylogeny of an
organism can be traced by using the base sequence in nucleic acids and amino acid sequence of
proteins in related organisms.

(iii) Analogous Organs:

The organs which have similar functions but are different in their structural details and origin are
called analogous organs. The analogous structures are the result of convergent evolution.
Examples:
(a) The wings of an insect are analogous to wings of a bird. It is due to the fact that the basic
structure of the wings of the insects is different from the wings of bird. However, their function
is similar.
(b) Pectoral Fins of sharks and flippers of Dolphins are analogous organs. Pectoral fins of sharks
are not pentadactyle. The flippers of dolphins are pentadactyle. Thus basic structure of pectoral
fins of sharks and flippers of dolphins are different but both are useful in swimming.
(c) Stings of honey bee and scorpion are analogous structures. Stings of both arthropods perform
similar function.

(iv) Vestigial Organs:

The organs which are present in reduced form and do not perform any function in the body but
correspond to the fully developed functional organs of related animals are called vestigial organs.
They are believed to be remnants of organs which were complete and functional in their
ancestors.

Examples:
(a) Vestigial Organs in Human Body:
Human body has been described to possess about 90 vestigial organs. Some of these are
nictitating (plica semilunaris) membrane, auricular muscles, (muscles of pinna), segmental
muscles of abdomen, panniculus camosis (subcutaneous muscles), vermiform appendix, caudal
vertebrae (also called coccyx or tail bone), third molars (wisdom teeth), hair on body, and
nipples in male.

(v) Connecting Links:

The organisms which possess the characters of two different groups of organisms are called
connecting links. Following are some important examples of connecting links.
Examples: (a) Euglena is a chlorophyll containing green protozoan that forms connecting link
between the animals and plants.
(b) Proterospongia is a colonial protozoan. It consists of flagellated and collared individuals that
resemble choanocytes (collar cells) of sponges. Thus, it is a link between Protozoa and Porifera.

(c) Neopilina It is a connecting link between Annelida and Mollusca. It resembles molluscs as it
possesses a shell, a mantle and a large muscular foot. Its annelid characters are presence of
segmentally arranged gills, nephridia and muscles and a trochophore-like larval stage.
(d) Peripatus , an arthropod, is a connecting link between annelida and arthropoda. Its arthropod
characters include haemocoel, tracheae as respiratory organs and tubular heart with ostia. The
annelid characters exhibited are the worm-like body, structure of the eyes, unjointed legs,
presence of segmental nephridia, soft cuticle and continuous muscle layers in the body wall.
(e) Balanoglossus. It is a hemichordate (non-chordate) and is a connecting link between non-
chordates and chordates.
(f) The lung fishes may be considered the connecting links between the fishes and amphibians.
The lung fishes have all the characters of a typical fish, but they are capable of respiring through
lungs and possess a three chambered heart.

(g) Latimeria (Coelacanth fish) is considered a connecting link between fish and amphibians.
(h) Chimaera. It is a connecting link between cartilaginous fishes and bony fishes.
(i) Egg-laying mammals are connecting link between reptiles and mammals.

(vi) Atavism:
It is the reappearance of certain ancestral characters which had either disappeared or were
reduced. There are present some examples of atavism in human beings, the power of moving
pinna in some persons, greatly developed canine teeth, exceptionally long dense hairs, short tail
in some babies and presence of additional mammae in some individuals.

3. Evidences from Embryology:

These evidences are based on the comparative study of the embryos of various animals.
(i) Similarity in Early Development:
In all the multicellular animals the fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes segmentation (cleavage) to
produce a solid structure, the morula. The morula develops into a single layered hollow blastula.
The latter changes into either two or three layered gastrula. The animals having two layered
gastrula are said to be diploblastic, e.g., coelenterates.
The animals in which three layered gastrula is found are known as triploblastic, such as frog,
lizard, etc. Diploblastic gastrula consists of ectoderm and en- doderm: These two or three layers
of gastrula are termed as primary germ layers, which give rise to the entire animal. Such a
similar early development establishes a close relationship among all multicellular animals.
(ii) Resemblance among Vertebrate Embryos:
If a comparative study of embryos of the same age of vertebrates, such as a fish, a salamander, a
tortoise, a chick and a man is made, it is observed that they resemble one another closely . They
have more or less the same form and structures like gill clefts, tail, etc. Although the embryos of
all vertebrates resemble with one another but the embryos of closely related groups resemble
more closely than the embryos of the distant groups. This is another evidence establishing close
relationship among these divergent vertebrates.
(iii) Recapitulation Theory/Biogenetic Law:
This law was given by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Haeckel’s recapitulation theory states that
“Ontogeny repeats phylogeny”. Ontogeny is the life history of an organism while phylogeny is
the evolutionary history of the race of that organism. In other words an organism repeats its
ancestral characters during its development stages.
Examples:
(a) In the development of the frog a fish like tailed larva (tadpole) is formed, which swims with
the tail and respires by the gills. This indicates that the frog has been evolved from a fish like
ancestor.
(b) Tadpole (larva) of Herdmania (urochordate) shows characters of chordates i.e., presence of
notochord, well developed dorsally placed central nervous system and tail. However adult
Herdmania does not have notochord and tail. Nervous system is also very much reduced in adult
Herdmania. Thus the larva shows its ancestral characters.
(c) The embryo of amphibia,reptilia,aves and mammals bear two-chambered heart,gills and gill-
slits which are the characters of fish. This shows that they have evolved from fish like common
ancester.
4. Evidences from Biogeography:
Biogeography is the study of distribution of animals and plants on this earth. The evidences of
evolution based on biogeography (G. bios- life, ge- earth, grapho- to write) are called
biogeographical evidences. It is believed that around the carboniferous period (about 345 million
years ago) or slightly earlier, all the present-day continents were in the form of a single big land
mass called pangaea . Later on, due to various geological changes, huge land masses broke off
and drifted apart from one another.
As these land masses (now called continents) moved away, they got separated from each other
by the seas. The seas acted as barriers and prevented free movements of organisms among the
continents. As these continents had different environmental conditions, so plants and animals
evolved there were of different varieties.
Biogeographical evidences may be explained under the following headings.
1. Biogeographical Realms:
The earth has been divided into six major biogeographic regions, called realms on the basis of
distribution of animals and plants. These realms (regions) are:
(i) Palaearctic realm:
(ii) Oriental realm:
(iii) Australian realm:
(iv) Ethopian realm:
(v) Nearctic realm:
(vi) Neotropical realm:

2. Discontinuous Distribution of closely related species:

Sometimes closely similar species exit at widely separated places without any representative, in
intervening territory. This is called discontinuous distribution. Two specific examples of
discontinuous distribution are given below.
(a) Alligators:
They occur only in south-eastern United States and eastern China. The North American continent
was connected with East Asia in early coenozoic. The alligators were distributed over the entire
region. But due to certain barriers, the alligators of two regions were separated for long time and
developed some mutations. Therefore, these alligators are somewhat different but they are
related species of the same genus.
(b) Lung Fishes:
During early stages of continental drift, South America, Africa, Antarctica and Australia were in-
terconnected. Later on they were separated. Antarctica was shifted to a far away place. Now the
lung fishes are only found in South America, Africa and Australia .
(c) Camels:
They occur in Asia, while their nearest allies Limas are found in South America.
(d) Elephants:
They are found in Africa and India and not in places with identical climate in Brazil.
(e) Tapirs:
They are found in tropical America and Malayan islands.

3. Restricted Distribution:
The parts separated from the main land have unique fauna and flora. For example, Australia has:
(i) egg-laying and
(ii) pouched mammals that occur only in Australia. This restricted distribution
may be explained in the following way. Australia separated from the main land of Asia during
mesozoic era, before placental mammals evolved. Placental mammals, being more adapted,
eliminated the egg laying and most of the pouched mammals in other parts of the world. The egg
laying and pouched mammals of Australia survived as placental mammals could not reach their
due to lack of land route.

4. Adaptive Radiation (= Divergent Evolution):

Development of different functional structures from a common ancestral form is called adaptive
radiation. The concept of adaptive radiation in evolution was developed by H.F. Osborn in 1902.
Homologous organs show adaptive radiation.
Examples:
(i) Darwin’s Finches of the Galapagos Islands:
They had common ancestors but now have different types of modified beaks according to their
food habits. Darwin differentiated thirteen species of finches and grouped them into six main
types — (a) Large ground finches, (b) Cactus ground finches feeding on cacti, (c) Vegetarian
tree finches, (d) Insectivorous tree finches, (e) Warbler finches, (f) Tool- using or Wood pecker
finches.
(ii) Australian Marsupials:
Darwin explained that adaptive radiation gave rise to a variety of marsupials (pouched
mammals) in Australia in the same process of adaptive radiation as found in the finches in the
Galapagos Islands.
(iii) Locomotion in Mammals:
Adaptive radiation based on locomotion in mammals is good example.

5. Convergent Evolution (= Adaptive Convergence):

Development of similar adaptive functional structures in unrelated groups of organisms is called
adaptive convergence or convergent evolution.
Examples:
(i) Wings of insect, bird and bat show marked convergent evolution.
(ii) Australian marsupials and placental mammals show convergent evolution, e.g., Placental
wolf and Tasmanian wolf-marsupial.

(iii) Various aquatic vertebrates, not closely related show a marked convergent evolution.
(iv) Anteaters such as spiny anteaters and scaly anteaters belong to different orders of class
mammalia, not closely related but have aquired similar adaptations for diet of ants, termites and
other insects.
Parallel Evolution:
When convergent evolution is found in closely related species, it is called “Parallel Evolution”.
Example: development of running habit in deer (2-toed) and horse (1-toed) with two vestigial
splint bones. Tasmanian wolf is a marsupial while wolf is a placental mammal. This also shows
parallelism.
5. Evidences from Biochemistry and Comparative Physiology:
Living beings exhibit a large degree of similarity in chemical constitution, biochemical reactions
and body functions. They provide a number of evidences of common ancestry and evolution of
different groups of organisms.
1. Protoplasm:
All living beings are made of protoplasm, commonly called living matter. Its biochemical
constitution is similar in all the organisms. About 90% of the protoplasm is formed of four
elements — carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Along with phosphorus and sulphur, they
constitute most of the organic compounds of living matter — carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
(fats) and nucleic acids.
2. Nucleic Acids and Chromosomes:
The hereditary material is present in the form of DNA. DNA is usually organised into chromatin
fibres in the nucleus and chromosomes in a dividing cell. It has the same chemical composition
in all the organisms. Genetic code, that expresses the effect of DNA nucleotides, is universal.
3. Enzymes:
An organism has a number of systems. A systems possesses a similar set of enzymes in different
organisms, so much so that Kreb’s cycle has similar enzymes in both plants and animals. The
enzymes trypsin and amylase are the same throughout the animal kingdom. Vertebrates have a
similar set of digestive enzymes in their digestive tracts. Because of it, the digestive enzymes of
one animal can be safely administered to another animal including human beings.
4. Hormones:
They are bio-chemicals produced by ductless or endocrine glands which in traces help in
triggering reactions or functions in other parts of the body. The hormones of vertebrates are both
chemically and functionally similar. In case of deficiency in human beings, the hormones
obtained from other vertebrates are taken as injections, e.g., insulin, thyroxin.
5. Metabolism:
Different metabolic reactions like respiration, digestion, assimilation, muscle contraction, nerve
conduction (in animals) and photosynthesis (in plants) show a physiological harmony in various
living beings.
6. Photosynthetic Pigments:
All eukaryotic autotrophic plants possess chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll b occurs in green algae and
embryophytes. The latter, therefore, must have originated from green algae. Other algae possess
chlorophyll c, d or e instead of b. They must have originated from a common ancestor of algae.
7. Excretion:
Nitrogenous waste shows a progressive detoxification in vertebrates. It is ammonia in fishes,
urea in amphibians, uric acid in reptiles and birds, and a combination of urea, uric acid and other
chemicals in mammals.
8. Blood and Lymph:
Blood and lymph are fluid connective tissues which have the same composition and function in
most of the animals indicating a close relationship.
9. Blood Groups:
Human beings have four main blood croups— A,B, AB and О. A-B grouping is also found in
apes but not in monkeys, showing that man is more closely related to apes than to monkeys.

10. Serum Tests (precipitin or Blood Protein Tests):

Each race of individuals has certain specific proteins which are not found in other races. Closely
related organisms show more similarity of these specific proteins than distantly related forms.
This can be checked through precipitin or serum tests.
A relationship obtained through serum a test amongst different groups of plants resembles are
known evolutionary tendencies amongst them. Similarly, blood serum tests of diverse groups of
vertebrates prove that birds are nearer to crocodiles than other reptiles while human beings are
related to apes, the latter to old world monkeys, new world monkeys, etc.
6. Evidences from Cytology:
Cytology is the study of cells. It also provides evidences of evolution.
(1) Cellular Nature:
All organisms are made of cells and their products. The cells may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
(2) Protoplasm:
All cells are made of a living matter called protoplasm. Protoplasm is called the physical basis of
life.
(3) Plasmalemma:
All cells have a similar lipoprotein covering of plasmalemma or plasma membrane or cell
membrane.
(4) Cell Wall:
It occurs in all plant cells, fungi and bacterial cells.
(5) Nucleus:
This organelle contains DNA protein complex or chromatin. It contains hereditary information
and controls cellular activities.
(6) Ribosomes:
They take part in protein synthesis and are called ‘protein factories’.
(7) Mitochondria:
They are seats of aerobic respiration and are called the “power houses” of the cell.
(8) Chloroplasts:
They perform photosynthesis. Their structure is essentially similar in all plant groups.
(9) Micro-tubular Structures:
All eukaryotes have microtubules which form centrioles, basal granules, cilia, flagella and
spindle apparatus.
(10) Cell Division:
All organisms undergo cell division commonly by mitosis and occasionally by meiosis. The
pattern is similar in all organisms.

7. Evidences from Genetics:

Genetics is the science which deals with the heredity of animals and plants.Hereditary variations
provide some evidences for organic evolution the source of which are mainly of two kinds i.e.
recombination and mutation.Recombination of genes brings hybridsation while mutations create
new genetic materials.
Since many thousand years, man has been hybridzing many animals and plants to produce many
varities for their own use. For example, A mule, the offspring produced by the cross breeding of
jackass and a mare is a hybrid which is sterile and very strong. Mutation can bring about
different kinds of variations in chromosome in number which leads into speciation. Scientist are
now able to produce many new varities in animals and plants by artifical induction of point
mutation

A number of mutations or sudden inheritable variations appear in organisms. They can occur in
all parts of the body and in all conceivable directions. On accumulation, mutations give rise to
new species. Some important mutations include Ancon Sheep, Double Toed Cats, Hornless
Cattle, Red Sunflower, Large-sized Banana, etc.
Chromosome number of human-46, Ape -48, Monkey- 44 which indicates that these three
anthropoids might have originated from common ancestor. Chromosome no 3 and 7 of
chimpanzee compared with human chromosome of same number indicates more than 97 percent
genetically character similar. Banding pattern of human chromosome compared with chimpanzee
seems more than 97 percent similar. Chemical composition of DNA and methods of replication,
crossing over characters are common in all living beings. Double helical DNA is nuclear DNA
and mitochondrial DNA is more conserved and single structure.

These processes which can produce new varieties and species the process which may be involved
in organic evolution.